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INTRODUCTION
Etymologically the term “ethics” correspond to the Greek word “ethos” which means
character, habit, customs, ways of behavior, etc. Ethics is also called “moral philosophy”.
The word “moral” comes from Latin word “mores” which signifies customs, character,
behavior, etc. (Abelson & Kai, 2006).
DEFINITIONS
Thus, Ethics may be defined as

1. Ethics or “moral philosophy” is the branch of philosophy that involves

systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct
(James & Bradley, 1995)
2. In simple words ethics refers to what is good and the way to get it, and what is bad
and how to avoid it. It refers to what ought to be done to achieve what is good and
what ought not to be done to avoid what is evil (Abelson & Kai, 2006).
3. As a philosophical discipline, ethics is the study of the values and guidelines by
which we live. It also involves the justification of these values and guidelines. It is
not merely following a tradition or custom. Instead it requires analysis and
evaluation of these guidelines in light of universal principles (Abelson & Kai, 2006).
4. As moral philosophy, ethics is the philosophical thinking about morality, moral
problems, and moral judgements (Bond, 1996).

Ethics deals with human conduct or judgement on human conduct. It is a theoretical study
of human conduct.

Human Acts and Acts of Man

Before considering the principles of Ethics, Let us begin with a treatment of some key
terms from which these principles may result.

1. Acts of Man (Actus Hominis)

Acts of man are actions done by a man without knowledge and consent, that is, when he is
not responsible, he does not know what he is doing. He is not master of such acts. He does
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not consciously and deliberately will it and therefore cannot be responsible. He is

invincibly ignorant. For example, acts done in infancy or in sleep or insanity are classified
as acts of man. They are involuntary, ignorant and unwilling.

2. Human Acts (Actus Humanus)

This refers to acts (thoughts, words, deeds omissions, desire) performed by a human being
when he is responsible. It is an act performed by man of which he is master. He knows
what he is doing (full knowledge) and wills to do it (full consent of the will) and with free
will. It is a voluntary act. Therefore a human act is one, which a man performs knowingly,
deliberately, willingly and freely.

Elements of a Human Act or Voluntary Act

1) Knowledge: This makes for a responsible human action. One is not responsible for an
act done in ignorance except vincible ignorance.

2) Freedom: This is necessary for every human act. One is not responsible for an act over
which he hasn't control; unless he deliberately surrenders such control by putting himself
into circumstances, which take away his liberty.

3) Voluntariness or actual choice: One is not responsible for an act he does not will,
unless he wills to give up his self-control. In one way or another therefore voluntariness
enters into human act, A human act is a willed act.

Principles of Ethics

Those principles come as a result of the distinction drawn direct and indirect voluntariness,
A human act comes from the will. When the act itself is the choice of the will, it comes
directly from the will and is said to be willed in se or in itself. When the act comes indirectly
from the will, in as much as the will chooses rather what causes or occasions the act itself,
it is said to be willed in its cause or in causa. Thus a man who wills to become drunk, wills
it directly in itself or in se. A man who does not wish to become drunk, but who seeks
entertainment where, as experience tells him, he is almost sure to become drunk, wills the
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drunkenness indirectly or in causa. Thus this distinction as we have said raises a notable
issue, that is. These salient principles in Ethics, namely:

1) The Principle of Indirect Voluntariness

It states, a person is responsible for the evil effect of a cause indirectly willed when the
following conditions are met;

a) When he can readily foresee the evil effect at least in a general way.

b) When he is free to refrain from doing what cause the evil effect.

c) When he is bound to refrain from doing what can cause the evil effect

But is the agent (i.e the doer of an act) not always bound avoid what causes an evil effect?
Is not the fact that the effect is evil a sufficient reason for rendering the act unlawful? Not
always, for sometimes the act has two effects, one good and one evil. Now, must we always
refuse to do a good act if we foresee a bad consequence or effect? In this case the following
principle applies.

2) The Principle of Double Effect (Two-Fold Effect)

The principle of double effect or two-fold effect answers our dilemma. This principle
states, that it is morally allowable or acceptable to perform an act that has a bad effect or
consequence under the following conditions;

i) The act to be done must be good in itself or at least indifferent. If an act is

good it must be performed by good acts we mean actions (thoughts, deeds,
words, omissions), which are in conformity with me law. Also if the act is
indifferent it should be done. By indifferent acts we mean actions that are
morally neutral. When the act to be done is evil it must be avoided. For evil acts
go contrary to the moral law. An act is evil when it is in disagreement with the
moral law. So when the act is evil itself then the purpose is defeated,
ii) The good intended must not be obtained by means of an evil effect, that is,
the evil effect must not come before the good effect so as to be away to obtain it
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but should only be allowed as an incidental by-product or result and not an actual
factor to get the good done. The end must justify the means, good must not come
through evil or by means of evil.'
iii) The evil effect must not be intended for itself but only permitted. The agent
intends the good effect exclusively. One should only permit the evil effect in (his
circumstance as a regrettable side issue and not as n deliberately or voluntarily
willed act ill.
iv) There must be a proportionately grave reason for permitting the evil effect.

All these four conditions must be fulfilled or present without which the act is not morally
allowable. If any of them is absent though three may be present the act is morally wrong.
Hence the principle of double effect expresses the conditions under which it is not morally
evil to permit a physical evil to happen. Many of the ordinary actions of life find their
justification in a correct application of the principle of double effect.

3) The First Moral Principle

Some have it that this principle is unavoidable and intuitive in origin. Nevertheless it is the
mother of all moral principles and directing norms. Ethics rest on this principle for it deals
with real life. With the way a man must act in the world therefore man must have some
way of knowing with clarity and certainty the basic principles from which ethical
knowledge is gotten. This principle can be stated in the following forms:

- Do good and avoid evil.

- Lead a life of virtue.

- Be the kind of man you ought to be.

- To yourself be true

From this basic foundation the other principles emanate. Summarily, the first moral
principle obliges us to recognizing the ought, do it, and recognizing the ought not, refrain
from action. From this we live happy lives a foretaste of the good life.
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Ethics vs. Morals

Ethics and morals relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. While they are sometimes used
interchangeably, they are different: ethics refer to rules provided by an external source,
e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions. Morals refer to an
individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong.

Comparison Chart

Ethics Morals
What are The rules of conduct recognized in respect Principles or habits with respect
they? to a particular class of human actions or a to right or wrong conduct. While
particular group or culture. morals also prescribe dos and
don'ts, morality is ultimately a
personal compass of right and
wrong.
Where do Social system - External Individual - Internal
they come
from?
Why we do Because society says it is the right thing to Because we believe in
it? do. something being right or wrong.
Flexibility Ethics are dependent on others for Usually consistent, although can
definition. They tend to be consistent change if an individual’s beliefs
within a certain context, but can vary change.
between contexts.
The "Gray" A person strictly following Ethical A Moral Person although
Principles may not have any Morals at all.
perhaps bound by a higher
Likewise, one could violate Ethical covenant, may choose to follow
Principles within a given system of rules in
a code of ethics as it would
order to maintain Moral integrity. apply to a system. "Make it fit"
Origin Greek word "ethos" meaning"character" Latin word "mos" meaning
"custom"
Acceptability Ethics are governed by professional and Morality transcends cultural
legal guidelines within a particular time norms
and place
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SIGNIFICANCE OF ETHICS

Ethics, as any other field of study, would be useless and meaningless unless it is in response
to some ethical question. The existence of this field of study is itself a grand proof that
important ethical questions exist. Man is a social being; therefore, any ethical decision he
makes has great consequences in society (James, 1986).

METHOD OF ETHICS

Ethics, as a philosophical discipline makes use of the methods used in philosophy. Thus,
in ethics, both the inductive method and deductive methods are used.

A. DEDUCTION is a process of gaining knowledge independently of experience

through pure logical reasoning. Deductive reasoning begins with a universal or
general truth and leads to knowledge of a particular instance of it. The classical form
of deductive reasoning is the syllogism in which a necessary conclusion is derived
from two accepted premises: e.g. All men are mortal, Ram is a man, and therefore,
Ram is mortal.
B. INDUCTION is a process of arriving at knowledge through experience. Induction
begins with the particular and moves to the universal, a generalization that accounts
for other examples of the same category or class. For instance, if a number of ravens
have been observed, all of which are black, and if no raven has been encountered
that is not back, the inferences to the conclusion that the next observed raven will
be black or to the general conclusion that all ravens are black, are inductive
inferences (Boss, 1998).

However, in ethics the inductive method (particular to the universal) is generally preferred
to the deductive (universal to the particular).

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ETHICS

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There are basically four different approaches to the study of ethics. Beauchamp (1991) in
his book presents them with the following diagram:

Descriptive ethics

NON-NORMATIVE APPROACHES

Meta-ethics

General normative ethics

NORMATIVE APPROACHES
Applied ethics

The non-normative approaches examine morality without concern for making judgements
as to what is morally right or wrong. They do not take any moral position regarding moral
issues.

The normative approaches instead make judgements as to what is morally right or wrong.
They take a clear moral position regarding moral issues (Beauchamp, 1991).

DIVISION OF ETHICS

The whole study of ethics can be divided into

• General Ethics (nature of moral activity, norm of morality, foundation of morality,

end of morality, etc.) and
• Special Ethics (applies the principles of general ethics to the various actions of
human activity)
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However, when we consider the ethical theories, philosophers today usually divide them
into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics (Bond,
1996).

METAETHICS investigates the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. It studies where
our ethical principles come from and what they mean. It tries to analyze the underlying
principles of ethical values.

NORMATIVE ETHICS tries to arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong
conduct. It is a more practical task. It is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behavior.

APPLIED ETHICS involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion,

infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, and so on. In applied
ethics, using the conceptual tools of metaethics and normative ethics, one tries to resolve
these controversial issues.

Descriptive Ethics: also known as comparative ethics, is the study of people's beliefs about
morality. It contrasts with prescriptive or normative ethics, which is the study of ethical
theories that prescribe how people ought to act, and with meta-ethics, which is the study of
what ethical terms and theories actually refer to. The following examples of questions that
might be considered in each field illustrate the differences between the fields:

Descriptive ethics: What do people think is right?

Meta-ethics: What does "right" even mean?

Normative (prescriptive) ethics: How should people act?

Applied ethics: How do we take moral knowledge and put it into practice?

The lines of distinction between metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics are often
blurry. For instance, the issue of abortion is an applied ethical topic in as much as it
involves a specific type of controversial behavior. But it is also an issue involving
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normative principles such as the right of self-rule and the right to life and an issue having
metaethical issues such as, “where do rights come from?” and “what kind of beings have
rights?” (Bond, 1996).

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

Today, more than ever, the importance of ethics is felt at every sphere of human living.
The situation in the present world is characterized by an increasing rate in crime, with no
end to such increase in sight. Besides, the power of traditional religions to inspire moral
conduct continues to decline. Terrorism, civil wars, industrial pollution, planned
obsolescence, misleading advertising, deceptive labelling, crooked insurance adjusting,
unfair wages, crime syndicates, illegal gambling, forced prostitution, high jacking, match-
fixing and so many are the prevailing trends! Truly, there seems to be hardly a few areas
in life remain untouched by growing demoralization (Billington, 1993).

1. Deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions of life. The study of ethics helps a
person to look at his own life critically and to evaluate his actions/choices/decisions.
It assists a person in knowing what he/she really is and what is best for him/her and
what he/she has to do in order to attain it (Billington, 1993).
2. Help us to think better about morality. Moral philosophy can help us to clarify our
moral positions when we make judgements.
3. It improves our perspective, and makes it more reflective and better thought out. It
can also improve our thinking about specific moral issues (Billington, 1993).
4. Help us to sharpen our general thinking processes. It trains our mind to think
logically and reasonably and to handle moral issues with greater clarity. Ethics
becomes inevitable as by nature, human being is a ‘social’ being, a being living in
relationship with other fellow beings and with the nature around (Billington, 1993).
5. Provides us with a moral map, a framework that we can use to find our way through
difficult issues (BBC, 2014).
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Thus, ethical problems confront everybody. Nobody can really get through life without
ethics, even if one may not be aware of the ethical principles. Consciously or unconsciously
all of us are every day making moral decisions. Whether we are aware of it or not, the fact
is that we do have ethical attitudes and are taking moral stances every day of our lives
(Billington, 1993).

Questions

1. Critically examine the principle of two-fold effect.

2. Under what conditions can a physical evil be allowed?

3. Critically examine the principle of double effects and indicate its application in daily
life.
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REFERENCES

Abelson, R., & Kai, N (2006). “Ethics: History. In encyclopedia of philosophy. Ed. Donald
M. Borchert, p394-439.

BBC (2014). Ethics: A general introduction. Retrieved from

http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml
Beauchamp, T. L (1991). Philosophical ethics: An introduction to moral philosophy (2nd
ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.

Billington, R. (1993). Living philosophy: An introduction to moral thought (2nd ed.)

London: Routledge.

Bond, E.J. (1996). Ethics and human well-being: An introduction to moral philosophy.
Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

Boss, J.A. (Ed.). (1998). Perspectives on Ethics. California: Mayfield Publishing

Company, Fieser, James. “Ethics”. in: The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved from http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.com

James, L.C. (1986). Philosophy: An introduction to the art of wondering (4th ed). New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p. 335.

James, F., & Bradley, D. (Eds.). (1995). Ethics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved from www.iep.utm.edu/ethics