1

What is the importance of organic

chemistry to society?
Chemistry Assessment Task 2

Sam Abel - May 2019


Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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Contents

Introduction to Plastics 3

History of Plastics 3

Structure of Plastics 3

Problems Of Plastics 5

Impact on the Environment 5

Impact on Human Health 6

Waste Management Issues 7

Oil Use and Depletion 8

Potential Solutions 8

Recycling 8

Reduction 9

Alternative Materials. 10

Conclusion 11

Appendix 1 12

Appendix 2 13

Appendix 3 27

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Should the production of Plastics be banned?

Introduction to Plastics

It is estimated that by 2050 there will be more plastic than fish (by weight) in the ocean. Many plastics are
used from a timespan betweens seconds and minutes before they are thrown away. However upon release
into the environment, these plastics stay in the environment leaching chemicals that are harmful to humans
and causing damage to the environment and ecosystems for decades, centuries or even millennia.
Governments and organisations have things in place to help reduce the impact plastics have on the
environment and humans, however unless drastic measures are taken quickly, we will not be able to make a
comeback from the damage we have already caused.

History of Plastics
Plastics where first used in 1600B.C, when humans used natural rubber to shape it into objects of utility.
However the regular use of plastic did not start until 1839 when vulcanised rubber and polystyrene was
discovered. The first synthetic polymer, Bakelite was produced in 1907. There are now 20 different groups
of plastics and they have become a crucial material of modern life, health and medicine.

The structure for Plastics

Plastics are created when oil is reacted with gases to form monomers. Which in turn bonds to form long
chains of polymers, creating small plastic pellets which are melted/formed to the desired shape. Plastics are
made from specific polymer which have a very high molecular mass and often contain additives.

Polymers are formed through polymerisation, in which monomer molecules are bonded together through a
chemical reaction. There are two main types of polymerisation - addition and condensation.

Addition polymers are formed through series of addition reactions. As their size increases, the strength of
the intermolecular force, and boiling points also increase. Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl chloride),
and polystyrene are all examples of addition polymerisation. Addition polymers are commonly used for
anything from DVD cases to non-stick frying pans as it comes in many forms and structures.

Condensation polymers are made through condensation reactions of molecules with different functional
groups. The reaction is endothermic and generally produces water, as a byproduct. The types of
condensation polymers depends on the functional group that is contained within the monomers.
Condensation plastics tend to be undesirable for the environment as they are harder to recycle because
they cannot be melted and reformed due to the by product that is lost in the reaction.

Addition polymers are generally chemically inert due to the relatively strong carbon-carbon bonds and a
higher molecular weight. Condensation polymers tend to be susceptible to degradation through exposure
to water at higher temperatures.

The functional group of a polymer determines its mechanical, thermal and chemical properties. Naturally
occurring polymers include: tar, shellac, animal horn and latex from tree sap. Although many polymers are
Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel
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hydrocarbons, that contain only hydrogen and carbon, other polymers may also contain oxygen, chlorine,
fluorine, nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur.

Polymers have different forms depending on the way the monomers are arranged, such as linear or
branched. Plastics also have different structures depending on the way the polymers are arranged.

Different Structures of Polymers Table 1

Name Structure Properties Examples

Amorphous Amorphous polymer chains are Low Density Polythene which is

tangled and randomly arranged. occurs when it is created under
They have weaker dispersion high pressures and temperatures.
forces as the chains are further
apart, making them more
flexible and transparent

Crystalline
Meaning it has less branches.
Crystalline polymer chains are High Density Polythene made under
packed tightly and arranged in lower pressure and with a catalyst.
an orderly parallel fashion.
They have strong dispersion
forces because their chains are
so close together, making them
rigid and opaque.

Plasticised Small molecules added to Plasticised PVC is used for wire

polymers to make them softer tubing and raincoats. The presence
and more flexible by weakening of the plasticisers weakens he
their intermolecular forces. chlorine bonds in PVC making it
more flexible

Vulcanised
A chemical bond between Heating Poly(isoprene) with sulphur
(cross- different chains of atoms in a to make it more durable by forming
linked) polymer, making the plastic sulphur bridge between the chains
stringer and more durable creating Cross-linked
Poly(isoprene).

A polymers properties can be enhanced by additives. Each polymer has unique characteristics but most
polymers have some general properties:

- are resistant to chemicals

- are insulators of heat and electricity

- are light in mass and have varying degrees of strength.

- can be processed in various ways to produce fibres, sheets, foams or intricate model parts.

The raw material for manufacturing plastics products is called a resin. Some of the most common resins re
polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polystyrene (PS).

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Problems of Plastics

Since people started producing plastic in the middle of the 20th century, we have put an estimated 8300
million tons into circulation. Research published in 2017 suggests around 4900 million tons are now
lingering in landfill, waterways and elsewhere. While plastic is incredibly useful as it is so durable and lasts
such long time it also has a detrimental impact on the environment. Recent studies are also starting to show
that plastics that are leaked into the environment are having hazardous affects on human health.

The increasing production of plastics shown in the figure below has also caused a concern in the depletion
of oils reserves being used to create plastics, as oil is a non-renewable source.

Impact on the Environment

In 1988, 30 million tonnes of plastics were produced by Untied States alone, annually. Which has now
reached 300 million tonnes world wide, shown in Figure 1 below, is only going to increase as the population
and demand for plastics. Plastics are lightweight, strong, durable and cheap. It is these characteristics that
also make plastics a serious hazardous to the environment. Its crystalline structure and intermolecular
bonds make it difficult to break down. However plastics do break down to an extent, but it is when they
have broken down into
micro plastics that they
are most harmful to the
environment and its
ecosystems. Micro
plastics can be found
worldwide: “in the water
of lakes and seas, in the
sediments of rivers and
deltas, and in the
stomachs of various
organisms ranging from
zooplankton to whales.” A

Figure 1 - Plastic Production increase over the years.

study estimated that, on average, every square kilometre of the world’s oceans has 63,320 microplastic
particles floating at the surface.

In new Zealand beach plastic pellets can be found in horrendously large amounts, counts being over
100,000 raw plastic granulates per meter. The dumping of plastic debris into the ocean is an increasing
problem. In experimentally cleaned beaches, they regained about 50% of their original debris load after just
3 months. The plastic debris the ocean “affects at least 267 species worldwide, including 86% of all sea
turtle species, 44% of all seabird species, and 43% of all marine mammal specie”.

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Plastics make up 80-85% of the seabed debris in Tokyo bay, which is an impressive amount considering
most plastics are buoyant. The accumulation of such debris can inhibit the gas exchange between overlying
waters and the pore waters of the sediments, which results in hypoxia and anoxia.

The ingestion of plastics in animals reduces their food consumption, limiting their ability to lay down fat
deposits, thus reducing their fitness. Which can have a huge affect on things like long distant migration and
reproductive effort. Other harmful effects of digesting plastic include blockage of gastric enzyme secretion,
diminished feeding stimulus, lowered steroid hormone levels, delayed ovulation and reproduction failure.

Polythene bags drifting in ocean currents look much like the prey items targeted by turtle, resulting in
entanglement in plastic debris. This is a serious threat especially in discarded fishing gear, once a animal is
entangled, it may drown, have its ability to catch food or to avoid predators impaired, or encounter sores
from abrasive to cutting actions of attached debris. Even plastics labeled biodegradable only breakdown
completely if they are exposed to temperatures above 50 degrees, which doesn't happen often in the
natural environment. Meaning they cause the same issues any other plastics would.

Plastics floating at sea may acquire fauna of various organisms such as bacteria, diatoms, algae, barnacles,
hydroids and tunicates. As plastics drift they increase the range that these organisms have into an
environment where they were previously absent.

Fibres from synthetic fabrics also contribute massively to to microplastics found in waste water and in the
aquatic environment. “Experiments show that more than
1900 microplastic fibres are released from a single
synthetic garment in just one wash by a laundry
machine”. Studies found that fibres make up 80% of
microplastics particles in waste water shown ion Figure
2, compared to microplastics coming under fragments
only making up 17% of microplastics in waste water.
The world’s consumption of synthetic fibres as fabrics
for domestic and industrial uses exceeded 55 million
tonnes in 2013, which make fibres a very problematic
issue. A quarter of marine fish sampled from markets in
Indonesia and California were found to have plastic
debris and fibres in their guts. Microplastics especially
synthetic fibres have been detected in a wide range of
Figure 2 - percentage of different types
food, including drinking water, beer, honey, sugar and
of microplastics found in waste waters.
table salt. This potentially increases the exposure humans have to
plastic-associated chemicals.

These horrifying effects that plastic is having on the environment and natural ecosystems is evidence into
why the production of plastic should be banned.

Impact on human health

Human health risks arise from the monomers the plastics is built from, the additives mixed in or from a
combination of the two. Some monomers and additives that are known to cause significant health issues
are:

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BPA
Bisphenol A (BPA) is the monomeric building block of polycarbonate plastics. It was first created
synthetically in 1891. BPA has many health issues as the polymerisation of it leaves seem BPA molecule as
shown in Figure 3 unbound to the polymer matrix,
meaning those molecules can be released into the
food and water they come in contact with over
time. This is increased when things like reusable
water bottles are repeatedly washed and/or hold
more acidic or basic liquids that act as a catalyst
to the break down of the polymer. High Figure 3 - the Structure of BPA molecule

temperatures also help with this.

Studies have shown the effects of BPA exposure on prostate and mammary cancer. Epidemiology studies
have also found associations between BPA exposure and obesity, endometrial hyperplasia, recurrent
miscarriages, sterility and polycystic ovarian syndrome.

Phthalates
Phthalates are substances added to plastics to increase their
elasticity, and has been produced in large quantities since 1930. It is
found in a lot of common household objects, medical devices, paints
and personal care products. The phthalates molecule shown in the
Figure 4 to the right, are not covalently bonding to the polymer matrix,
which makes them easy to be separated. Phthalates can occur in
plastics at very high levels up to 80%. In the late 1960’s it was found
that a type of phthalates called DEHP was being leached from
medical devices into bodily fluid and then into body tissues. Once in
the body Phthalates are rapidly metabolised from anywhere within a Figure 4 Structure of Phthalate
hour or several days. However a study was done that showed consistent
levels of DEHP in urines of people all ages. This is worrying as phthalates are endocrine-disrupting
compounds. They are also known and suspected to have effects in relation to reproductive outcomes,
immune responses and thyroid hormone axes.

Both the effects of BPA and phthalates are just a few of many examples of plastics that have a negative
impact on the health of humans, evidence that plastic is harming not only the environment we live off but
also ourselves should be concrete proof enough that something should be done about the use and
production of plastics.

Waste Management issues.

The disposal of plastics is a huge concern, especially as the increase of plastics means we also have a
huge increase in plastics being disposed. The lack of waste management is also evident by the large
amounts of plastic that ends on our beaches and in our oceans.

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Landfill is the conventional approach to waste management, but space for landfills is becomings scarce in
some countries. Landfill has long term risk including contamination of soils and groundwater by additives
and breakdown by products in plastics seeping into the ground, which can become persistent organic
pollutants. Another drawback to the landfill system is that the material flow is linear rather than cyclic, none
of the material resources used to make plastic is recovered.

Incineration reduces the need for land fill, however there are concerns about the problematic substances
which may be released into the atmosphere. Incineration can be used with recovery of some of the energy
content in the plastic.

The lack of waste managements strategies and issues with the strategies in place should suggest
that something should be done either about the management or strategies or the increasing use
of plastics resulting in the need for theses strategies.

Oil Use and Depletion

Plastic uses oil to be created, however the world’s supply of oil will eventually be depleted and as oil is
widely used for many purposes which some of them, the use of oil is necessary, this is a huge issue for the
economy. The over-use of oil in the production of plastic has resulted in the chemical pollution of our
atmosphere, soil, water, and even our bodies. By-products of oil such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
and nitrogen oxides, contribute to lung cancer, asthma, acid rain, and species die-offs, among a great
wealth of other negative consequences. So not only will using oil to make plastics leave the economy with a
huge issue when it rings out but the use of it is also creating huge issues currently to the health of humans,
the ozone layer and the environment.

The fact that the depletion of oil will eventually happen regardless of if plastics are banned should be
enough for considerable thought to be put into the alternatives of plastics.

Potential Solutions

Apart from banning plastics there are other alternatives that could be put in place or are are lady put in
place that could decrease the impact plastics have on our environment and us. These include:

Recycling
Packaging is the main source of waste plastics making up 58% of all the waste but inly 37% of usage.

Recycling of plastics is one method for reducing environmental impact and supporting depletion. Once
material enters the waste system, recycling is the process of using recovered material to manufacture a new
product. Less than 20% of plastic waste can be recycled by simple remoulding. However 80% of the
plastic waste generated can not be cycled through simple recylijgn methods.

There are four main categories when it comes to recycling plastics: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and
quaternary are explained in Table 2.

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Table 2 Terminology used in different types of plastics recycling and recovering

Primary Recycling Mechanical Recycling Closed loop Recycling Primary recycling involves processing of a waste/
scrap into a product with characteristics similar to
those of original product. Remoulding is an example
of this process.

Secondary Recycling Mechanical Recycing Downgrading Secondary recycling involves processing of waste/
scrap plastics into materials that have characteristics
different from those of original plastics product.

Tertiary Recycling Chemical Recycling Feedstock recycling Tertiary recycling involves the production of basic
chemicals and fuels from plastics waste using
pyrolysis of hydrolysis as a process.

Quaternary Recycling Energy Recovery Valorisation This method retrieves the energy content of waste/
scrap plastics by burning/incineration. The problem
with this process is generation of very high levels of
pollution including emission of harmful chemicals like
dioxane and furans.

Tertiary method of recycling is the only sustainable method for disposal for about 80% of plastic waste as
cannot be recycled using primary or secondary methods as they do not allow for multi-layered and mixed
plastics. Tertiary method of recycling allows us to recover the energy from plastic waste without burning the
plastic waste.

Rigid containers consisting of a single polymer are simpler and economic to recycle than multilayer and
multicomponent containers. Hence there is limited recycling of multi-layer/multi-component articles
because these result in contamination between polymer types. Post consumer recycling therefore
comprises of several key steps: collection, citing, cleaning, size reduction and separation.

Current Advances in plastic recycling - innovations include increasingly reliable detectors, and
recognition software that increase the accuracy and productivity of automatic sorting. Innovations also
include finding higher value applications for recycled polymers, which can directly replace the unused
polymer.

Economic Issues Relating to Recycling - The price of recycling compared to creating is significant and in
the eyes of government not economically justifiable, influenced by the fact the recycled plastics tend to be
of lesser quality. But as oil prices rise, recycling plastics has become more and more appealing.

This is all we’ll and good theory, but plastic recycling in practice has a few issues. There are so many
different types of plastic that require their own method of recycling, some types cannot be recycled at all,
meaning we are still left with thousands of tons of plastics left hanging in the environment for millennia’s.

If recycled plastics are able to replace the use of new polymers, this can directly reduce oil usage,
emissions of green house gases and prevent future pollution of the environment. However if plastics are
recycled into products that were previously made from other materials such as wood or concrete, then due
to the emissions created while recycling the plastic it will not actually make much of a difference.

Therefore, while recycling can be used to reduce the detrimental impacts of plastics on the environment, it
is not enough to suggest that the production of plastics should continue

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Reducing
Packing is the main source of waste plastics
making up 58% of all the waste but only 37% of
usage, reducing the amount of packaging used
per item will reduce waste volumes as well as
limiting use of single use plastics, such as
plastic bags, straws and cups. “more than a
third of the production volume of plastics is for
disposable items”.

Interventions to reduce the use of plastic bags

have been put all over the world to ban the sale
of lightweight bags, charge customers for Figure 5 - Policies in place for the ban of Plastic bags

and microbeads
lightweight bags and/or generate taxes from stores
who sell them. For example, bans, partial bans, and
fees. There has also been a rapid increase in policies to reduce the use of microbeads (since 2013) shown
in Figure 5, which is a huge step forward in mining towards a complete ban of plastics.

The Annex V of MAROL is the key international authority for controlling ship sources of amirs debris. It
‘restricts at sea discharge of garbage and bans at sea disposal of plastics and other synthetic materials
such as ropes, fishing nets and plastic garbage bags wiht limited exceptions.” However the legislation is
still widely ignored, and ships are estimated to still discard 6.5 million tons per year of plastics.

Polices such as these help to reduce the amount of plastic that ends up in land fill. While this would not
solve all our problems along side the increased levels of recycling it could make a significant dint into the
amount of plastics that end up in landfill and our oceans.

While the reduction of plastics is a good improvement and will help towards the end goal of protecting the
environment and human health it is enough to complexity stop the dangerous effects plastic is causing.

Alternative Materials
Because plastic is used to make the majority of products in the world, if the production of plastics is
banned, a lot of necessary products will have to find other solutions that are just as durable and last just as
long, The alternatives to plastic can include:

- bioplastics

- glass

- wood

- metal

Scientists have put a lot of money and time into the research into bioplastics and are discovering they have
the potential to become the main solution to the issue of plastics. However the reasons we are not using
bioplastics already relatively expensive; PLA (a type fo bioplastic) can be 20 to 50 percent more costly than
comparable materials. However, prices are coming down as researchers and companies develop more

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efficient and eco-friendly strategies for producing bioplastics. Another downside of bioplastics is they often
end up in landfills where even though they decompose they are deprived of oxygen, and may release
methane, a greenhouse gas 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Bioplastics also require a huge
amount of land, some corporations already using more than 3.4 million acres to keep up with, and with a
growing population this is not ideal

Conclusion

With consideration to human health risks and environmental damage and many other factors, the increasing
production of extremely durable plastics, short - lived consumer products, with limited options of recycling
available is unsustainable. Banning plastics all together will create consequential issues, and at the moment
while not economically easily feasible, it is necessary for the environment, ecosystems and humans.
However until a complete ban on plastics can be put in place, steps such as banning single use plastics,
and plastics that cannot be recycled, as well as implementing awareness programs and supporting the
research of better recycling methods are steps that governments need to take immediately and effectively. If
a complete ban of plastics is passed it is imperative that serve measures are taken to fix the damage that
existing debris would continue to harm life and the environment for many decades.

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Appendix 1

Question - Should the production of all plastics be banned?

Hypothesis - I think plastics should be banned as they cause a lot of harm to the environment
especially the marine life. I don’t think it is economically feasible at the moment for plastics to be
banned all together, however I do think measures can be taken and laws implemented to reduce
the productions of specific plastics that have a harm on the environment. I believe this for
documentaries I have watched with my family and also their personal views.The belief has also
been influenced by social media and popular beliefs and protests.

Aim - To research deeply into the positives and negatives of plastics and why it should be banned
if at all and what other alternatives there are to banning plastics.

Planning

What data do you need to answer your question?

- The damage that plastics is causing in all areas

- How plastics came to be around

- The chemistry behind plastics

- Impact is has on humans

- Impact on the environment

- The limited oil supplies to produce plastics.

- Policies already in place to ban certain plastics

- Methods of recycling plastics as to limit the need for so muchness plastics.

- Methods of reducing the impact of plastics in the environment already in place.

What further questions arise that you will need to research and investigate?

- Is there options other than banning plastics?

- What will happen if the production of plastics is banned?

- Do the positives out way the negatives?

- Is banning plastics economically feasible?

- If it is not what can be done instead?

- How will we enforce the ban of plastics

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Appendix 2

Reference http://read.nxtbook.com/wiley/plasticsengineering/september2016/
List consultantscorner_plastics.html Plastics Engineering - September 2016 - Plastics
information
– It’s All About Molecular Structure. Jeffrey A. Jansen

read.nxtbook.com

Accessed May 21st.

Summary of - The molecular structure of Plastics. Plastics are polymers of very high molecular mass
content
and often contain additives .

- Polymerisation - polymers are macromolecules build up in chains. Formed

through the process of polymerisation. In which monomer molecules are binder
totters through a chemical reaction. There are two main types of polymerisation
- addition and condensation

- Addition polymerisation is made from monomers containing a carbon-carbon

double bond bonded together through an exothermic addition reaction, with out
any atoms or molecules being lost in the reaction. Polyethylene, polypropylene,
poly(vinyl chloride), and polystyrene are all made through addition
polymerisation.

- Condensation polymers are made through steps of reactions of molecules with

different functional groups. The reaction is endothermic and generally produces
water, but sometimes other small molecules such as methanol, as a byproduct.
Thermoplastic polyesters, polyacetal, polycarbonate and polyamides are
produced through condensation reactions.

- Addition polymers are generally chemically inert due to the relatively strong
carbon-carbon bonds and a higher molecular weight. Condensation polymers
tend to be susceptible to degradation through exposure to water at higher
temperatures.

- The structure of different polymers is due to their functional group. The fictional
group causes mechanical, thermal and chemical resistance.

- Intermolecular Bonding.

- “A key aspect of polymeric materials is that the chains are entangled within
each other. The individual chains are not covalently bonded to each other, but
instead rely on intermolecular forces, such as Van der Waals forces, hydrogen
bonding, and dipole interactions, to keep the chains from disentangling.”

- Molecular Weight.

- “A key parameter of a polymer is its molecular weight.”’

- “Higher molecular weights are associated with longer molecular chains, and
this results in a greater level of entanglement.”

- Higher molecular weight graded plastics will have better properties

Limitation, This websites is very factual, while the author works in the plastics industry he
biases or does not start his beliefs in the article merely the facts about plastic. And it aligns
flaws within with education videos I have watched about the polymers.

the article

It is a very detailed article, however the layout and accessibility could have been
improved.

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2

Reference List Robert Lamb "What is corn plastic?" 11 November 2008.

HowStuffWorks.com. <https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/
information
corn-plastic.htm> 19 May 2019

Summary - Corn can be used for the production of plastic more specifically polylactic acid (PLA)
plastic. It allows us to make plastic without relying on petroleum or oil supplies.

of content - “The United States uses 20.8 million barrels of oil per day, 10 percent of which goes
solely to the production of conventional plastic such as polyethylene terephthalate
(PET)”

- Globally, bioplastics make up nearly 331,000 tons (300,000 metric tons) of the plastics
market [source: European Bioplastics]. That may sound like a lot, but it only accounts
for less than 1 percent of the 200 million tons (181 million metric tons) of synthetic
plastics the world produces each year

- Corn plastic’s manufacturing releases fewer toxins and greenhouse gases. It also
biodegrade within a few months.

- How Its manufactured?

- Harvested corn crop is soaked and ground to seperate the endosperm form the gluten
and fibre. Then a enzyme is added to convert to the endosperm to simple sugar called
dextrose. After that bacterial cultures are added to ferment it into lactic acid. This acid
contain lactic molecules which bind to from polymers. You are then left with pellets of
polylactic acid plastic.

- While corn plastic is biodegradable within a month or two, it does require a

temperature of around 60 degrees to decompose. So when just thrown out your car
window will still follow the same path ads normal synthetic plastics.

- However If even small amount ends up with the rest of the conventual plastic recycling
it can contaminate it, as it has a very different chemical structure. It stops the
companies from being able to recycling companies from profiting from one fo the more
profitable recyclables.

- When decomposing they do release a green house gas methane so it does not have a
foolproof disposal method. However when it is incinerated it does not release toxic
fumes.

- To avoid the threats that mixed plastics pose, commercial composters in the US only
accept bioplastics from food service operations, not everyday households. This means
that bioplastics could be used to at sports games and other events where foods are
purchased and consumed on the premises in bulk. Creating a dent in the overall use of
synthetic plastics.

- You are also still left with a large sum of agricultural waste such as stem and stalks.

Limitation, This websites is while seeming to be solely factual seems to have a personal
biases or negative bias towards corn plastics. However it was well laid out and provided
flaws within facts for both sides of the argument.

the article
It is a very detailed article, It was easy follow and understand.

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3

Reference Haley Bennett and Kristy Tuner, “What a waste” Education in Chemistry

List 30 August 2018 https://eic.rsc.org/feature/plastic-waste/3009361.article

information
Accessed May 25 2019

Summary of - Consider that since people started producing plastic in the middle of the 20th
content
century, we have put an estimated 8300 million tons into circulation.

- Research published in 2017 suggests 4900 million tons are now lingering in
landfill, waterways and elsewhere.

- While plastic is incredibly useful as it is so durable and lasts such long time it
has a detrimental impact on ht environment. It is its crystalline structure that
makes it so difficult to break down.

- However plastics do break down to an extent but it is when they have broken
done into micro plastics and nano plastics that they are most harmful to the
environment and its ecosystems. As they can not be easily monitored and a lot
harder to clean up.

- “Japanese scientists discovered a bug that ‘eats’ PET. The bug uses the carbon
in plastic as an energy source, chowing it down with an enzyme that appears to
have evolved since the invention of plastic. ‘This enzyme breaks the ester
bonds in the [PET] and releases the building blocks,’ John explains. ‘So if you
put a plastic bottle into a vat of enzyme, you would see it dissolve and turn into
a clear plastic solution.’ John’s team has been working to improve the enzyme
so it could be used to break down plastic waste in the same way enzymes
added to washing powder break down stains in clothes. Although it’s not
industry-ready yet, he’s hoping to build a heat-tolerant version that could eat
through melted plastic, enabling it to get to work much faster.”

- “According to Alexandra, we ‘must focus on prevention’ to reduce plastic

waste. ‘In the next five years we are going to release into the ocean 110 million
tons of plastic,’ she says. ‘The figures speak for themselves.’”

Limitation, This website while bais to the environment provides great facts and evidence to
biases or the need for alternative plastics and states why the have this bias. It was well laid
flaws within out and provided proven facts and pulled information form other reliable sources.

the article
It is a very detailed article, It was easy follow and understand.

Reference Science History Institute “Conflicts in Chemistry:the case of plastics” Last edited
List 2019.https://www.sciencehistory.org/science-of-plastics Accessed May 26 2019.
information

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4

Summary of - Plastics are polymers, polymers are made-up of many repeating units. Its
content
includes at least 1000 units.

- Naturally occurring polymer include tar, shellac, animal horn and latex from
tree sap.

- Although many polymers are hydrocarbons, that contain only hydrogen and
carbon, other polymers may also contain oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen,
silicon, phosphorus and sulphur.

- Condensation plastics cannot be melted and reformed.

- Then monomers in Polymers can be arranged in a variety of ways: Linear

(however the tetrahedral bonds actually give the chain a zig zag configurations.

- If the monomers from long side chains off the main backbone. It is described
as branched.

- If the chains are chemically linked together, they form a mesh like structure
known as cross linked configuration.

- Th polymers themselves can also be arranged in different ways. If the

arrangement has no particular order it is said to be amorphous. Amorphous
polymers are often transparent and used as food wrap, headlights and contact
lenses. They also have lower boiling points.

- If the polymer has a distinct structure it is called crystalline. The higher degree
of crystallisation, the less light passes through. They have greater strength and
higher melting points.

- Polymers properties can be enhanced by additives. Each polymer has unique

characteristics but most polymers have some genre properties:

- they are resistant to chemicals

- they are insulators o feat and electricity

- they are light in mass and have varying degrees of strength.

- they can be processed in various ways to produce fibres, sheets, foams or

intricate model parts.

- The raw material fro manufacturing plastics products is called a resin. Some of
the most common resins re polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene (PS). These resins
are often used in packaging.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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4

Limitation, This website is not biased and purely factual. It was well laid out and provided
biases or proven facts and pulled information form other reliable sources.

flaws within It is a very detailed article, It was easy follow and understand. I believe ti is
the article
reliable as it has been updated frequently and has reliable references.

Polymer name Monomer(s) Polymer Use

Polyethylene CH2 =CH2 (ethene) -CH2-

Most common polymer.
CH2- Used in bags wire
insulation and squeeze
bottle,

Polypropylene CH2=CH
-CH2-
Fibres, indoor-outdoor
1/2
CH-
carpets, bottles
CH3
1/2

(1-propene) CH3

Polystyrene
CH2=CH
-CH2-
Styrofoam, moulded
1/2
CH-
objects such as
(styrene) 1/4 tableware, trays,
videocassette cases.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) CH2 = CH

-CH2-
Clear food wrap, bottles,
1/2
CH-
floor covering, synthetic
Cl
1/2
leather, water and drain
(vinyl chloride) Cl pipe.

Polytetrafluoroethylene
CF2=CF2
-CF2-
Nonstick surfaces,
(teflon) (tetraflouroethene) CF2- plumbing tape, chemical
-resistant containers and
films.

Reference Rolf U. Halden “Plastics and Health Risks” January 13, 2010. The Annual review
List of Public Health. Accessed 27 May 2019.
information

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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5

Summary of History of plastics.

content
- Plastics where most used 1600B.C when humans used natural rubber to shape
into objects of utility. However the exploration of plastics did not start until 1839
when vulcanised rubber and polystyrene was discovered. The first synthetic
polymer, Bakelite was produced in 1907. There are now 20 different groups of
plastics.

- “Plastics are pivotal materials in modern life, public health and medicine.”

- Health Risks

- Human health risks arise from the mongers the plastics is build from, the
additives or from a combination of the two.

- BPA

- Bisphenol A is the monomeric building block of polycarbonate plastics. It was

first created synthetically in 1891. BPA has many health issues as the
polymerisation of it leaves some molecules unbound, meaning BPA molecules
can be released into the food and water they come in contact with over time.
Thesis increased when things like reusable water bottles are repeatedly washed
and/or hold more acidic or basic liquids that act as a catalyst to the break down
of the polymer. High temperatures also help with this.

- Studies have shown the effects of BPA exposure on propane and mammary
cancer. And epidemiology studies have found associations between BPA
exposure and obesity, endometrial hyperplasia, recurrent miscarriages, sterility
and polycystic ovarian syndrome.

- Phthalates

- Are substances added to plastics to increase their elasticity. And has been
produced in large quantities since 1930. It is found in a lot of common
household objects, medical devices, paints and personal care products.
Phthalates are not covalently bonding to the polymer matrix. Which makes
them easy to be leached. It can occur in plastics at very high levels up to 80%.
In the late 1960’s it was found that a type of phthalates called DEHP was being
leached from medical devices into bodily fluid and then into body tissues.

- Once in the body Phthalates are rapidly metabolised from anywhere within a
hour or several days. However a staid was one that showed consistent levels of
DEHP in urines of people all ages. This is worrying as phthalates are endocrine-
disrupting compounds. They are also known and suspected to have effects in
relation to reproductive outcomes, immune responses and thyroid hormone
axes.

- PVC is used in many things such as food wraps, vegetable oil bottles, toys and
medical devices. Products made with PVC often contain problematic
phthalates.

- “Human health risks aside, the ongoing increased production of extremely

durable plastics of limited recyclability for disposal, short - lived consumer
products is unsustainable.”

- “more than a third of the production volume of plastics is for disposable items”.

- “many plastics articles have a very short useful lifespan, measured in

timescales of seconds, minutes or hours. However upon release into the
environment, these products are known to press and pollute for decades,
centuries or even millennia.”

Limitation, This article was very factual, and written by experts in the area. However it was
biases or written in a very scientific way making it difficult for a common audience to
flaws within understand it.

the article
It was very thorough in explaining the points it set out to. However, it only covered
a few types of plastics specifically and not a broad range, which is okay for the
intended audience, but not very helpful while trying to write an overall report.

I believe it is a reliable source as it both written by experts in the area and peer
reviewed.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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6
Reference List Jefferson Hopewell, Robert Dvorak, and Edward Kosior. “Plastics recycling: challenges
information and opportunities” 2009 The royal society. Accessed 28 May 2019

Summary of Packing is the main source of waste plastics making up 58% of all the waste but
content
inly 37% of usage.

- Recycling of plastics is one method for reducing environmental impact and

espouse depletion. Once material enters the waste system, recycling is the
process of using recovered material to manufacture a new product.

- There is a 4r’s strategy in place; reduce, reuse, recycle (material) and recover
(energy)

- Landfill is the conventional approach to waste management, but space for

landfills is becomings scare in some countries. Landfill has long term risk
including contamination of soils and groundwater by seem additives and
breakdown by products in plastics, which can become persistent organic
pollutants. Another drawback to the landfill system is that the material flow is
linear rather than cyclic, none of the material resources used to porch plastic is
recovered.

- Incineration reduces the need for land fill, however there are concerns about
the problematic substances which may be released into the atmosphere.
Incineration can be used with with recovery of some of the energy content in
the plastic.

- Down-gauging, reducing the amount of packaging used per item will reduce
waste volumes.

- Re-use of plastic packaging - Such as collection points, and moving away from
one use plastic bags.

- Plastic Recycling - there are four main categories when it coms to recycling
plastics:

- Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and quaternary. (table 2)

- Biodegradable plastics can also be composted, this is another example of

tertiary recycling.

- Alternative Materials - biodegradable plastics have the potential to solve a

number of waster-management issue, especially for disposable packaging that
cannot be easily separated from organic waste waste in catering. However
biodegradable plastics have the potential to complicate waste management
when introduced without appropriate technical attributes, handing systems and
consumer education.

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6
Systems for Plastic Recycling

- Rigid containers consisting of a single polymer are simpler and economic to

recycle than multilayer and multicomponent containers.

- Hence there is limited recycling of multi-layer/multi-component plastics

because these result in contamination between polymer types.

- recycling therefore comprises of several key steps: collection, citing, cleaning,

size reduction and separation.

- Collection

- Collection of plastic wastes can be done by ‘bring-schemes’ or through

kerbside collection. Bring schemes tend to result in low collection rates as the
public are often to lazy or busy. Hence kerb side collection tends to work better.

- Sorting

- Sorting of co-mingled rigid recyclables occurs by both automatic and manual

methods. Automatic is usually done to separate plastic from glass, metals and
paper. And also to sort according to colour. Other sorting technologies can
distinguish and separate PVC.

- Current Advances in plastic recycling -

- innovations include increasingly reliable detectors, and recognition software

that increase the accuracy and productivity of automatic sorting. Innovations
also include finding higher value applications for recycled polymers, which can
directly replace the unused polymer.

- If recycled plastics are Abel to replace the use of new polymers, this can
directly reduce oil usage and emissions of green house gases. However if
plastics are recycled into products that were previously made from other
materials such as wood or concrete, then due to the emissions created while
recycling the plastic it will not actually make much of a difference

- Economic Issues Relating to Recycling

- There is the price of recycling compared to creating. Ad also the fact the
recycled plastics tend to be of lesser quality. But as oil prices rise, recycling
plastics has become more and more appealing.

Limitation, This article was very thorough and explained all of the different recycling methods
biases or and the pros dan cons of them.

flaws within While it may have been slightly bias to recycling this did not inhibit its ability to
the article
point out the flaws of recycling and still evaluated each method fairly.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

 21

Reference Jose G.B Derraik “Pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review”
List Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2002. Accessed on 31 March 2019
information

Summary - In 1988 30 million tonnes of plastics were produced by Untied States alone,
annually. Which has now reached 300 million tonnes world wide.

of content - Plastics are lightweight, strong, durable and cheap. It’s these characteristics
that also make plastics hazardous to the environment.

- In new Zealand beach plastic pellets can be found in horrendously large

amounts, counts being over 100,000 raw plastic granulates per meter.

- The dumping of plastic debris into the ocean is an increasing problem. In

experimentally cleaned beaches, regained about 50% of their original debris
load after just 3 months.

- The plastic debris the ocean “affects at least 267 species worldwide, including
86% of all sea turtle species, 44% of all seabird species, and 43% of all marine
mammal species.”

- Plastics make up 80-85% of the seabed debris in Tokyo bay, which is

impressive considering most plastic are buoyant.

- The accumulation of such this plastic can inhibit the gas exchange between
overlying waters and the pore waters of the sediments, which results in hypoxia
and anoxia.

- The ingestion of plastics in animals reduces their food consumption, which

limits their ability to lay down fat deposits, reducing their fitness. Which can
have a huge affect on things like long distant migration and reproductive effort.

- Other harmful effects of digesting plastic include blockage of gastric enzyme

secretion, diminished feeding stimulus, lowered stereo hormone levels, delayed
ovulation and reproduction failure.

- Polythene bags drifting in ocean currents look much like the prey items targeted
by turtle.

- Entanglement in plastic debris, is a serious threat to Marine animals. Once a

animal is entangled, I may drown, have its ability to catch food or to avoid
predators impaired, or incur owns from abrasive to cutting actions of attache
debris.

- “According to some estimates, global marine species diversity may decrease

by as much as 58% if worldwide biotic mixing occurs.”

- Plastics floating at sea may obtain fauna of various organisms such as bacteria,
diatoms, algae, barnacles, hydroids and tunicates. Drift plastics can therefore
increase the range of certain marine organisms or introduce species into an
environment where they were previously absent.

- Due to the long life of plastics, it is important that serve measures are taken to
address the problem at both international and national levels, since even if the
production and disposal of plastics suddenly stopped, the existing debris
would continue to harm marine life for many decades.

- The Annex V of MAROL is the key international authority for controlling ship
sources of amirs debris. It “restricts at sea discharge of garbage and bans at
sea disposal of plastics and other synthetic materials such as ropes, fishing
nets and plastic garbage bags wiht limited exceptions.” However the law is still
widely ignored, and ships are estimated to discard 6.5 million tons per year of
plastics.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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7

Limitation, As the article was published by Marine Pollution Bulletin we can assume it is bias
biases or towards protecting the marine environment

flaws within However it was heavily data based showing significant evidence to back up it
the article
spins I believe making it reliable. It also quoted and referenced many other
documents and evidence from other studies than just their own.

Reference https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/05/plastic-asset-legal-policy-responsible-
List use-sadhguru/ 28 May 2018 Sadhguru, Founder, Isha Foundation “We don’t need
information
to ban plastic. We just need to start using it properly” Accessed 1 June.

Summary of - It is estimated that by 2050 there will be more plastic than fish (by weight) in the
content
ocean.

- “Many environmentalists are calling for a ban on plastics. However the

properties that make plastic dangerous - its durability and long lifespan - also
make it a great asset.”

- “The problem is not plastics itself. The problem is using it irresponsibly.”

- As plastic last so long it can be recycled over and over and over again. Which
can be a huge benefit to economy.

- However plastic recycling also has a few issues invloved. There are so many
different types of plastic that require their own method of recycling, some types
cannot be recycled at all.

- “A comprehensive legal and policy framework to streamline and commercialise

the process of plastic recycling mist be created.” Companies and governments
need to raise social awareness about responsible use and recycling.

- Banning plastics all together will create consequential issues, and is not a
feasible act. However steps such as banning single use plastics, and plastics
that cannot be recycled, as well as implementing awareness programs and
supporting the research of better recycling methods.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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8

Limitation, I am not entirely convinced on the reliability of this source, as it was clearly written
biases or for someone without understanding in of plastics and chemistry to understand
flaws within dan the author does not have many significant qualifications in relation to the
the article
information but the info did line up with all the other research, so that gives it
some validity.

Reference https://uneplive.unep.org/media/docs/early_warning/microplastics.pdf “Micro-

List plastics: trouble in the food chain” UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report. Accessed 2 June
information
2019. Authors unknown.

Summary of Micro plastics can now can be found worldwide: “in the water of lakes and seas,
content
in the sediments of rivers and deltas, and in the stomachs of various organisms
ranging from zooplankton to whales.”

“One study estimated that, on average, every square kilometre of the world’s
oceans has 63,320 microplastic particles floating at the surface.”

Many products that are labelled biodegradable will only breakdown completely if
they are exposed to temperatures above 50 degrees. Which doesn't happen often
in the natural environment.

Common Sources of Microplastics

- Cosmetic products such as skin cleansers, toothpaste and shaving cream

contain abrasives which are micro beads.

- Researches have found these micro beads in public water reservoirs and
natural environment.

- Microplastics are also commonly used for surface blasting. WHen they are
being used to blast surfaces they can become highly contaminated with heavy
metals from surface covering, such as cadmium, chromium, and lead. Which
once they are discarded leak into the environment.

- Fibres from synthetic fabrics also contribute massively to to microplastics found

in waste water and in the aquatic environment. “Experiments show that more
than 1900 microplastic fibres are released from a single synthetic garment in
just one wash by a laundry machine”. Fibres make up 80% of microplastics
particles in waste water.

Plasticised Food Chains

- A quarter of marine fish sampled from markets in Indonesia and California had
plastic derby and fibres in their guts

- synthetic fibres have been detected in a wide range of food, including drinking
water, beer, honey, sugar and table salt.

- This potentially increases the exposure humans have to plastic-associated

chemicals.

Laws such as “In December 2015, the United States passed a law that prohibits
the sale and distribution of cosmetic products containing plastic microbeads with
a phase-out period until 1 July 2017 when the bead manufacturing will be
completely banned.” Are the steps governments should be taking.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

 24
9

Limitation, This report while accessed to through an organisation was clearly reliable as all its
biases or information was lining up to previous research and had an extensive refine list with
flaws within many reliable sources on it. The report was well laid out and easy to follow and
the article
understand. It was very helpful and informative giving evidence to back up its
statements.

10

Reference https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6xlNyWPpB8 What really happens to the

List plastic you throw away - Emma Bryce Published on Apr 21, 2015, Accessed 2
information
June

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

 25
10

Summary of Origins of the bottle

content
- the plastic is formed by chemically bonding oil and gas molecules together to
form monomers. Which in turn bond to create polymer chains to make plastic in
the form of pellets

- the pelts are melted at manufacturing plants and reformed in moulds.

Landfill Bottle

- as plastic sit in land fill being compressed rain water flows through the waste
and absorbs the water soluble compounds, some of these being highly toxic.

- together they contain a harmful strew called leachate. Which moves into ground
water soil and streams poisoning ecosystems and harming wildlife.

- it can take years for this bottle to decompose.

Ocean bottle

- this bottle finds itself in the ocean and find itself at one of the great ocean
garbage patches. Where the currents have trapped millions of piece of plastic
debris

- here animals mistake plastic for food which makes them feel full starving them
to death

- toxins form the plastics are passed up the food chain until it reaches us.

Recycled Bottle

- when placed in recycling a truck brings him to plant where there are crushed
into a box. The blocks are shredded into tiny pieces which are washed and melted
where they become pellets again. Where they can be used over and over again.
Limitation, This video while intended fro an audience with little to no knowledge of plastics
biases or and chemistry was excellent at conveying the key concepts of plastic and the
flaws within issue it causes in a simple and understandable way. I found it helpful to look at the
the article
larger picture that sometimes the reports tend to miss when the narrow in so
much on certain things. The information in the video was factual and lined up wiht
previous research and was fairly reliable.

11

Reference http://www.plasticwastedisposal.com/plastic-waste-management-plastic-
List recycling-methods-options/ “PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT & PLASTIC
information
RECYCLING – METHODS & OPTION”

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

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11

Summary of “Less than 20% of plastic waste can be recycled by simple remoulding. However
content
80% of the plastic waste generated can be recycled only through Pyrolysis &
Hydrolysis”. Plastics recycling methods are divided into three sections primary,
secondary tertiary and Quaternary.

Primary recycling:

- a physical method of plastic recycling.

- involves processing of a waste/scrap into a product with characteristics similar

to those of original product.

- Remoulding is an example of this process.

- Multi-layered and mixed plastic waste cannot be recycled using this process.

- Only segregated plastic waste can be recycled using this process.

Secondary recycling:

- a physical method of plastic recycling.

- involves processing of waste/scrap plastics into materials that have

characteristics different from those of original plastics product.

- Multi-layered and mixed plastic waste cannot be recycled using this process.

- Only segregated plastic waste can be recycled using this process.

Tertiary recycling:

- a chemical method of recycling plastic waste.

- involves the production of basic chemicals and fuels from plastics waste using
pyrolysis of hydrolysis as a process.

- suitable for all types of plastic waste including the multi-layer plastic waste for
which first two methods of recycling are not suitable.

- tertiary method of recycling is the only sustainable method for disposal for 80%
of plastic waste.

- allows us to recover the energy from plastic waste without burning the plastic
waste.

Quaternary recycling:

- retrieves the energy content of waste/scrap plastics by burning/incineration.

- The problem with this process is generation of very high levels of pollution
including emission of harmful chemicals like dioxane and furans.

- burning and incineration of plastic is banned in most of the developed

countries.
Limitation, This website was informative in the methods of recycling and explained simply hat
biases or each different type was meant for. However they do not cite any other websites
flaws within and the source of their information is unclear however it is very similar to another
the article
website I liked at.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

 27

Appendix 3

What background chemistry concepts need to be included?

- the knowledge of polymers

- different types of bonding such as intermolecular, dipole-dipole

- Possibly the chemistry behind hydrocarbons??

Which chemical terms need to be defined?

- Monomers, Polymers

- structures of plastics amorphous, crystalline, vulcanised, plasticised.

- microplastics

What will you include in the introduction?

- a brief summary of what plastics are

- Why plastics are such an issue

- Potential solutions

What subheadings will you need to use?

- Introduction to Plastics

History of Plastics

Structure of Plastics

- Problems Of Plastics

Impact on the Environment

Impact on Human Health

Oil Depletions

Waste Management Issues

- Potential Solutions

Recycling

Reduction

Education

Alternative Materials.

- Conclusion

What images, graphs, tables are relevant and helpful and should be included?
Tables explaining:

- different structures of plastics and images to show.

- Different methods of recycling

- Maybe different specific types of plastics

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

 28
Pictures showing:

- Structure of plastics

Graphs Showing:

- Effectiveness of government polices

- Increase in plastic production

- Percentage of different types of microplastics in the environment.

How will you model the molecules and how will you illustrate the relationship between proper ties,

structure and reactions?

- Through a table with, properties of different structures of plastics, pictures and examples

What photographs should you take of your modelled molecules and reactions?

- I should take photograph of the structures of specific plastics I mention.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel

 29
Bibliography
http://read.nxtbook.com/wiley/plasticsengineering/september2016/
consultantscorner_plastics.html By Jeffrey A. Jansen, Senior Managing Engineer & Partner, The
Madison Group “PLASTICS – IT’S ALL ABOUT MOLECULAR STRUCTURE” September 2016.
Accessed May 21st

Haley Bennett and Kristy Tuner, “What a waste” Education in Chemistry 30 August 2018 https://
eic.rsc.org/feature/plastic-waste/3009361.article Accessed May 25 2019

https://www.livescience.com/33085-petroleum-derived-plastic-non-biodegradable.html By
Natalie Wolchover, “Why Doesn't Plastic Biodegrade?”March 2, 2011 Accessed May 21st

https://www.britannica.com/science/polymer By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

“Polymer” Jul. 20, 1998. Accessed May 25th 2019.

Science History Institute “Conflicts in Chemistry:the case of plastics” Last edited 2019.https://
www.sciencehistory.org/science-of-plastics Accessed May 26 2019.

Rolf U. Halden “Plastics and Health Risks” January 13, 2010. The Annual review of Public Health.
Accessed 27 May 2019.

Jefferson Hopewell, Robert Dvorak, and Edward Kosior. “Plastics recycling: challenges and
opportunities” 2009 The royal society. Accessed 28 May 2019

Jose G.B Derraik “Pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review” Marine
Pollution Bulletin. 2002. Accessed on 31 March 2019

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/05/plastic-asset-legal-policy-responsible-use-sadhguru/
28 May 2018 Sadhguru, Founder, Isha Foundation “We don’t need to ban plastic. We just need to
start using it properly” Accessed 1 June.

https://uneplive.unep.org/media/docs/early_warning/microplastics.pdf “Micro-plastics: trouble in

the food chain” UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report. Accessed 2 June 2019. Authors unknown.

William Harris "How long does it take for plastics to biodegrade?" 15 December 2010.

HowStuffWorks.com. <https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/
how-long-does-it-take-for-plastics-to-biodegrade.htm> 11 June 2019

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6xlNyWPpB8 What really happens to the plastic you throw

away - Emma Bryce Published on Apr 21, 2015, Accessed 2 June .

http://richardheinberg.com/odp/getinformed/oilchemicalsplastics By Richard Heinberg “Oil

Depletion Protocol” Published June 2016 Accessed June 10th

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHxxLYzJ8Sw “Polymers - Crash Course Chemistry” By

Crash Course, Published Jan 6 2014. Accessed 2 June

Roland Geyer, Jenna R. Jambeck and Kara Lavender Law “Production, use and fate of all plastics
ever made.” Science Advances.19 July 2017 Published by American Association fro the advanced
of science. Accessed 28 May 2019

https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/plastics-and-packaging
“Plastics and Packaging” By Department of Environment and Energy Publish date 2018.
Accessed June 10th.

Gerngross, Tillman U., and Steven C. Slater. “How Green Are Green Plastics?” Scientific
American, vol. 283, no. 2, 2000, pp. 36–41. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26058824.

Should the Production of Plastics be banned - Sam Abel