Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
J.W. Carson, Ph.D.
and
R.T. Jenkyn, P.Eng.
1
Source: Carson, J. W. and R. T. Jenkyn: Load Development and Structural Considerations in Silo Design. Presented at
Reliable Flow of Particulate Solids II, Oslo, Norway, August 1993. Used with the permission of the publisher.
One Technology Park Drive • Westford, MA 01886-3189 • Tel: (978) 392-0300 • FAX: (978) 392-9980
Also: San Luis Obispo, CA • Toronto, Canada • Viña del Mar, Chile
www.jenike.com
SILO DESIGN The structural design of a silo requires, among
other things, knowledge of the distribution of
The design of bins and silos to store bulk solids pressures and shear stresses on its walls (caused
involves bulk material, geometric, and structural by the stored material) and how that distribution
considerations. varies during charging, storage at rest,
discharging, and recharging.
Bulk material considerations are important
because the frictional and cohesive properties of Of the three major aspects of silo design (bulk
bulk solids vary from one solid to another, and material, geometric, and structural), the bin
these properties affect material behavior loads aspect of structural design is the least
considerably. In addition, a given bulk solid’s understood. But unless the structural design is
flow properties can vary dramatically with done properly, the integrity of the silo may be
changes in numerous parameters, including compromised. Silo collapse is far too common,
particle size, moisture, temperature, and yet agreement amongst designers on procedures
consolidating pressure. This variability of for determining silo loads has not been
properties makes testing at actual conditions forthcoming. This is very apparent when one
more important for proper bin and silo design considers existing codes of practice. There is
than may at first appear. very little detailed guidance concerning the
various loading conditions – some static, some
When considering the geometric design of a dynamic – which can co-exist.
silo, potential problems include arching across
an outlet, ratholing through the material, and the Even if existing codes were “better,” it is
flow pattern during discharge. A bulk material’s unreasonable to expect that any code of practice
propensity to arch or rathole is primarily related would contain a definitive set of instructions
to it’s cohesiveness, while its flow pattern covering all cases that might have to be
during discharge depends upon internal friction considered. Usually none but the simplest cases
as well as the friction that develops between the can be described. Over-enthusiastic compliance
material and the silo’s hopper walls. The goal of with the letter, to the exclusion of the spirit and
geometric design is to maximize the useable intent of a code of practice, can be misleading,
capacity of a silo while minimizing its capital and even dangerous.
cost, overall height, etc.
In some countries, codes are recommendations
Established design procedures [1] include only, so compliance with them is not
selection of the optimum hopper angles and mandatory. However, for practical purposes in
minimum outlet dimensions. The ideal the event of a failure, a code (assuming that
discharge mode is one where, at steady state, all one exists) is a minimum mandatory standard.
material flows without obstruction. This is In other words, an engineer may have the right
referred to as mass flow. The discharge mode to exercise independent engineering judgment
where only some of the material flows is called when creating a design, and may even go back
funnel flow. In mass flow, the material does not to first principles. But if a problem occurs and
necessarily move at a uniform rate throughout: the engineer must justify his design, he will
velocity variations across any horizontal cross- have difficulty doing so unless it is as good as
section are possible. the minimum provided by the applicable code
(or codes), or the inapplicability of the code has
been documented [2].
2
Potentially responsible parties include the
Codes are particularly weak in the area of designer, builder, building material supplier,
eccentric flow channel formation. In fact even owner, user, and others.
flow experts often cannot agree on where a flow
channel will form in a funnel flow bin or silo, its Failures Due to Design Errors
size, shape, etc. Because of this uncertainty in
the ability to predict the occurrence of flow Silo design requires specialized knowledge. The
channels, some designers feel that it is prudent designer must first establish the material’s flow
to assume the occurrence of worst case flow properties, then consider such items as flow
channels if there is any doubt at all. Part of their channel geometry, flow and static pressure
rationale is that they consider it to be dangerous development, and dynamic effects. Problems
to fine tune a design on the basis that some like ratholing and vibration have to be
definite predicted flow regime will occur, that prevented, while assuring reliable discharge at
operators will operate the silos according to a the required rate. Non-uniform loads, thermal
definite set plan, or that the material’s flow loads, and the effects of non-standard
properties will not vary [3]. While such an fabrication details must be considered. Above
approach should be conservative, it may be too all, the designer must know when to be cautious
costly to implement. in the face of incomplete or misleading
information, or recommendations that come
Several committees in various countries are from handbooks, or from people with the “it’s
currently working to revise silo design codes. always been done this way” syndrome.
Many are having great difficulty in enacting
new procedures for the design of silos to Having established the design criteria, a
accommodate flow channels even though they competent design has to follow. Here the
know that they occur and they know that many designer must have a full appreciation of load
silo failures have been caused by such flow combinations, load paths, primary and
channels. Every day there are new engineers secondary effects on structural elements, and the
who are charged with the design of new silos. relative flexibility of the elements. Special
Most of these new engineers look first to the attention must be given to how the most critical
codes for information on the design of these details in the structure will be constructed so
structures, hoping and expecting that the codes that the full requirements and intent of the
will point them in the right direction. To do this, design will be realized.
a code need not be perfect, but it must reflect
the latest in technology and be rational. Flow-related loading conditions which,
Hopefully, papers like this one will fill some of unfortunately, many designers fail to anticipate
the gaps while codes are being revised. include:
3
Many silo designers incorrectly account for inspection during construction, and by enforcing
these non-uniform pressures by only a tightly written specification [6].
increasing hoop pressures. The problem of
bending moments is particularly common The other cause of construction problems is the
when using silos with multiple hoppers in introduction of badly chosen, or even
which only one or two of the hopper outlets unauthorized, changes during construction in
are used at a time. order to expedite the work. Any changes in
details, material specifications, or erection
• Non-symmetric pressures caused by inserts. procedure, must be given careful consideration
Support beams and other types of internals by both the builder and silo designer.
can impose non-symmetric pressures on the
silo wall leading to unacceptable bending Failures Resulting from Silo Usage
stresses.
If a bulk material other than the one for which
• Self-induced vibrations. Bins and silos the silo was designed is placed in it, the flow
sometimes vibrate. This can be either a high pattern and loads may be completely different.
frequency, low amplitude type of cyclic The load distribution can be radically changed if
vibration, or a low frequency, high alterations to the outlet geometry are made, if a
amplitude erratic vibration leading to side outlet is put in a center discharge silo, or if
shocks. The latter have been known to cause a flow controlling insert or constriction is added.
structural failures [5]. The designer should be consulted regarding the
effects of such changes before they are
• Local peak pressure at a point where a implemented. Some of the problems which can
funnel flow channel intersects a silo wall. occur include:
• Mass flow occurring when funnel flow was • Collapse of large voids. A collapsing arch or
expected. rathole induces tremendous dynamic loads
on the structure, which can cause the
• Migration of moisture from wet to dry structure to fail. Vibrating bin dischargers
particles within the stored solids, which have also been known to fall off bins and
causes the dry particles to expand and silos because of this mechanism.
impose large radial loads on a silo. (This is
an uncommon problem.) • Development of mass flow in silos designed
structurally for funnel flow. Mass flow can
Failures Due to Construction Errors develop if the walls become smoother with
time or if the properties of the bulk solid
In the construction phase there are two ways in being stored change. This generally results
which problems can be created. The more in much higher loads at the top of the hopper
common of these is poor workmanship. Uneven section, which can result in structural
foundation settlement and faulty construction failure.
(such as using the wrong materials or not using
adequate reinforcement, such as insufficient • Drastic means of flow promotion. High
quantity of rebars) are but two examples of such pressure air cannons and even dynamite are
a problem. This can usually be avoided by sometimes used to restore flow. The result
hiring only qualified builders, by close
4
may be more dramatic than the user and SILO LOADS
designer anticipated!
The loads which bulk materials exert on silo
• Buckling of an unsupported wall below an structures can generally be divided into two
arch of stored bulk material. categories: those due to initial fill and those
which are as a result of flow. Initial fill loads
• Metal fatigue caused by externally-mounted develop, as the name implies, when a silo is
bin vibrators. filled from an empty condition without any
withdrawal taking place. The term flow-induced
• Dust explosions. loads, on the other hand, is somewhat of a
misnomer since it implies that the material must
Failures Due to Improper Maintenance be in motion for these loads to develop. In fact,
the only requirement is that there be some
Maintenance of a silo comes in the owner’s or withdrawal of material which allows the flow
user’s domain, and must not be neglected. There induced loads to develop. Once this occurs, flow
are two types of maintenance work which are can be stopped and then restarted without
required [7]. The first is the regular preventative having any appreciable effect on the silo loads.
work, such as the periodic inspection and repair In addition, the rate of discharge is usually not a
of the liner used to promote flow, protect the significant variable in affecting the magnitude
structure, or both. Loss of a liner may be of the silo loads. The primary reason for this is
unavoidable with an abrasive or corrosive that most bulk materials are not viscous or
product, yet maintaining a liner in proper visco-elastic, so their rate of movement has little
working condition is a must if the silo is to effect on their frictional properties.
operate as designed.
Initial Fill
The second area of maintenance involves
looking for signs of distress, (e.g., cracks, wall As with all of the loading conditions described
distortion, tilting of the structure) and reacting herein, it is convenient to consider first the
to them. If evidence of a problem appears, vertical-sided portion of the silo (generally
expert help should be immediately summoned. called the cylinder section), and then the hopper
An inappropriate response to a sign that (i.e., sloped section of the silo in which the
something is going wrong can precipitate a cross-sectional area is changing with height).
failure even faster than leaving it alone,
including the common instinct to lower the silo If a silo is filled at a point which coincides
fill level. closely with the silo’s centerline, the loads
which develop on the cylinder walls are
Wear due to corrosion and/or erosion can be generally less than those which are flow-
particularly dangerous. For example, as carbon induced and are therefore of little interest as far
steel corrodes, the reduced wall thickness can as structural design is concerned. If there is
eventually lead to a structural failure. This some reason to consider these loads, we
problem can be compounded through erosive recommend the use of the Janssen equation with
wear of the silo wall. Erosive wear can also be a a K j value (ratio of horizontal to vertical
problem in reinforced concrete silos handling pressures) of 0.4 and with wall friction angle f¢
abrasive bulk materials such as coarse ores. equal to a value determined from tests (see
section MATERIAL FLOW PROPERTIES
5
below). For a circular cylinder of diameter D,
the Janssen equation is: While this condition is usually rather localized
to a region immediately below the material
g D surface, it can occur at any elevation as the silo
p=
4m
[
1-e
-4 m K j z / D
] (1)
is being filled.
6
Fig. 1: Mass flow hopper stresses for cylinder buckling calculations.
Otherwise the “minus” sign should be used.
Í h - z Ê q h ˆÊ z ˆ n f +1 ˙˙
p = g Kf Í + ÁÁ - ˜˜ Á 1 - ˜ (8)
Mass Flow – Single Outlet ÍÎ n f Ë g n f ¯Ë h¯ ˙˚
A mass flow bin or silo can still exhibit a no- The value of “z” in equation (8) starts at zero at
flow condition of arching if the outlet is too the top of the hopper, as in equation (4). The
small relative to the particle size (arching due to value of q can be calculated by taking the
interlocking) or if the outlet is too small relative Janssen horizontal pressure p at the bottom of
to the material’s cohesive strength. Mass flow the cylinder and dividing by Kj. To be
silos can also develop self-induced vibrations as
conservative, a minimum value of Kj should be
material discharges [5].
used for the calculation of p.
If we assume that the outlet size is large enough
to prevent the formation of a stable arch, and These equations result in higher pressures in
furthermore that self-induced vibrations do not roughly the upper third of the mass flow hopper
occur upon discharge, the loads that develop on than occur during initial fill, but lower pressures
the silo walls are fairly well defined. In the in the bottom two-thirds of the hopper section.
cylinder section, a good starting point is to use See Fig. 1.
the Janssen equation but with a range of Kj and
Because of the rapid switch in the state of stress
wall friction values as follows:
that occurs at the top of a mass flow hopper
section, some increase in wall pressure is often
0.25 £ K j £ 0.6 (6)
experienced in the section of the cylinder just
f' calc. = f' meas. ± 5o (7) above the top of the hopper. To account for this
condition, we recommend that the peak pressure
The “plus” sign should only be used in this be spread along the vertical wall as shown in
equation when calculating maximum shear Fig. 2. First, draw a circular arc centered on the
theoretical apex of the conical hopper, and
7
Fig. 2: Spreading of mass flow pressure peak into cylinder end of the discharge sequence), it is reasonable
section in most cases to consider that the design
pressures acting normal to the hopper walls are
P the same as those which occur during initial fill.
p Therefore no additional calculations are needed
t for the hopper section. This presumes, of course,
that the outlet size and feeder arrangements are
p such that no arching or ratholing can occur as
material is discharged. It is also important that
t there be no self-induced silo vibrations acting to
R magnify pressures [5].
t=mp
As far as the cylinder section is concerned, there
are two main conditions to consider. First, if the
flow channel does not intersect the cylinder
passing through the top of the cone. The wall, it is safe and reasonable to assume that the
elevation of the highest point on the arc is pressures acting against the walls will be the
approximately the maximum elevation at which same as during initial fill. If, on the other hand,
the increased peak pressure is experienced. The the flow channel does intersect the cylinder
wall pressure distribution below this elevation wall, one must consider whether or not the flow
(down to the top of the cone) can be assumed channel is centered (i.e., intersects the cylinder
linear. wall at the same elevation around its
circumference). If the flow channel is centered,
A silo in which the fill and withdrawal points one can assume a Janssen stress field above the
are located along the vertical centerline, and effective transition (i.e., the elevation at which
which behaves in mass flow, will probably the flow channel intersects the cylinder walls).
experience some non-uniformity of pressures As with mass flow cylinder pressures, we
around its circumference. This could be caused recommend using a range of Kj and wall friction
by the wall being out-of-round or out-of-plumb, values as described above.
the intrusion of construction joints, or
segregation of the contained bulk material. It is At the effective transition where the flow
common practice, although by no means always channel strikes the wall, there is a rapid increase
correct, to compensate for these effects by in wall pressure due to the convergence which
multiplying the calculated wall pressure p by the material is undergoing. Within the flow
some “over pressure factor” for the purpose of channel itself, it is reasonable to assume that the
design. We recommend that this should be a pressures will vary as if this were a mass flow
minimum requirement, and that a designer hopper but with the hopper angle replaced by
should make a rational attempt to estimate the flow channel angle, and the wall friction
pressure non-uniformities and their effects. value replaced by the internal friction of
particles sliding on each other. How this
Funnel Flow – Single Outlet pressure distribution is transmitted to the
vertical walls of the cylinder is not well-defined.
As noted above, since there is no flow along the It is safe, but probably somewhat conservative,
hopper walls in a funnel flow pattern (except to assume that the pressure which acts normal to
perhaps when the hopper is being emptied at the
8
the cylinder walls is the same pressure which Fig. 3: Funnel flow hopper – flow channel intersecting
acts normal to the flow channel. cylinder wall
9
distance above the outlet. If the outlet is circular Fig. 4: Flow channels with centered and eccentric outlets
and its diameter is less than the bulk solid’s in a funnel flow bin or silo
critical rathole diameter, a stable rathole will
form whose diameter is approximately the same
as that of the outlet. With elongated outlets, the
diameter of the flow channel will be
approximately equal to the length of the
diagonal of the outlet. Again, if this diameter is
less than the bulk solid’s critical rathole Flow
diameter, the flow channel will empty out when channel
the silo level is lowered. The diameter of the angles
resulting rathole will be approximately equal to
the diameter of the flow channel.
a) Centered outlet b) Eccentric outlet
10
Fig. 5: Expanded flow silo MATERIAL FLOW PROPERTIES
11
into a sense that he or she has some quantitative • Bulk density. Generally this is measured by
data that is useful for design, whereas in fact, no consolidating the bulk material to various
such assumption is valid. pressures and then measuring the resulting
bulk density at those pressures. Such tests
Material flow tests should be run whenever should be run both on the fine fraction (in
possible to accurately quantify the flow order to use the resulting values to calculate
properties (and range of flow properties) of the arching and ratholing dimensions) as well as
bulk material to be handled. This is particularly on the full particle size range. The larger
important when the bulk material being handled value should be used when calculating bin
is not free flowing, or when its flow properties loads.
are unknown, uncertain, or variable. Defining
whether or not a material is “free flowing” is • Wall friction. Generally it is easier to run
somewhat subjective and a matter of debate. In this test on the fine fraction of the material,
our opinion, the best way to define this is to and the resulting values typically don’t vary
base it on the flow properties of the bulk significantly with particle size. It is
material and how those flow properties dictate important to run this test on both the
the type of flow which will occur in a given bin material of construction of the cylinder
or silo. For example, if it is known (either section as well as that of the hopper.
through experience or through flow properties Consideration should be given to variations
tests) that a given bulk material will not form a in the initial condition of the silo walls as
stable arch or rathole in a given bin or silo, one well as conditions that can occur after usage
might reasonably conclude that this material in due to abrasive wear, corrosion, etc. In
this silo is “free flowing.” This same material in general, the smoother the wall surface, the
another silo having a different flow pattern or higher the wall pressure acting against it.
silo dimensions might no longer be considered
“free flowing.” • Abrasive wear. A tester is available [15]
which can quantitatively predict the actual
If tests are to be done, we recommend the life of a bin or silo wall material due to a
following [13]: bulk material sliding across it. This tester
can also be used to determine the change in
• Flow function and effective angle of internal wall friction due to wear.
friction. Measurements of a material’s
cohesive strength and internal friction angles Each of the above parameters can vary with the
should generally be run on the fine fraction same bulk solid if any one or more of the
of the bulk material, since it is the fines following conditions change:
which exhibit most strength. Furthermore,
concentrations of fines are usually • Moisture content
unavoidable because of particle segregation • Time of storage at rest
[14]. Once these parameters have been • Particle size distribution
measured, it is possible to follow design • Temperature
procedures to calculate minimum outlet • Chemical changes
dimensions to prevent arching as well as
critical rathole diameters. Note that we have not included in the above
listing the measurement of the value of Kj. In
our opinion, this parameter is more silo-
12
dependent than material-dependent. Therefore, the wall. In the upper section of a bin, vertical
attempts to measure its value for a given bulk compression may also be present. A flat
solid are inappropriate. reinforced concrete wall in bending must have
two layers of reinforcing steel, adequately
FORCE RESULTANTS anchored at the ends by lap splices running into
the adjoining walls. In a steel design it is usually
Tension assumed that the tension or compression is
carried by the wall plate, and the bending is
In a circular bin or hopper wall with uniform carried by the external stiffeners.
pressure on the circumference, the only
horizontal force resultant is ring tension. This is The flat walls of a rectangular or chisel-shaped
easy to calculate and accommodate in design. hopper, operating in mass flow, must remain as
nearly flat as possible, or the mass flow pattern
If the hopper bottom is supported at its top edge may be lost.
(i.e., the junction with the vertical wall), it will
be loaded in tension along the line of slope, as Horizontal Bending of a Circular Wall
well as ring tension. This too is easy to calculate
and design for, but it is important to check for This is the major resultant of a funnel flow,
meridional bending. single eccentric flow channel reaching the upper
bin wall. The horizontal radial outward pressure
Vertical Force, Upper Section of the material on the wall is not uniform on the
circumference, so out-of-round bending is
There is a vertical compression force in the induced. Non-uniform pressures in
walls of the upper silo section due to the symmetrically filled and emptied silos can also
accumulation of wall friction effects from the result in bending which needs to be evaluated.
top surface down to the level of the support.
This is the sum of the horizontal outward Combined bending and tension effects can best
pressures at each increment of depth, multiplied be calculated using a finite element model of the
by the depth increment and the wall friction bin wall loaded by the internal pressures
coefficient. Add to this any loads from the roof calculated over the whole circumference and
closure and self weight. height. Alternatively, a hand calculation of
bending and tension in a ring can be performed.
The critical buckling stress in the wall is the
criterion governing the thickness required to The most important effect on a steel plate shell
carry this vertical compression. This condition is the reduction in vertical buckling strength
seldom dictates the thickness of reinforced resulting from an increase in the radius of
concrete walls, but is a major consideration in curvature when the shell deflects out-of-round.
designing thin-walled steel or aluminum silos. If the construction is of reinforced concrete, the
reinforcing steel must be provided in two layers,
Bending in Flat Walls with adequate capacity for the bending and ring
tension at any point.
Flat walls appear in rectangular bins or hoppers,
or in a chisel-shaped hopper between a circular
upper section and a slotted outlet. This bending
is always combined with tension in the plane of
13
Vertical Bending of Upper Wall moments are negative (tension top) over the
support points, and positive at mid-span. Shear
In mass flow, as well as in a case of funnel flow occurs at the supports. Torsion develops due to
at the point that the flow channel strikes the the curvature of the beam, and is at a maximum
wall, a peak pressure develops at the effective at the points of contraflexure of the spans.
transition. This may be on the full perimeter or
an isolated patch, and is also transient. In funnel An additional force resultant is the rolling
flow this peak pressure may be several times moment. The line of action of the vector sum of
greater than the pressures above and below, and the forces applied to the ring beam is unlikely to
occurs on a very shallow band. The force pass through the shear center of the beam cross
resultant is bending in the vertical direction. In a section. The beam therefore tends to be rolled
concrete wall the result may be the development inside out. The net effect of rolling is an
of horizontal cracks. additional vertical moment, applied at all points
on the circumference.
Vertical Force on a Flat Bottom
The ring beam must be designed to
This is calculated using a value of Kj which will accommodate all these forces in combination.
maximize the vertical pressure. One must
remember that a large portion of the gross OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
weight of contained material is carried by the
bottom when the height-to-diameter ratio is Feeder Design
small. This portion decreases rapidly as the
height-to-diameter ratio increases. In addition to the geometry and materials of
construction of the silo, equally important is the
Forces at Ring Beam type of feeder which is used, as well as details
of the interface between the hopper and the
Perhaps the most common, even typical, design feeder. This is particularly important if a mass
of a steel storage silo is circular, with a vertical flow design is to be used in which case the
upper section and a conical bottom hopper, feeder must ensure that the outlet area is fully
supported at discrete points around the “live” [16, 17]. Feeder design is also important
circumference of a ring beam at the junction with funnel flow or expanded flow silos since,
between the two parts. A concrete silo will depending upon the details of the interface, the
commonly have a steel bottom hopper supported flow channel may either be centered or
from a ring beam which is either separate from eccentric. Also important is the operation of a
the vertical wall, or built into the wall. This ring gate at the outlet. If such a gate is used in
beam accumulates the meridional tension from anything but a full open or full closed position,
the hopper shell, and possibly the gross weight it may upset the development of mass flow or
of the bin by vertical friction load from the the type of flow channel which develops in
upper wall. The tension from the hopper funnel flow or expanded flow. A partially closed
contributes a horizontal and vertical component. gate – even if only just projecting into flowing
The horizontal component from the hopper material – can prevent flow along significant
creates compression in the ring beam. portions of the hopper wall.
14
Thermal Loading
NOMENCLATURE
Many bulk solids are fed into silos at a
temperature significantly different from that of D= cylinder diameter
the surroundings. In such cases, calculations h= hopper height
have to be made to estimate values for rate of Kf = defined by equation (9)
heat flow out of, or into, the silo, temperature Kj = Janssen ratio of horizontal to vertical
gradients through the wall, and change of pressure
temperatures in the silo contents. From this, ni = defined by equation (5)
design can proceed to such things as heating nf = defined by equation (10)
input, selection of insulation, (e.g., to maintain p pressure
= acting normal (i . e . ,
the contents at a carefully controlled perpendicular) to a silo or hopper wall
temperature, to prevent freezing) or q = vertical pressure acting at top of hopper
strengthening the walls to safely resist thermal z = vertical coordinate
stresses. z1 = vertical distance along cylinder wall
starting at point of intersection of top
There are two distinct and different conditions pile
to be analyzed [18]. The worst thermal effects z2 = additional vertical height added to z1 to
are usually found in the walls of a silo above a account for pile height
hot material surface. Here the temperature is g = bulk density
maintained at a high level while fresh material qc = conical hopper angle (measured from
continues to be fed into the silo. As hot material vertical)
continues to be fed into the silo, the surface m = coefficient of sliding friction between
rises. Material already in place, and successive bulk solid and wall surface
levels of wall, are buried. Material at a high s¢/gB = see Fig. 58 to 62 of ref. [1]
temperature comes in contact with the wall at a
t= shear stress acting along wall surface in
lower temperature. This causes a brief
direction of flow
temperature excursion affecting a narrow band
f¢= wall friction angle between bulk solid
of the wall, following which all the temperatures
and wall surface
will start to fall as heat flows through the wall to
the outside, and a zone of cooled material
REFERENCES
develops against the wall.
[1] Jenike, A.W.: Storage and Flow Solids,
The other condition to be considered in design
University of Utah Engineering
exists below the material surface, where
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 123,
temperatures fall as heat flows to the outside. A
Nov. 1964.
temperature gradient develops through some
thickness of the granular material, from the hot
[2] Samuels, B.: Silo Design: Setting the
interior to the cooler wall. Gravity loads will
Standard. Presented at a meeting of
therefore co-exist only with reduced thermal
American Concrete Institute Committee
loads. It is of interest to know the time taken for
313, Vancouver, March 31, 1993.
this temperature gradient to develop to some
critical point, such as temperature falling below
[3] Boaz, I. B., Private communication.
freezing at the inside face of the wall.
15
[4] Jenkyn, R. T. and Goodwill, D. J.: Silo [11] Carson, J.W., Goodwill, D.J., and
Failures: Lessons to be Learned. Bengtson, K.E.: Predicting the Shape of
Engineering Digest, September 1987. Flow Channels in Funnel Flow Bins and
Silos. Presented at the American Concrete
[5] Purutyan, H., Bengtson, K. E., and Carson, Institute 1991 Spring Convention, Boston,
J. W.: Flow-Induced Silo Vibrations. March 17-21, 1991.
Proceedings, Powder & Bulk Solids
Conference/Exhibition, Chicago, May [12] Carson, J.W. and Goodwill, D.J.: The
1993. Design of Large Coal Silos for Safety,
Reliability and Economy. Bulk Solids
[6] Carson, J. W., Jenkyn, R.T., and Sowizal, Handling Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 173-177,
J. C.: Reliable and Economical Handling 1984.
of Bulk Solids at Coal-Fired Power Plants.
Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. [13] Marinelli, J. and Carson, J.W.: Solve
11-16, Feb. 1992. Solids Flow Problems in Bins, Hoppers,
and Feeders. Chemical Engineering
[7] Carson, J. W. and Jenkyn, R. T.: How to Progess, pp. 22-28, May 1992.
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