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Acoustic Emission Non-Destructive Testing

Research · May 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29388.85120/1

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Engineering Department
ENGR 489: NDT
Spring 2020
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)
Submitted by:
Students’ name 14-00268

Supervised by:
Instructor: Dr. Ameen El Sinawi
Date: 12/5 /2020
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Table of Contents
1. Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 4
2. Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 5
3 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Continuous Type ......................................................................................................................7
3.2 Burst Type ................................................................................................................................9
3.3 Kaiser Effect .............................................................................................................................9
3.3 Felicity Effect ................................................................................................................... 10
4 Testing Method Theory ..................................................................................................... 11
5. Testing Method Equipment .............................................................................................. 13
6. Testing Method Procedures ............................................................................................. 15
6.1 Acoustic Emission Sensors ...................................................................................................... 15
6.2 Preamplifiers.......................................................................................................................... 18
6.3 Filters..................................................................................................................................... 19
6.3.1 Linear Location .........................................................................................................................................20
6.3.2 (2Dimensional )Source Location ..............................................................................................................21
6.3.3 Cross-Correction Based Location .............................................................................................................21
6.3.4 Zone Source Location ...............................................................................................................................22
6.4 Data Acquisition ..................................................................................................................... 22
7. (AET) Advantages/Disadvantages .................................................................................... 23
7.1 Advantages of AET.................................................................................................................. 23
7.2 AET Disadvantages/Limitations ............................................................................................... 24
8. Applications of AET .......................................................................................................... 25
9. Testing Method Standards ............................................................................................... 27
10. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 31
11. Biblography ................................................................................................................... 32
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List of Figures

Figure 1: Continuous type-Gaussian random noise........................................................................ 8

Figure 2: Continuous type-Gaussian white noise ........................................................................... 8
Figure 3: Burst type signal Acoustic Emission ................................................................................. 9
Figure 4: Kaiser effect indication on acoustic emissions .............................................................. 10
Figure 5: Differences of Kaiser effect and Felicity effect .............................................................. 11
Figure 6: Felicity effect indication on the acoustic emission ........................................................ 12
Figure 7: Acoustic Emission Method Set Up on an object ............................................................ 13
Figure 8: Steps of the Acoustic emission testing method and procedures .................................. 14
Figure 9: Schematic showing the procedures of the acoustic emission testing method AET ...... 14
Figure 10: Shows the parameters of the AET method.................................................................. 15
Figure 11: Shows the piezoelectric sensor used in the AET method ............................................ 16
Figure 12: explains the features of the AET Sensor ...................................................................... 16
Figure 13: Shows the AET signal received from the piezoelectric sensor .................................... 17
Figure 14: shows the installation steps taken to set a sensor on an object or a structure .......... 17
Figure 15: Method of calibration to improve the results received from the sensor ................... 18
Figure 16: Shows the preamplifier device used in the AET method ............................................ 19
Figure 17: Shows calculation of linear source with linear structures ........................................... 20
Figure 18: Shows the two dimensional source location method and its calculation ................... 21
Figure 19: Time difference calculation in signals with cross-correction source idea ................... 21
Figure 20: Shows the idea behind the zone location concept used in the AET method .............. 22
Figure 21: Shows the acquisition software used in the AET method and its characteristics ....... 23
Figure 22: Shows the setting of AET sensor in a bridge ................................................................ 25
Figure 23: Shows a plant pressure vessel that can be used for inspection using AET ................. 26
Figure 24: Shows sensors locations around a structure in a plant ............................................... 27
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1. Abstract

This report consists of information collected from researches, articles, publications, and books

to completely explain the Acoustic Emission Testing (AET). The report is distributed into 11

sections with information related to the AET method. Section one is the abstract and goes

through the whole report and explains steps taken in each section and what each section

explains in relevant to the testing method of Acoustic Emission. Section two explains the

initiation of this technique relating it to the phenomena of the production of waves in cracks

and fracture in materials under load and stress to use this phenomenon by scientists that were

observing audible sounds out of cracks and fractures to analyze it. Section three is an

introduction to the acoustic emission technique and what it means and how to use it briefly and

generally and how to use the testing method of AET to make it useful in calculating and

examining big areas and volumes using few sensors only. Section four is testing the theory of

AET and what on a figure when load is applied, not applied, and applied then removed in

objects and structures with effects that do make the AET testing be affected. Section five covers

the equipment used in the AET method. Section six goes through the details of each

component listed in section five. Section six also explains the idea of source location which is

very important in locating the region where emissions come from. Section seven shows the

advantages and the disadvantages of this testing method of AET. Section eight shows the

applications of AET with live pictures in real life to the structures that can be used and be tested

with this method of testing that is called AET. Section nine covers the testing method standards

used under the SME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers). Section ten explains briefly

the conclusion of the whole report and its importance relating and highlighting the important
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aspects of the report briefly. Finally, Section eleven covers the bibliography used to write this

report.

2. Literature Review

This testing method means emission noise by the materials when they are in stress like

condition. Stress can be of different types such as thermal stress, chemical stress, and

mechanical stress. The materials give emission out of them due to the energy release caused by

situations like growth of an initial crack, opening of a crack, disruption movement, bearing of

twins, transformation phase of the materials, break of fibers in the materials, earthquakes, rock

bursts, and slips. The stress applied releases waves that are elastic staying in the material and

can be detected by sensors. Sensor is a component that convert mechanical waves to electrical

signal which makes it a piezoelectric and thus a transducer. Till around 1973, the AET testing

method was mainly implemented in structures like pipelines, storage tanks of heat exchangers,

pressure vessels, and nuclear reactor plants coolant circuit. Then, this testing method soon later

implemented in the bearings of rotating equipment(Chong, 2015). Even though acoustic can be

done in environments that are controlled, also they can take a place naturally. In the early 6500

BC, Potters was listening to sounds when they were cooling ceramics for the purpose of

distinguishing failures of the structures. In metal working, the expression "tin cry" (discernible

discharges delivered by the mechanical twinning of unadulterated tin during plastic

misshapening) was begat around 3,700 BC by tin smelters in Asia Minor. The principal recorded

perceptions of AE seem to have been made in the eighth century by Arabian chemist Jabir ibn

Hayyan. In a book, Hayyan composed that Jupiter (tin) gives off a 'cruel sound' when worked,
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while Mars (iron) 'sounds a lot' during fashioning. Numerous writings in the late nineteenth

century alluded to the discernible outflows made by materials, for example, tin, iron, cadmium

and zinc. One essential connection between's various metals and their acoustic emanations

originated from Czochralski, who saw the connection among tin and zinc cry and twinning.

Afterward, Albert Portevin and Francois Le Chatelier watched AE discharges from a focused-on

Al-Cu-Mn (Aluminum-Copper-Manganese) composite. The following 20 years carried further

check with crafted by Robert Anderson (malleable testing of an aluminum combination past its

yield point), Erich Scheil (connected the arrangement of martensite in steel to discernible

commotion), and Friedrich Forster, who with Scheil related a discernible clamor to the

development of martensite in high-nickel steel. Experimentation proceeded all through the

mid-1900's, coming full circle in the PhD theory composed by Joseph Kaiser entitled "Results

and Conclusions from Measurements of Sound in Metallic Materials under Tensile Stress." Soon

in the wake of getting mindful of Kaiser's endeavors, Bradford Schofield started the principal

inquire about program in the United States to take a gander at the materials designing uses of

AE. Fittingly, Kaiser's explore is commonly perceived as the start of current acoustic outflow

testing(Romhány et al., 2017).

3 Introduction

Acoustic Emission is a wave radiation ultra sound and sound radiation for materials that goes

through fracture and deformation processes. This testing method in expressed as the

production of waves that are elastic and transient during huge release of energy from particular
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spots of sources in the material. This technique is focused on detecting and converting elastic

waves of high frequency that goes from the sources localized in the material and convert it to

electrical signals. This conversion of this testing method is possible by the conjunction of

transducer sensor that are piezoelectric on the surface of the material that loading and test.

Acoustic Emission testing method involves multiple components like sensors, preamplifiers,

cables, and data acquisition device. This testing method is used in the industry for certain

applications as examining the integrity of structures, flaws reveal, leaks, the quality of the weld

monitoring, and used heavily in the research as a tool(Khamedi et al., 2020). Acoustic Emission

testing method is of two types classification which are continuous type and burst type and they

are features of acoustic emissions AE that cover wide range levels of energy dependent on

frequencies and sources. Also, there are certain effects that affect AE like Kasier effect and

felicity effects(Anon, 1999).

3.1 Continuous Type

This type is accompanied with lattice disruption. The wave structure of this type of AE signal is

very close to the noise of Gaussian random, but the amplitude is different and changes with the

emission acoustic activity. In alloys and metals, this type of emission is accompanied with the

motion of disruptions.
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Figure 1: Continuous type-Gaussian random noise

Figure 2: Continuous type-Gaussian white noise

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3.2 Burst Type

The wave structure of this type is of emissions are short pulses duration that are accompanied

with the release of discrete of high amplitudes strain of energy. This type of emissions are

produced by micro yielding, cracks progression, and twinning.

Figure 3: Burst type signal Acoustic Emission

3.3 Kaiser Effect

Plastic type of deformation is the main source of acoustic emission in structures of loaded

metals and “Kaiser Effect” affect acoustic emission during the process of deformation of the

material. Kaiser Effect states that Acoustic emission takes place only when the levels of stress

exceeds the previous level of stress.(Hareesha N G, 2014).

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Figure 4: Kaiser effect indication on acoustic emissions

In Kaiser effect when the load gets released and applied again, the acoustic emission will not

give any emission until the maximum of the previous load is reached.

3.3 Felicity Effect

Is an AE effect at makes Kaiser effect reduces under materials that are undergoing a high load.

Felicity effect allows AE to continue in emitting before the maximum of the previous load is

reached.
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Figure 5: Differences of Kaiser effect and Felicity effect

4 Testing Method Theory

When a load is exerted on an object then acoustic emission will be gathered in the segment

(AB), while segment (BCB) is an indication when the load is removed and reapplied. AE do not

take place until at point B the load is exceeded and this is known as Kaiser effect. When the

load is subjected on the material is high enough, it will cause a lot of emissions even if the

previous maximum load was not reached at point (D) and this is what is called Felicity effect.

Then an increase in the material occurs at BD segment then acoustic emission will be produced

and when the load gets removed, then acoustic emission will stop.
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Figure 6: Felicity effect indication on the acoustic emission

When we no load then there will be no cracks and thus no emissions will be produced.

Examinations of big area can be obtained and controlled by setting multiple number of sensors

on different spots that could be a possible, then sensors will convert the motion of cracks and

dislocations into electrical signals with noise and low signlas which needs a preamplifier to

detect it, filtering process to cancel noise and detect targeted signals, amplification to

strengthen the signal and then to store it , and to record it using a data acquisition software

computer to run tests and process the signals to gather qualitative information about the area

examined by this testing method of AET. The waves produced in the materials by the stress will

be received using sensors. Sources of acoustic emission can be the following:

1- Brittle inclusions fracture.

2- Corrosion.
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3- Change in the volume of the material due to phase transformation.

4- Temperature change due to strain effect.

5- Composites like fracture of fiber, fiber pull, matrix cracking, fibers debonding.

5. Testing Method Equipment

Figure 7: Acoustic Emission Method Set Up on an object

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Figure 8: Steps of the Acoustic emission testing method and procedures

Figure 9: Schematic showing the procedures of the acoustic emission testing method AET
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Figure 10: Shows the parameters of the AET method

6. Testing Method Procedures

6.1 Acoustic Emission Sensors

The role of acoustic sensors is to detect the motion of the waves caused by stress which causes

a displacement in the material that will later be converted to electrical signals by the acoustic

sensor. Sensors are piezoelectric material made from elements like ceramic and the mechanical

strain of the element of piezo produces an electrical signal. Some sensors might have

preamplifier built inside of them unlike other piezo acoustic emission sensors that do not

acquire this characteristic.

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Figure 11: Shows the piezoelectric sensor used in the AET method

Figure 12: explains the features of the AET Sensor

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Figure 13: Shows the AET signal received from the piezoelectric sensor

Figure 14: shows the installation steps taken to set a sensor on an object or a structure
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Figure 15: Method of calibration to improve the results received from the sensor

6.2 Preamplifiers

Preamplifiers perceive the amazingly low adequacy acoustic emissions signal created from AE

sensors, and convert the signs into intensified and usable structures. As applications and testing

conditions shift, venture needs may change too. Physical Acoustics offers a whole line of

preamplifiers for an assortment of testing prerequisites. Working related to our particular AE

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programming, preamplifiers likewise moderate sign size during the information assortment

process, assisting with delivering precise outcomes(Vidya Sagar & Raghu Prasad, 2012).

Figure 16: Shows the preamplifier device used in the AET method

6.3 Filters

Collection of electrical signals from the preamplifier might not directly be related to the growth

of the damaged area, so this requires a filtering process in the manner. Filters can separate

wanted signals from the rest of the signals with a fair accuracy and results are legit and checked

with source location and the validation of the results were by using data acquisition computer

during the test of the load(Ziehkl et al., 2018).

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Source location is a very important concept to figure out the place in which emissions are

coming out of it. There are four types of source locations techniques that are used:

1- Linear location

2- 2Dimensional Source Location

3- Cross -correction based Location

4- Zone Location

6.3.1 Linear Location

It is the difference in time that is used to locate the source of the acoustic emission on

structures that are linear as pipelines. It depends and based on the difference in time traveled

between 2 sensors with a velocity that is known.

Figure 17: Shows calculation of linear source with linear structures

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6.3.2 (2Dimensional )Source Location

The source is on a hyperbola and this technique is used between 2 sensors setting on a plane.

Figure 18: Shows the two-dimensional source location method and its calculation

6.3.3 Cross-Correction Based Location

Figure 19: Time difference calculation in signals with cross-correction source idea
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6.3.4 Zone Source Location

It is based on the concept idea that the sensor that has the highest energy produced (output) or

has an amplitude with the highest level should be the closest to the source. It aims to follow the

produces waves from the materials near the sensor on a specific spot or area near the sensor.

This technique can be of areas, volumes, or lengths depending on the given array. More sensors

used can increase the accuracy of the results using attenuation and differences of times

features of the wave produced.

Figure 20: Shows the idea behind the zone location concept used in the AET method

6.4 Data Acquisition

After signals were produced, located, filtered, and amplified, now it is the time for data

acquisition software to store and record the whole electrical signals produced and analyze it
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and run studies on it in order to determine the damages and suggest solutions and further

suggestions to improve the structures, so as to complete further investigation, it needs to be

preprocessed(Smith et al., 2017).The preprocessing equipment framework comprises of

preamplifier, sifting circuit, principle enhancement circuit and AD changing over circuit(Satour

et al., 2014).

Figure 21: Shows the acquisition software used in the AET method and its characteristics

7. (AET) Advantages/Disadvantages

7.1 Advantages of AET

AET testing method can be used to run tests of fractures, growth of fatigue, corrosion chemical

changes, and oxidation as well. It gives a quick feedback of the material’s behavior and
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response when it undergoes load and in a stress like situation. A major advantage of this testing

method is that it doesn’t need an access to the whole object’s area and this is very handy in

objects like large pipes and vessels with non-linear shapes. Other advantages of the AET

method as follows:

1. Sensitivity is high.

2. early and quick identification of imperfections, spills, splits and so on.

3. on-line checking.

4. Detecting the area of imperfect regions.

5. minimization of plant vacation for examination.

6. No requirement for filtering the entire basic surface.

7. minor aggravation of protection.

7.2 AET Disadvantages/Limitations

1. AET needs an exciter either within the process or an outside exciter

2. AET is not enough for the whole examinations of the material or the object and for

giving quantitative information because it is only for giving qualitative (quality)

estimations and to predict the length time of the component and to determine how

much it will last.

3. The signals produced and used in this method are disturbed and are affected by the

environmental noise which is expected to be high most of the times as the AE method is

used in plants and this will require a noise identification and reduction techniques. So,
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processing of signals in the data acquisition and frequency domain analysis as well as

furiour transfer and other methods are expected to improve and to avoid this

disadvantage.

8. Applications of AET

Figure 22: Shows the setting of AET sensor in a bridge

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Figure 23: Shows a plant pressure vessel that can be used for inspection using AET
 27

Figure 24: Shows sensors locations around a structure in a plant

9. Testing Method Standards

SME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers

• Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Vessels, Article 11, Subsection A,

Section V, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

• Acoustic Emission Examination of Metallic Vessels During Pressure Testing, Article 12,

Subsection A, Section V, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

• Continuous Acoustic Emission Monitoring, Article 13 Section V ASTM - American Society for

Testing and Materials

• E569-97 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures During Controlled

Stimulation

• E650-97 Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors

 28

• E749-96 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring During Continuous Welding

• E750-98 Standard Practice for Characterizing Acoustic Emission Instrumentation

• E976-00 Standard Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor

Response

• E1067-96 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic

Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels

• E1106-86(1997) Standard Method for Primary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors

• E1118-95 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Reinforced Thermosetting

Resin Pipe (RTRP)

• E1139-97 Standard Practice for Continuous Monitoring of Acoustic Emission from Metal

Pressure Boundaries

• E1211-97 Standard Practice for Leak Detection and Location Using Surface-Mounted Acoustic

Emission Sensors

• E1316-00 Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations

• E1419-00 Standard Test Method for Examination of Seamless, Gas-Filled, Pressure Vessels

Using Acoustic Emission

• E1781-98 Standard Practice for Secondary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors

• E1932-97 Standard Guide for Acoustic Emission Examination of Small Parts

• E1930-97 Standard Test Method for Examination of Liquid Filled Atmospheric and Low-

Pressure Metal Storage Tanks Using Acoustic Emission

• E2075-00 Standard Practice for Verifying the Consistency of AE-Sensor Response Using an

Acrylic Rod
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• E2076-00 Standard Test Method for Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Fan Blades

Using Acoustic Emission ASNT - American Society for Nondestructive Testing

• ANSI/ASNT CP-189, ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive

Testing Personnel.

• CARP Recommended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of Pressurized Highway Tankers

Made of Fiberglass reinforced with Balsa Cores.

• Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

Association of American Railroads

• Procedure for Acoustic Emission Evaluation of Tank Cars and IM-101 tanks, Issue 1, and Annex

Z thereto, “ Test Methods to Meet FRA Request for Draft Sill Inspection program, docket

T79.20-90 (BRW) ,”

Preliminary 2 Compressed Gas Association

• C-1, Methods for Acoustic Emission Requalification of Seamless Steel Compressed Gas Tubes.

European Committee for Standardization

• DIN EN 14584, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Examination of Metallic

Pressure Equipment during Proof Testing; Planar Location of AE Sources.

• EN 1330-9, Non-Destructive Testing – Terminology – Part 9, Terms Used in Acoustic Emission

Testing.

• EN 13477-1, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Equipment Characterization – Part

1, Equipment Description.

• EN 13477-2, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Equipment Characterization – Part

2, Verification of Operating Characteristics.

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• EN 13554, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – General Principles.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

• IEEE C57.127, Trial-Use guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emission from Partial Discharges in

Oil Immersed Power Transformers.

International Organization for Standardization

• ISO 12713, Non-Destructive Testing - Acoustic Emission Inspection – Primary Calibration of

Transducers.

• ISO 12714, Non-Destructive Testing - Acoustic Emission Inspection – Secondary Calibration of

Acoustic Emission Sensors.

• ISO 12716, Non-Destructive Testing - Acoustic Emission Inspection – Vocabulary

• ISO/DIS 16148, gas Cylinders – Refillable Seamless Steel gas Cylinders – Acoustic Emission

Examination (AEE) for Periodic Inspection. Japanese Institute for Standardization

• JIS Z 2342, Methods for Acoustic Testing of Pressure Vessels during Pressure Tests and

Classification of Test Results. Japanese Society for Nondestructive Inspection

• NDIS 2106-79, Evaluation of performance Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Testing

Equipment.

• NDIS 2109-91, Methods for Absolute calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by

Reciprocity Technique.

• NDIS 2412-80, Acoustic Emission Testing of Spherical Pressure Vessels of High Tensile

Strength Steel and Classification of Test Results.

 31

10. Conclusion

Difference between AET non-destructive testing method and other non-destructive testing

methods is that the Acoustic Emission Testing method reveals activities of the materials that

are inside caused by a release of energy caused by the growth of an initial crack, opening of a

crack, disruption movement, bearing of twins, transformation phase of the materials, break of

fibers in the materials, and the de-bond process in fiber-matrix materials, while the other non-

destructive testing methods tend to test the inside of materials by sending and getting back a

particular form of energy. So, AET gets information by examining the release of energy caused

by cracks and damages in the material after an essential excitation process has to be taken in

place, while other non-destructive testing methods send a form of energy and receives

information in return then gives quantitative information of the structures unlike the AET

testing method that gives and produces only qualitative information of the structure, so AET

cannot be used to examine the whole structure which is a down side to this testing method

along with the necessity to have an exciter like applying a load to excite motion of cracks and

then emission of AE waves to get waves emissions from the material. AET simply uses multiple

sensors to gain an access to the whole area and volume of the structure then the sensor

converts the dislocation and cracks motion into electrical signals that will later need to be pre-

amplified and filtered to get a clear signal, then amplify it to strengthen the signal. Then a signal

process, recording, analyze, and tests will be done using an acquisition software computer to

avoid and process the signal in order to cancel the noise and the high unnecessary signals in the

plant.
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11. Biblography

1. Anon. (1999). Acoustic emission testing. Materials Evaluation, 57(5), 506–507.

https://doi.org/10.1108/eb043147

2. Chong, C. (2015). Understanding Acoustic Emission. September.

3. Hareesha N G. (2014). 6/3/2014 Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE 1. 1–27.

4. Khamedi, R., Abdi, S., Ghorbani, A., Ghiami, A., & Erden, S. (2020). Damage
characterization of carbon/epoxy composites using acoustic emission signals wavelet
analysis. Composite Interfaces, 27(1), 111–124.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09276440.2019.1601939

5. Romhány, G., Czigány, T., & Karger-Kocsis, J. (2017). Failure Assessment and
Evaluation of Damage Development and Crack Growth in Polymer Composites Via
Localization of Acoustic Emission Events: A Review. In Polymer Reviews (Vol. 57,
Issue 3, pp. 397–439). Taylor and Francis Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2017.1309663
6. Satour, A., Montrésor, S., Bentahar, M., Elguerjouma, R., & Boubenider, F. (2014).
Acoustic emission signal denoising to improve damage analysis in glass fibre-reinforced
composites. Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation, 29(1), 65–79.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10589759.2013.854782

7. Smith, A., Dixon, N., & Fowmes, G. (2017). Monitoring buried pipe deformation using
acoustic emission: quantification of attenuation. International Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 11(4), 418–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2016.1227581

8. Vidya Sagar, R., & Raghu Prasad, B. K. (2012). A review of recent developments in
parametric based acoustic emission techniques applied to concrete structures. In
Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation (Vol. 27, Issue 1, pp. 47–68).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10589759.2011.589029

9. Ziehkl, P. H., Rose, J. R., K, M., & Abdulrahman, M. A. (2018). Filtering out confusion:
frequently asked questions about respiratory protection - user seal check.
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https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB2018130

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