Received: 3 July 2020 Revised: 16 August 2020 Accepted: 13 September 2020

DOI: 10.1002/suco.202000399

TECHNICAL PAPER

Conceptual design of structures

Venkataramana N Heggade

STUP Consultants Pvt Ltd, Mumbai, India

Correspondence
V N Heggade, C-401, Greenfields Tower
CHS, Kadamwadi, Vakola, Santacruz
(East), Mumbai 400055, Maharashtra,
India.
Email: vn.heggade@stupmail.com,
vnheggade@yahoo.co.in, vnheggade@
gmail.com
Abstract
The conceptual design hither to has been an individualistic approach
practiced over a long period of time and not taught in universities. However,
the conceptual design approach is very important to produce sound and sus-
tainable structures. Engineers like Robert Maillart, Alexandre Sarrasin,
Eugéne Freyssinet, Joerg Schlaich and Christian Menn significantly contrib-
uted to the evolution of today's international state-of-art technology and the
cultural value of modern engineering structures. Billington called efficiency,
economy, and elegance as common denominator for conceptualization of
bridge design to counter countless anonymous, frequent utility structures
based on mere technical and economic criteria. Many iterations of the design
process are required at this stage to refine the concept for design and con-
struction to adhere to functional, sustainability, financial and other con-
straints like right of way, etc. The tools used for analysis for investigations
and iterations of the options may not necessarily be refined ones during con-
ceptual design stage. The designer should have developed creative skills hav-
ing a bent of mind for architecture and an architect having a broad insight in
to structural engineering to render the best of the concept designs. While the
structural designer must have a profound knowledge of engineering and
available technologies, the architect can contribute in developing broad cul-
ture in many and important contextual aspects.

KEYWORDS
aesthetics, big data, conceptual design, creativity, inspiration, materialization, sustainability

1 | INTRODUCTION might be. The development of the idea is conceptual

In a creative engineering design applications unbounded
visual imagination, extensive scientific synthesis and
cost-effective solutions, have to be carried out at the same
time holistically. It has to start with an idea as to what
Discussion on this paper must be submitted within two months of the
print publication. The discussion will then be published in print, along
with the authors’ closure, if any, approximately nine months after the
print publication.
design. It is that formative stage where basic concept and
form of the structure is conceived.
Thus, the Conceptual design is the most important
aspect of the life cycle of the structure. At this stage, the
idiosyncrasy should be free from unwarranted assump-
tions and preconceived notions. The remaining including
the following, will depend on the quality of the concept
and form conceived.
• Functional requirements, related to the purpose of the
structure

Structural Concrete. 2020;21:2207–2219. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/suco © 2020 fib. International Federation for Structural Concrete 2207
2208
• Structural requirements aimed at handling, with
safety, the different external actions (gravity loads, cli-
matic loads, etc.)
• Environmental requirements, necessary for achieving
sustainability, and in accordance with these, durability
requirements, that is, satisfying the specified require-
ments throughout the life of the structure
Some of the unwarranted assumptions1 and
preconceived notions that challenge the sound concep-
tual design are:
• Everybody knows that (steel plate girders, precast con-
crete girders, cast in place concrete) are the most eco-
nomical structure for this location.
• Let us use the same design as we did for other struc-
ture earlier.
• The enabling structures are readily available with the
contractor and contractor is conversant with technol-
ogy as such repeat the form.
• Regionally steel structure or concrete structure is pop-
ular as such we will adopt the same.
• We have always done this way and it is time tested.
• We have not done in the past as such why take risks.
• In any case, cost will differentiate and determine the
form, materials and technology as such why get in to
so called conceptual design.
• Architects are nuisance in achieving constructability in
structures, they do not understand structural engineer-
ing and their structures are not cost effective as such
avoid them in conceiving a structure.
We are at our disposal today, the most advanced
codes that are the condensed extracts of highly updated
knowledge available on Big Data, the powerful computa-
tion and analysis ability for any conceivable form by
advanced computers, very high strength, and light mate-
rials with huge options and variety of powerful technolo-
gies and equipment for construction. Despite these
advancements, we see ugly looking, unsustainable and
ill-conceived structures all around. Some of the reasons
for ill conception are:
• Education system of structural engineers; presently there
is no connect between university education and the pro-
fessional structural engineers. There has to be system of
professional structural engineer mentoring the students
at university so that they can succeed professionally.
• Lot of research is going on in the world labs of univer-
sities and the knowledge is gathered. Again, there has
to be system that the knowledge acquired in the uni-
versity laboratories are passed on to professional struc-
tural engineers, codes, and standards.
HEGGADE
• The codes and standards should be written in such a
way that they are not restricting the innovations and
liberal thinking.
• The computers should become the slave of engineers
not the other way around, especially for conceptual
design. They should not imprison the minds of engi-
neers from Imagineering getting bogged down by com-
puter modeling. Computers should be mere tools of
engineers to free them from the drudgery of computa-
tion. But they should not become the source of
inspiration.
2 | C O NC E P T UA L DE SI GN; A RT
OR S CIENC E?
It is fascinating to debate as to whether structural con-
ception is an art or science. It has been argued that
Roebling's Brooklyn, Maillart's Salginatobel, Christian
Menn's Sunniberg bridge (Figure 1) are classical art and
that too structural art in bridge engineering.
These structures when conceived and built were
“revolutionary,” “ground-breaking,” and “visionary” and
indeed challenged commonly held views at that point of
time. The inherent characteristic of art is to challenge the
existing ideas in meaningful ways. When the time-tested
ways are challenged in a meaning full way, the human
sensibilities are emoted and lingers much beyond wear-
ing off instant “awe” value for the experience to be ter-
med as artistic.
The conceptual design to achieve aesthetics are also
attributed to the principle called “Form Follows Forces”
which is a variation of “Form Follows Functions” of
famous architect Louis Henry Sullivan who was an archi-
tect of skyscrapers. Sullivan's idea of 'Form Follows Func-
tions' was from architectural point2 of view where the
utilities having identical functions should be consistent
in tall multistory buildings. In case of bridges “Form Fol-
lows Forces” means the structural dimensioning of mem-
bers just to cater for internal forces where the force flow
is reflected in appearance or the form itself. Here we are
dealing with statics, equilibrium, flexure, mechanical
properties of materials etc., which is a scientific process.
Science is a method of doing things. It “is the orga-
nized, systematic enterprise that gathers knowledge about
the world and condenses the knowledge into testable laws
and principles”3 There are five 'diagnostic features. The
first is the repeatability of research results, preferably by
independent investigators. The second is a reporting of
research as simply and elegantly as possible. Third, scien-
tific findings are subject to universally accepted and
unambiguous scales of measurement. Fourth, scientific
research stimulates new learning and new knowledge.
HEGGADE
FIGURE 1 Roebling's Brooklyn, Maillart's Salignatobel and Menn's Sunniberg, Schlaich's Signature Bridge
Finally, science is consistent. Research results can be
connected and proved consoling with one another.
Thus, there seem to be merit in both the arguments
that conceptual design is an art as well as science. While
the artistic and scientific activities are different, there seem
to be some commonalities4 in both the activities such as:
• Both are creative process and have the element of syn-
thetic thinking and generation of ideas in the process.
• “Visual thinking” and “visualizing imagined worlds”
are the essential part of art as well as science.
• Both share sensitivity to aesthetics, although their
criteria for “beauty” may be quite different.
• Artists as well as scientists are generally averse to
social interactions; they prefer to toil in their laborato-
ries or studios.
• The labor and inspiration of science as well as art
depends largely on nature and natural world.
It is not surprising that the notable figures like
Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, and Michelangelo who con-
tributed during Renaissance period were artists as well as
scientists. Throughout the Renaissance, art and science
continued to develop and interact. In particular, the sev-
enteenth century represented a time and place where sci-
entific inquiry became so pervasive that science and art
were inseparable.
Art as well as science is a creative process5 culminat-
ing in truth (Reality) and the process involves idea
2209
generation and idea validation. In artistic settings, the
first step is a value in itself and validation is not that
essential. In contrast to Science, Art (like Beauty) is in
the eye of the beholder and it is accepted that works of
art will receive subjective interpretation.
Scientific creativity has to be in a system of domain
consisting of rules and procedures like mathematics, the-
orems, and laws (for example Hooke's law) etc. and not
influenced by personal feelings or opinions in consider-
ing and representing facts. It is very objective being
completely detached and impartial.
Gold's representation of the “four hats of creation”
(redrawn in Figure 2 to Maillart's Salginatobel)6 is very
useful in understanding the conceptual design vis-à-vis sci-
ence and art. The upper half represents the “search for
truth” whereas lower half represents “problem solving”.
Left half represents the strength of drawing skills, sketch-
ing and imagining visual world on the basis of strong
observation of nature. The right half represents the
strength in mathematical ability. As we can see in the
Figure 2, Salginatobel Bridge follows the principle of
“Form Follows Forces” which gives the efficiency and
economy of the bridge. The design and construction of any
bridge including engineering has to be a scientific process
whether bad or good which is a truth (Reality). But the
other truth is that the design and engineering, efficiency of
the structure by “Form Follows Forces” alone cannot ren-
der the artistic elegance to the bridge. There has to be
some qualitative and subjective attributes to “take the
2210
science to the level of structural art”. In addition, these days
the sustainability aspects need to be incorporated in the
conceptual design for the sake of posterity.
3 | P R O C E S S OF CO N C E P T U A L
DESIGN
3.1 | History of conceptual design
Historically, there is no evidence of scientific process
being evolved for conceptual design. In general, the
F I G U R E 2 “Four hats of creation” by R Gold (redrawn with
the conceptual design of Maillart's Salginatobel)
FIGURE 3 Symposium on conceptual design of structures
HEGGADE
term “concepts” were being used loosely. Almost three
decades ago, Billington7 introduced the terms effi-
ciency, economy ,and elegance as a theme of approach
to bridge design and promoted it as a conceptual
design approach to the numerous anonymous, too fre-
quent ugly utility structures based on mere technical
and economic criteria.
Thus, there was a longstanding concern by profes-
sionals to address the issue of conceptual design. An
international symposium (Figure 3) on conceptual design
organized at the University of Stuttgart by Prof. Jörg
Schlaich in 1996 was probably the first event of this kind
to address the issue. The theme stated below in the pro-
logue summarizes the state of the art of conceptual
design at that time which is not very different even on
the day.
“The overall quality of many structures
today leaves much to be desired. The rapid
technological progress does not reflect ade-
quately in their variety, beauty and sensitiv-
ity. Too often, structural engineers neglect
the creative conceptual design phase by
repeating standard designs and not suffi-
ciently contributing with [their] own ideas to
the fruitful collaboration with architects.
Engineers thus often waste the chance to
create building culture.”
HEGGADE
Though the symposium was a great success with
some of the renowned designers of the time, could not
come to a conclusion as to the definition of conceptual
design.
Under the Design chapter, a section was introduced
in fib model code for concrete structures 2010 on concep-
tual design. In the background paper Sound engineering
through conceptual design according to the fib Model
Code 2010 by H. Corres-Peiretti, published in fib journal8
Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2, it is explained that
Jean François Klein at a meeting of fib Special Activity
Group 5, New Model Code, in Lausanne, proposed a flow
chart (Figure 4) as a basis for introducing the process of
conceptual design into the new Model Code 2010.
Recently in September 2019 an International fib sym-
posium on conceptual design (2019) of structures under
the scientific chair of Dr Hugo Corres Pieretti was orga-
nized in Madrid where some of the renowned structural
engineers and architects delivered key note lectures and
brainstormed on the theme.
F I G U R E 4 Methodological flow chart for conceptual design
(Source: fib model code 2010)
2211
The fib has constituted a task group TG 10.1 for the
preparation of model code 2020 and the work is in pro-
gress. In the task group meetings held in Tokyo on 13 to
14th December 2019, Dr Hugo Corres and Dr Akio
Kasuga made presentations proposing improvisation in
the methodology flow chart for conceptual design imbib-
ing some of the conclusions of fib symposium at Madrid
including sustainability aspects.
3.2 | Conceptual design process
Dr Kasuga9 presented overall design flow chart (Figure 5)
with in through life management of structure in Tokyo
while deliberating on structural sustainability in concep-
tual design. The conceptual design is a part of overall
design process of a structure and ends by providing out-
put as the basis for detailed design. In fact, the design
basis report (DBR) and departmental project report
(DPR) should logically be the output of conceptual design
that is meant to be used as an input for detailed design.
Structural sustainability is most important aspect of
conceptual design.Dr Kasuga goes on to define structural
sustainability as:
• Is the way of thinking to recall creativity.
• Is mostly considered to solve constraints in conceptual
design.
• Can deal with three aspects of sustainability.
• Solutions can be defined as performance requirements
and verified.
• Solutions derive optimized structures which lead to
sustainable performance of the object during its life
time including construction and demolition.
• Makes structure elegant.
Dr Hugo Corres10 presented an improvised model of
methodological flow chart (Figure 6) of conceptual design
in Tokyo on the basis of Madrid symposium where inspi-
ration, data collection, creativity and materialization got
incorporated in the model. After this incorporation, the
model has a striking resemblance to R Gold's creativity
model (Figure 2) of “Four hats of creation”.
The constraints like external input, service criteria
and performance requirements for conceptual design is
well understood and to a large extent practiced and also
specified and codified. The external input and service
criteria generally are:
• Accelerated construction
• Low environmental impact
• Minimum cost
2212 HEGGADE

F I G U R E 5 Conceptual
design within overall design in
throuh-life management
(Source: fib TG 10.1 meeting at
Tokyo)

FIGURE 6 Modified flow chart for conceptual design (Source: fib TG 10.1 meeting at Tokyo)

• Minimum effect on social activities The performance requirements as enumerated below

• Light weight structure are normally specified and generally follow relevant stan-
• Minimum maintenance including easy inspection dards and codes.
HEGGADE
• Safety (strength, resilience, redundancy, and
robustness)
• Serviceability (deflection and vibration)
• Fatigue
• Durability (to realize safety, serviceability, and fatigue)
3.3 | Implementation of conceptual
design
However, there is a great need to address the inspira-
tional, creative and materialization aspects of conceptual
design and give this the form of scientific process.
The owner and stakeholders' requirements and expec-
tations given in the clauses of competition or reference
for proposal (RFP) have to be studied in great detail.
Then the structure has to be inspired by local culture, tra-
dition or surrounding structures and also must be in har-
mony with the surroundings.
3.3.1 | Study of the site context
Thus it is imperative that the site investigation (Figure 7)
is carried out in detail by studying the site conditions,
talking to client for additional information, talking to the
local people and exploring their aspirations and expecta-
tions in terms of solving the problems and improving the
FIGURE 7 Study of the existing structures and surroundings
2213
lives of the people, exploring the architecture of nearby
structures, etc.
The site investigation should also generally cover the
following:
• The availability of building materials nearby and
their cost,
• Embodied carbon footprint and embodied energy of
building materials at the site to assess sustainability
impact,
• Availability of local craftsmanship, labor, and
their cost,
• Availability of nearby areas for site establishment and
casting yard,
• The studies required to be carried out for geotechnical
data, met ocean data, topographical data, bathymetri-
cal data, climatological data, environmental data
(earthquake, hurricanes),
• Material properties, accessibility and transport
facilities,
• Availability of right of way and local construction
rules,
• Availability of working seasons and working hours.
Apart from carrying out detailed site investigation as
above, to get inspiration for conception, the discussions
with architects, urban planners and historians are
warranted. The conceptual design is an integrated
2214
approach. The structural engineer should have the ability
to interact with the architects and the architects should
broadly understand the flow of forces in the structures.
3.3.2 | Inspirational aspects
The inspirational aspect is derived from:
• History of structural engineering
• Structural heritage
• Emerging technologies & materials
• Education
• Comprehension of structural phenomena
The aspect of inspiration for structural conceptualiza-
tion is illustrated below by three outstanding footbridges
(Figure 8) being designed and built currently.
The currently on going Maha Metro project at Pune,
India intends to develop world class metro stations and
surrounding areas featuring the rich cultural heritage.
Integration facilities at Metro stations include approach
roads to the stations, circulation facilities, pedestrian
ways and circulation areas for various modes likely to
come to important stations, including feeder buses.
Among the metro stations two of them one Deccan and
the other Shambaji park metro stations were to be pro-
vided with pedestrian bridges over the river called
Mutha.
FIGURE 8 Inspirational aspects of three footbridges
HEGGADE
Pune is considered as a cultural capital of Maharash-
tra. It is renowned for its rich Art & Culture. It is also a
major educational hub due to the presence of numerous
educational institutions. Sambaji park metro station is
near to Bala gandharva ranga mandir, an auditorium and
an exhibition hall where cultural theater activities, musi-
cal concert, art exhibition, etc. regularly take place. This
is also a place where famous Maharashtrian artist
Balgandharva used to conduct his musical performances
with string instrument “Tanpura”. Thus, the Sambaji
park pedestrian bridge (Figure 8 top two slides) is
inspired by Tanpura.
The adjacent Deccan metro station on the eastern side
connects N C Kelkar road and requires a pedestrian
bridge to cross over the river. The pedestrian bridge was
to compliment the architecture of the proposed metro
station apart from reflecting the local character and the
culture. Thus, the final form of the bridge (Figure 8, mid-
dle views) was inspired by “Puneri Pagadi” or “Shinde
Shahi Topi”. The concept development of the bridge by
hand written interventions of the architect is depicted in
the Figure 9.
The third footbridge in Figure 8 is a unique pedes-
trian bridge of length 300 m on Sabarmati river front
where Prime minister Modi famously hosted president Xi
on his first visit to India.
Sabarmati Riverfront Development is developed in
order to provide city with a meaningful waterfront envi-
ronment along the banks of the river & redefine an
HEGGADE 2215

identity of the city around the river. It also promotes
rehabilitation and resettlement of riverbed dwellers and
activities; creation of parks and public spaces; provision
of socio-cultural amenities for the city.
Sabarmati Pedestrian Bridge (Figure 10) joins the
Promenades at two levels on either side of river
Sabarmati between Sardar Bridge and Ellis Bridge. The
bridge is flanked by the flower garden and events ground
on the west promenade and the informal market and
exhibition center on the east side.
Ahmedabad is also known as the city of flying colors.
The festival of Uttarayan is when the skies over most cities

F I G U R E 9 Inspiration for
conceptual design of deccan
pedestrian bridge

F I G U R E 1 0 Site context
for Sabarmati pedestrian bridge
2216
of the state fill with kites. Since 1989, the city of Ahmedabad
has hosted the International Kite Festival as part of the offi-
cial celebration of Uttarayan. Kites are known for its unique
shape and vibrant colors. Taking inspiration from this shape,
the frame has been derived from this form.
Dual level bridge merging in the central span, con-
nects both the upper and lower promenade people, mak-
ing it more flexible and more people friendly. The entire
bridge (Figure 11) acts as a truss as the cross members
are inspired from the shape of kites.
Shading is necessary to provide shelter to the pedes-
trians from the harsh climate of Ahmedabad. Colorful
fabric panels are introduced as shading features to add to
the vibrancy, taking inspiration from the colors of Kites
once again.
3.3.3 | Activities and tools
The structure integration into the landscape should be
compatible and harmonious with the general philosophy of
the structure itself and also and the landscape of the town.
The structure should blend with the surroundings without
imposing on it. There will be many activities between vir-
tual initial visualizations to intermediate renderings and
final solution as encapsulated in fib model code 2010.
• Constraints analysis and classification
• Environmental analysis (including local politics and
local traditions)
HEGGADE
• General conception
• Choice of materials (considering economy and energy
consumption for production and elimination)
• Structural concept (structural logico, dimensions)
• Integration and aesthetics (legibility, simplicity, pro-
portions, equilibrium, shapes, detail philosophy)
• Construction method (sequences)
• Rough cost estimates
• Comparison of alternatives
• Successive presentations, explanations and discussions
with the owner(architect)
• After acceptance by the owner, preparation of the basis
for design (drawings, notes, reports)
The above tasks are enabled variety of tools avail-
able these days. The options availability for represen-
tations of visualization is plenty in the digital era.
Some of the tools as enumerated in fib model code
2010 are:
• Experience, background, feedback, database
• Feeling, sensibility,
• Creativity, imagination,
• Capacity of simultaneously analyzing and integrating
all criteria and constraints with their respective
weights
• Quick predesign methods
• Design by sketching (from rough free hand sketches to
accurate drawings)
• Visualization tools
F I G U R E 1 1 Sabarmati
pedestrian bridge inspired by
Kites
HEGGADE
Normally at the stage of conceptual design, the study
of alternatives are done by hand sketching. The tools
used for analysis for investigations and iterations of the
potential options may not necessarily be refined ones.
As illustrated in the Figure 12 by way of hand sketch-
ing, for a long span bridge over a river which is at skew
to road alignment there could be various configuration of
piers and abutments. There could be a single pier, multi-
ple piers, the abutments being placed at skew or orthogo-
nal to roadway. The resisting superstructure could be
below the formation level or above the formation level.
The structural forms could be single or multiple ribs solid
or trussed arch. They could be extradosed, stay cable or
suspension bridges either with single or multiple plan of
cables. Therefore, the options are plenty and the chal-
lenge of conceptual design is to arrive at the most suited
one by iterations, renderings, multimedia visual repre-
sentations and finding the form to follow the flow of
forces.
3.3.4 | Materialization aspects
In this phase of the conceptual design, the ambition to
materialize creative ideas are well demonstrated. Also the
FIGURE 12 Study of alternatives for sub structure and superstructure (Source: fib TG 10.1 meeting at Tokyo)
2217
sustainability aspects of structural design are incorpo-
rated in this phase.
The designer has to be well conversant with the latest
construction technologies and development in building
material science.
Once the structure is conceived on the basis of
other principles of conceptual design explained hither
to, the next questions are how it is going to be built?
what are the materials to be used for construction?
whether those materials are sustainable from the point
of view of embodied energy and carbon footprint?
Whether the structure is sustainable from the point of
view of maintenance and replaceability of those com-
ponents whose shelf life is lesser than structure life?
Can the construction technology adopted employ local
labor to improve the living standards of the local area?
Can the structure be built without disturbing local life
style? etc.
There are three arch bridges in Figure 13 that were
designed to blend with the natural surroundings over riv-
ers which did not permit any kind of support from the
water body for construction. The engineers had to come
out with ingenious way of materializing these bridges.
The first bridge, Martin Gil Railway bridge at the top
of the Figure 13 was designed by Eduardo Torroja of
2218
FIGURE 13 Imagination and ambition to materialize ideas
Spain and was constructed during 1934–42. The arch rib
was temporarily erected as steel truss rib with the sup-
ports of cables running from one abutment to another.
These temporary steel truss acted as a formwork during
the concreting of the arch and was left with in the con-
crete arch rib contributing to structural resistance during
service stage.
The second bridge in the Figure 13, Coronation
bridge in West Bengal was constructed during 1937–41.
The construction of the RCC arch rib was carried out by
staying the formwork from already constructed abutting
massive piers and carrying out the concreting in cast in
situ segments.
The third arch bridge in Figure 13 is a Ramshila
Bridge at Himachal Pradesh whose RCC rib was con-
structed using stay cable technology. The temporary
towers were built at the location of abutments
through which form work for casting the segmental
RCC ribs were stayed and the stays were stressed dur-
ing the construction to adjust the stresses in the RCC
section.
4 | C ON C L U S I ON S
The conceptual design of structures is not only science
but also a structural art as depicted in R Gold's model of
“Four hats of creation”.
In the current context, the process of conceptual
design is not complete unless the aspects of structural,
HEGGADE
material and construction sustainability are incorporated
in to this.
ORCID
Venkataramana N Heggade https://orcid.org/0000-
0003-4985-6208
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recognitions, and other essays. Current contents. 1989;12:1–10.
5. Gold R. The plenitude: Creativity, innovation, and making
stuff. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2007.
6. Andrew J Tapping, The Salginatobel bridge, Bridge Engineering
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9. Akio Kasuga, Presentation on Japanese example of sustainabil-
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13-14 December 2019, Tokyo, Japan
10. Hugo Corres-Peiretti, Presentation on conceptual design, fib
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2019, Tokyo, Japan
HEGGADE
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
VN Heggade, CEO, STUP Consul-
tants Pvt ltd 1004 & 5, Raheja
Chambers 213, Nariman point.
Mumbai-400021 India.
2219
How to cite this article: Heggade VN.
Conceptual design of structures. Structural
Concrete. 2020;21:2207–2219. https://doi.org/10.
1002/suco.202000399