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 Digest 406
June 1995

Concise reviews of building technology CI/SfB (J4)

Wind actions on buildings and structures

This Digest provides information for engineers and architects about

the nature of wind action on and around buildings and structures.
It describes common types and causes of wind damage, and shows
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how good design can minimise wind actions on buildings.

The Digest also discusses the principal differences between
BS 6399: Part 2 and the previous wind loading Code of practice.

A school in Cardiff damaged by wind in 1994

press

Photo cOllrtesy Western Mail and 50lllh Wales Echo

Technical enquiries to:

Building Research Advisory Service
Building Research Establishment Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR
Tel: 01923 664664 Fax: 01923 664098
 406
All buildings and structures built above ground level are
affected by the wind to a greater or lesser extent. T he
structure of the wind comprises a random fluctuating
velocity component - the 'gustiness' - superimposed on
a steady mean component. The fluctuating component is
called turbulence. Turbulence increases with the roughness
of the terrain because of frictional effects between the
wind and features on the ground , such as buildings and
vegetation; at the same time these frictional effects reduce
the mean wind velocity. At the standard meteorological
measurement height of 10 m, the ratio of fluctuating
velocity to mean velocity varies from about 1.5 (over
relatively smooth terrain, such as short grassland) to
about 2.5 (over rough terrain , such as city centres).
When the wind acts on a building or structure, the
windward faces are subjected to a direct positive
pressure, the magnitude of which cannot exceed the
available kinetic energy of the wind. This limits the
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over the roof of a building it is accelerated, lowering the
pressure locally on the building surface, especially just
downwind of the eaves, ridge and corners - see Fig 1.
These areas of a building, where the flow acceleration is
greatest, ca n experience very large suctions: Cpe in
excess of - 3.0 for some building configurations. In
general, the more bluff (less streamlined) the body and
the sharper the edges and corners, the higher the wind
suctions will be.
Wind loads are dynamic and fluctuate continuously in
both magnitude and position. It is essential to anticipate
the potential loads when designing a structure and
specifying the dimensions and strength of its components.
Fortunately the vast majority of building structures can
be designed as if they were static: that is, they are
sufficiently stiff that their deflections are small. Because
static structures respond similarly to both mean and
fluctuating forces , they can be designed using quasi-

maximum positive pressure coefficient, Cp e, to a value static methods of the type given in BS 6399: Part 2.
of +1.0. As the wind is deflected around the sides and

Typical static buildings

• Domestic and industrial buildings; low to medium-rise offices.
Structures not generaUy regarded as static
• Suspension bridges; tall, slender buildings; chimneys and masts.
These structures are relatively flexible and may be susceptibLe to
dynamic excitation; deflection wiLL generally be an important
design parameter.

Fig 1 Areas of a building susceptible to high suctions

2
 406

I TYPES OF WIND DAMAGE

For over 30 years BRE has compiled a survey of wind ,.
damage in the UK, based on press reports and local 100 .. ~ ....

authority records. Damage reports are collated and

classified according to location , scale of damage, 90 . ........
~ .. . .....
structural type, seve rity and meteorological conditions.
m ,.
Wind damage falls into three categories in ascending 80 . ,. c:
0
t :

'0 ' .
c ' .
order of scale: tornado damage, background damage 0' .
....J : :
and storm damage (see box below). Each category is .. .. .. .~: : ...... ,.
If) 70 1J ' ' 1j
associated with a distinct meteorological phenomenon. Q)
u
c
Q)
Q) , .
Q)
Q)
a.' . a.
[I! 00 : : If)
:; 1J
c '0
U
.. .. c
The threshold gust wind speed at which damage starts u
0
60 '~
" .;
'~

can be as low as 15 mls in southern England - see Fig 2. .~ : :

Q)
15 >
~: : U
Q)

This represents less than 20% of the design pressure. 0> Q)

Damage at these speeds can be attributed to poor

'"
C
Q)
50 -- .' :t: : '
Q) I ••
::::
'; • Q)

e (ij : :
.S:;! , .
Iii
u
genera l maintenance, deterioration of older buildings Q)
a.'
>-, .. 'a'
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a. >-
Q) I-- I--
and design or construction fa ults in new buildings. .~ 40 ., " ... ..',
m
~
"

'S
E
::J
Most wind damage is of a relatively minor nature, such ()
30 -- ',"
as the loss of a few tiles or slates or damage to cladding
and glazing. Major structural fai lures, particularly of
engineered structures, are rare. However, the wind can 20 . '" .. ,.,
search out weaknesses in a building, so regular - :Souttiern England and Wales
inspection and maintenance should be carried out and Northern England and Scotland
damaged or missing cladding or fixings replaced as 10 "

soon as possible. Failure of a local element of wall or

roof cladding could allow very high internal pressures 0
to develop: in some cases the pressure inside the 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Gust wind speed m/s
building can rise to 90% of the exterior pressure at the
open ing. The fai lure of glazed areas and windows can Fig 2 Variation of isolated damage with wind speed in th e UK
also result in high internal pressures, so they should
never be left open in strong winds.

Tornado damage
Highly localised damage that occurs along a narrow tract,
typically 50 m wide and 200 m long, and continuing intermittently
over distances of up to 20 km as the tornado 'skips' over the
ground. On average, 10 cases of tornado damage are reported
annually in the UK.

Background damage
This occurs during wind storms of low-to-medium severity at
wind speeds below design values. Background damage is
distributed throughout the UK as many isolated events, and
occurs at a consistent level of about 125 000 cases each year.

Storm damage
This occurs during severe gales or storms where the wind speed
approaches or even exceeds design values. The damage is
widespread over the area covered by the storm and includes all
classes and ages of buildings. The severe gales of October 1987
and January 1990 were events of this kind.

The number of buildings damaged in these gales is often an order

of magnitude greater than the number of buildings with
background damage. For example, more than 1.3 million houses
were damaged in the October 1987 gale.

3
 406

I DESIGNING FOR WIND ACTION

Buildings should be designed to resist the highest wind
load likely to occur within their design lifetime
(generally considered to be 50 years in the UK) with an
adequate margin of safety. In designing for wind action
it is necessary to consider the interaction between the
building and the local wind climate in whjch it is
immersed - even minor changes to a building's size or
shape can change significantly the local wind flow field,
and hence the surface pressures.
WIND SPEED
The starting point for both methods in BS 6399 is the
basic hourly-mean wind speed, Vb' at a height of 10 m
in standard 'country' terrain having an annual
probability of exceedence of 0.02 (corresponding to a
mean recurrence interval of 50 years). This is a change
from the previous code, which was based on a three-
second gust speed. The basic mean windspeed is then
corrected according to local site conditions and

The local wind climate at any site in the UK can be

predjcted reliably using statistical methods combined with
boundary-layer wind flow models. However, the
complexity of flow around buildings is not sufficiently well
building height to give an effective gust windspeed, Ve

where: Vs
Vb
Ve = VsSb m/s
is the
is the
site mean windspeed = Vb Sa SdSsSp
basic wind speed
l
understood to allow wind pressures or distributions to be Sb is the terrain and building factor
calculated directly. For this reason , the general procedure Sa is the altitude factor
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used in most modern wind codes is to treat the calculation Sd is the direction factor
of wind speed in a fully probabilistic manner whilst S5 is the seasonal factor
retaining deterministic values of pressure coefficients. Sp is the probability factor
This is the approach of BS 6399: Part 2, which offers a
choice of methods for calculating wind loads: The reference dynamic pressure, q5 is then calculated
• a standard method similar to that used in the qs= kV/
previous wind code, CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2
where: k = 0.613 kg/m3
• a directional method which gives a more precise and multiplied by pressure coefficients, loaded areas,
assessment of critical wind loads for individual wind dynamic magnification factor (if appropriate), reduction
directions. factors and partial safety factors to give the wind load for
Table 1 shows the main differences between the codes. each element of the structure and each of the limit states.

Table 1 Major differe nces between CP3: Chapte r V: Pa rt 2: 1972 a nd BS 6399: Part 2: 1995

Areas of difference CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 BS 6399: Part 2: 1994 Comments on BS 6399: Part 2

Methods Single method Standard method and Standard method is quick and conservative:
directional method directional method is slow but more precise

Calculation of Basic wind speed (three-second gust), V Basic wind speed (hourly mean). Vb A move towards European harmonisation;
wind speed required for dynamic analysis
Topography factor, 5 I Topography factor. 5 1t Method is the same as CP3 but factors are
applied differently - see Altitllde factor
Roughness. size, height factor, 52 Terrain and building factor, 5 b Adjusts mean wind speed to gust wind
derived from: speed of appropriate duration
• Fetch factors , 5 c T c
• Thrbulence factors. 51 T,

Statistical factor, 53
Directional factor, 54
Design wind speed, V5
•Probability factor, 5
Gust peak factor, gl
p Now based on q rather than V
Seasonal factor, 55 New, for seasonal exposure of temporary
structures
Direction factor. 5 d
Altitude factor, 5a
Similar to CP3
New; allows adjustment for altitude effects
\
and allows for topography in standard
method
Effective wind speed, V e Given as gust speeds. duration dependent
on loaded area

Terrain categories 1 Open country Country, town Simplifies selection of terrain category; now
2 Open country with scattered includes effect of distance from coast and
windbreaks from edge of town
3 Small towns, suburbs
4 City centres

Class of stnlclUre A Cladding No specific classes Tailored to size of element or structure

B Structures < 50 m under consideration
C Structures> 50 m

DYllllmic stnlClUI'a Not covered Satisfied by use of a dynamic Applies only to mildly dynamic structures
magnification factor

4
 406

PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Dynamic pressure is relatively insensitive to changes in

Pressure coefficients are derived from actual
measurements of pressures on buildings (generally made
in wind tunnels). They give the average pressure acting
in a direction normal to the surface over a particular
area of the building as a fraction of the reference
dynamic pressure. As pressure coefficients are only
weakly dependent on site conditions and terrain , the
given coefficients depend only on the building shape.
Although pressure coefficients for most common
building configurations are listed in BS 6399: Part 2,
many structures will not correspond precisely to an
example in the code. Where the structure is of generally
similar shape to one of these examples, the designer can
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the probability factor. Reducing the probability of
exceedence from the standard value of 0.02 (1 in 50
years) to 0.005 (1 in 200 years) increases the dynamic
pressure by only 15%. This is equivalent to a change in
altitude of about 70 m or an increase in the basic
windspeed of about 3 m/s.
The allowable reductions in dynamic pressure can be
significant when designing on a directional basis or
when designing temporary structures. For temporary
structures in place only during July, the reduction is
62%, and up to 45% for exposure only to easterly wind.

use the pressure coefficients in the code. However,

extrapolation to building shapes outside the given
ranges should not be made without expert advice.

Where the designer has a choice of

pressure coefficient values, selecting the
lower value may seem a way to making Table 2 The sensitivity of dynamic pressure, qs to changes in S-factors
and basic windspeed, Vb
economies. However, it is important to
remember that the cost of designing to Fadorname Chllnge in
the higher value will generally be a small dynamic pressure, lis
fraction of the overall cost of construction; %
the risk of designing to the lower value Basic windspeed, Vb London o
could be partial or even complete failure Newcastle + 56
of the structure. Lewis + 125

SENSITIVITY OF DYNAMIC Diredion fador, S d East wind -45

North wind -39
PRESSURE South wind -28
The full range of possible values of wind West wind -2
dynamic pressure spans more than an
Seasonal fador, S. July -62
order of magnitude. Therefore careful April -44
consideration of the parameters involved October -33
is essential to ensure a safe and January -4
economical design. For example, dynamic Altitude fador, S G per 100 m change in height 21
pressure can be very sensitive to
variations in site location and building Probability fador, Sp Q=O.l (1 ill 10 year recurrence) -19
Q =0.02 (l in 50 year recurrence) o
shape. Table 2 shows the effect on Q=0.005 (1 in 200 year recurrence) +15
dynamic pressure of variation in basic Q =0.001 (l in 1000 year recurrence) +34
windspeed and S-factors. The effect of Terrain and building factor, S b
changes in topography, terrain , shelter Normalised usillg 5 m building height in town terrain
with maximum shelter and /10 topography
and building height cannot be investigated
in isolation because they are all combined Te"ain type Building height Change in
Assuming: metres dynam ic pressure, q s
into the terrain and building factor. town terrain is 30 km from the sea and %
However, the relative effects of these 30 km from the upwind edge of IOWIl,
parameters are also shown in Table 2. cowllry terrain is 100 kmfrom the sea, No Maximum
coast terrain is 0.1 km from the sea. topography topography

In general, the geographical variation in Town 5 0 +25

basic windspeed is the most influential (maximum shelter) 10 +18 +51
50 +68 +l23
factor in changes to dynamic pressure:
depending on location, windspeed Town 5 +27 +64
variations can more than double the (no shelter) 10 +48 +94
50 +92 +160
dynamic pressure. Topography, which is
often ignored in design, is the next most Country 5 +41 +92
important factor. Its effect is greatest in 10 +55 +113
50 +89 +165
country terrain because only the mean
windspeed component - which is higher Coast 5 +59 +120
in open country tha n in towns - is 10 +7] +141
50 +96 +181
accele rated by topography.
5
 406

I MEASURES TO MINIMISE WIND LOADS

The full potential for reducing wind loads on new
buildings can be achi eved only if it is considered at the
beginning of the design process. Once the structure has
passed the conceptual design, there is still scope for
action but it is much more limited.
If considered at the conceptual design stage, the size,
shape and orientation of the structure can be designed
to take full advantage of possibilities for reducing wind
load. Measures that can be adopted include:
• Aligning the strong axis of the structure into the
prevailing wind direction
On flat roofs both the local and general wind loads are
highly depe ndent on the edge detail. Sharp right-angle
corners ge nerate the highest suction s. Adding parapets,
provided they are greater than about 5% of the building
height, can reduce local suctions although they have
littl e effect on ge nera l roof loads. Rounding or
chamfering at the eaves is very effective at reducing
local and general loads: the larger the radius or the
shallower the chamfer angle, the greater the reductions.
In structures where roof trusses are used, chamfered
eaves can often be easil y created by cladding the end of
the trusses to form the line of the chamfer.

• Minimising the height of vertical walls

• Avoiding large openings (or potential
Fig 3 Worst-case external pressure coefficients for some common roof types
openings, such as glazi ng) on
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windward walls External pressure coefficient Cpe

• Using hip or mansard roofs instead -0.5 - 1.0 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0
of conventional duo-pitch and fl a t
Flat roof
roofs
• Minimising roof overhangs
Low parapet
• Avoiding shallow mono-pitch roofs
Flat roof with parapet edium parape
• Minimising the use of right-angled
corners on eaves and walls High parapet
• Where possible, arranging buildings
in a way that maximises the
Steep chamf r
benefits of shelter and avoids large
variations in height between Mansard roof edium chamfe
adjacent buildings.
Shallow cha fer

If considered after the basic

Pressure Coefficients
configuration is fixed, the only scope
Sm II radius Local areas
for reducing wind loads is by changes
or additions to local or architectural Curved eaves Med urn radius • General areas
features, such as adding parapets or
local chamfering or rounding of corners
a nd edges. In some circumstances it
might also be possible to use special
aerodynamic devices - such as slotted
eaves or vortex trapping gutters - to 15 ' Pitch
Mono'pitch roof
reduce local high suctions.

When the external shape of the building

is fixed , the only way the designer can
reduce wind loads is to provide shelter
using natural or man-made screening.
Duo-pitch roof
The effective ness of some common
roof forms in reducing wind loads is
shown in Fig 3. On all roofs there is a
tendency for suctions to reduce with
increasing pitch angle. Of the pitched
roofs, the hip roof generally gives the
lowest wind loads. By comparison, Hip roof
traditional duo-pitch roofs give
slightly higher loads, and shallow
mono-pitch roofs can generate very
high local loads.

6

I OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The designer of any new building must consider how
wind speeds will affect the environment around the
building - see Digest 390. Typical requirements include:
• Assessing how wind speeds at ground level will
affect pedestrians and users of the building. In
general, the taller the building the higher the wind
speeds around its base. If the design allows these
high speed winds to reach down to ground level, will
they create unpleasant or unsafe conditions? What
measures will be employed to mitigate these effects?
i • Ensuring a sufficient flow of air will be maintained
through courtyards and enclosed areas. This will
stop pollutants being trapped and concentrated, and
disperse exhausts and fumes from plant rooms,
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kitchens, car parks, etc so that they are not drawn back
into the building through the air-conditioning system.
Wind tunnel testing can be a useful tool for assessing the
environmental aspects of wind flow around buildings.
WIND TUNNEL TESTING
The simplifications adopted in wind loading codes, and
the unique effects of local architectural and
topographical features and surrounding buildings,
inject an element of uncertainty into any wind loading
calculation. The level of uncertainty increases as the
building configuration deviates from the codified
forms. Codes give safe upper bound values for the
majority of structures, but in more extreme cases of
unusual building forms or site conditions the codes will
not apply. Most wind codes acknowledge these
limitations and allow the results from wind tunnel
studies to be used instead of code provisions.
BS 6399: Part 2 provides minimum requirements for
both static and dynamic wind tunnel testing. Wind
tunnel testing provides a tailored assessment of wind
loads by accurately simulating both the model and its
immediate surroundings as well as the local wind
conditions. In some cases, this is the only way the
designer can assure adequate structural performance
and improve economy of design.
Wind tunnel testing should be considered for any of the
foUowing:
• Tall, flexible or wind-sensitive structures such as masts,
towers, chimneys, suspension bridges and other cable-
stayed structures (see also p8)
• Structures with unusual or innovative external forms
• Structures in locations with complex wind conditions
(such as city centres) or close to tall buildings
• Any structure where a more accurate assessment of the
wind loads is required.
406
INTERNAL PRESSURES
The load on any external element of a building is
determined by the difference between the internal and
external pressures on that element. Control of internal
pressures is therefore an important aspect of wind
loading design.
The most effective way to minimise internal pressures
is to avoid dominant openings (see box below). An
opening is classed as dominant if its area is at least
twice the sum of the openings and general porosity in
the other faces of the building (including the roof).
Even a small opening in a well-sealed building can be
dominant; a large opening in a leaky building might not
be dominant.
Service considerations for dominant openings
If a dominant opening is considered closed in the
ultimate load conditions, it should also be considered
to be open under service conditions. The service
conditions may control the design - see BS 6399: Part 2.
Precautions against the creation of dominant openings by
wind damage
• Consider sub-dividi ng large panes of glass or fitting
storm shutters: dominant openings can form if glazing is
broken during a storm, perhaps by flying debris.
• Close large sliding or roller shutter doors well in
advance of a storm, otherwise they might deform and
prove impossible to shut in strong winds.
• Ensure that internal partitions and non-loadbearing
walls are at least three times as porous as the external
walls. This allows internal pressures to equalise and
external or loadbearing walls to carry the majority of the
wind load.
WIND DAMAGE DURING CONSTRUCTION
Many structures are most vulnerable to wind damage
when they are under construction. This is because
partially completed structures very often do not provide
the same level of resistance to wind loads as completed
ones. Structures vulnerable in this way include:
• Freestanding walls without support from floor or
roof beams
• Precast units before permanent connections are made
• Structural frames and roofs before lateral bracing is
installed
• Tanks and silos before the roof is fitted.
Careful planning of the erection sequence and provision
of temporary bracing can help to minimise these dangers
- see box on page 8.
7
 406
Planning the erection sequence
• Build up walls at the same rate wherever possible; do
not build freestanding walls more than about 3 m high.
• Start construction at the windward edge of the
development to take advantage of shelter provided by
completed structures.
• Try to synchronise fixing of cladding and glazing; tbis
will maintain equal porosity on all external walls by
avoiding dominant openings. If this is not possible,
construct the windward face first as this will reduce the
likelihood of high positive internal pressures and
minimise the loads on tbe other walls and the roof.
Providing temporary bracing
Reduced wind loads can often be taken when designing
temporary works or for specific phases of the construction
sequence where tbe duration is for sub-annual periods. For
example, if it is known that the structural frame will be
erected during a particular month, the appropriate seasonal
factor can be used in the design of the temporary bracing to
account for the lower probability of strong winds occurring
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during that month. However, this approach requires careful
and realistic scheduling to ensure that each phase is
completed in the time allotted and that contingency plans,
such as provision of additional temporary bracing, are in
place in case of over-runs.
SCAFFOLDING FAILURE
There are two main causes of scaffolding failure:
• Inadequate tyi ng-back to the main structure
• Failure to design for the appropriate wind load (this
includes fai lures ca used by sheeting on the scaffold
where no allowance is made for the increased loads).
Precautions against scaffolding failure
Sheeting the roof for weather protection or using safety
netting on the faces transfers the wind load to the
scaffolding. If sheeting is to be used, this should be taken
into account at the design stage by treating the scaffold as a
clad or partially clad structure. If netting is used, the increase
in wind loading depends on the porosity of the netting.
WIND-SENSITIVE STRUCTURES
These can range from simple lamp standards, masts and
chimneys to tall office blocks. Special aerodynamic
devices, such as strakes and baffles, can be used on
circular structures to suppress dynamic excitation; tuned
mass dampers can be used on a wide range of structures
to absorb wind energy and minimise deflections. For
structures susceptible to dynamic instabilities such as
vortex shedding, the maximum dynamic response could
occur at wind speeds lower than the design value if the
shedding frequency coincides with a natural frequency
of the structure. Where guying systems are used on
masts, attention must be given to the design of the guy
ropes to prevent undue vibration effects.
Mildly dynamic structures can be identified using the
assessment method given in BS 6399: Part 2. T hey can
be designed with quasi-static methods using an
appropriate dynamic magnification factor.
Printed in the UK a nd published by Construction Rese arch Communications Ltd . Avai lable by subscription . Curre nt prices fro m:
Construction Research Communications Ltd , 33 - 39 Bowling Green Lane, London EC1 R ODA. Tel: 01923 664444 Fax: 01923 664400
Full detai ls of a ll rece nt issue s of BRE publications are give n in BRE News sent free to s ubscribe rs.
Published by permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Building Research Establishment.
8 ISBN 1 86081 018 7
AIR-SUPPORTED STRUCTURES
Air-supported structures rely on maintaining a small
internal overpressure. In strong winds the internal
pressure must be increased in proportion to the increase
in the external wind pressure. Ideally the blower should
be linked to anemometers to allow automatic pressure
compensation. Emergency back-up should be provided
in case the blower or electricity supply fails.
RELOCATABLE BUILDINGS
These structures are generally used for short-term
accommodation (often as temporary school classrooms).
They are demountable, using prefabricated panels and
components which are assembled on-site, and can be
dismantled, relocated and reassembled many times
during their lifetime.
The severe storms in 1987 and 1990 caused considerable
damage to structures of this type , particularly to older
units and those which had been moved and re-erected.
These units should be regularly inspected for structural
adequacy and deterioration, with particular attention
given to exposed timbers, the connections between
panels, and signs of movement between panels or at
the foundations. The frequency of inspection will
depend on the building's location and on its age, use,
condition and the number of times it has been moved .
F urther information is given in Digest 374.
FURTHER READING
Building Research Establishment
Buller, P S J. The gales of January and February 1990: damage to
buildings and structures. BRE Report. Garston, CRC, 1993.
Buller, P S J. The October gale of 1987: damage to buildings and
structures in the south east of England. BRE Report. Garston,
CRC,1988.
Buller, P S J. Gale damage to buildings in the UK: an illustrated
review. BRE Report. Garston, CRC, 1986
Cook, N J. The designer's guide to wind loading of building structures.
Part 1: Background, damage survey, wind data and structural
classification. Part 2: Static structures. London, Butterworths, 1985.
Flint and Neill Partnership. Investigation into tbe structural
adequacy of relocatable buildings under wind loading.
BRE Report. Garston, CRC, 1990.
Other BRE Digests
346 The assessment of wind loads
Part 1: Background and method
Part 2: Classification of structures
Part 3: Wind climate in the UK
Part 4: Terrain and building factors and gust peak factors
Part 5: Assessment of wind speed over topograpby
Part 6: Loading coefficients for typical buildings
Part 7: Wind speeds for serviceability and fatigue assessments
Part 8: Internal pressures
374 Relocatable buildings: structural design, construction and
maintenance
390 Wind around tall buildings
391 Damage to roofs from aircraft wake vortices
British Standards Institution
BS 6399:- Loadi ng for buildings
Part 2:1994 Code of practice for wind loading
Crown copyright 1995