Determine Max Allowable Building Height

Background information on proposed procedure to
determine maximum allowable building height

(for buildings within the scope of Sub-section 1 Part 3)
Contents Page number
1.0 Introduction 2
2.0 Proposals for Draft TGD A 2011 2
3.0 Methodology for determining maximum allowable building height 2

3.1 Wind map 3
3.2 Orography factor 3
3.3 Altitude factor 4
3.4 Distance from sea 4
3.5 Distance inside town and shelter effect of surrounding buildings 4
3.6 Terrain categories 4
4.0 Sensitivity analysis 6

4.1 Comparison with current practice for sites with nominally flat terrain 9
4.2 Comparison with current practice for sites with moderately steep terrain 9
4.3 Comparison with current practice for sites with steep terrain 9
5.0 Conclusion 9
6.0 References 9
1
1.0 Introduction
The following describes the development of the updated guidance on wind loading for inclusion in the
Draft Technical guidance Document (TGD A) 2011. This work is required because the current wind
loading guidance in TGD A 1997 is based on CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 (as amended in 1986). This
is a withdrawn standard and also has the same field of application as the European wind loading
standard EN 1991-1-4. As the core objective of the review of Part A is to update TGD A 1997 to
reference the Eurocodes and remove references to conflicting standards, a simplified Eurocode
compatible guidance is required to be developed.
The current guidance for wind loading given in Sub-section 1 Part 3 of TGD A 1997 only applies to
structures which fall within the description of paragraph 1.1.3.1 i.e. “houses (Category A1 buildings as
defined in I.S. EN 1991-1-1) with not more than two floors including the ground floor, with walls of
traditional masonry construction, with timber upper floors and with roofs covered with normal lightweight
covering including clay or concrete pantiles. It also applies to domestic garages and other annexes to
such houses.”
The current TGD A 1997 guidance for wind loading is based on a limiting gust wind speed V, of 44m/s.
Paragraph 1.1.3.7 of the TGD A 1997 states that “The design wind speed (Vs) determined in accordance
with CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 as amended in 1986 should not exceed 44 m/s” and goes on to
describe further how this would normally be satisfied in each of the wind Zones A, B and C (Refer to
Diagram 1 TGD A 1997).
A limiting gust wind speed V, of 44m/s equates to a dynamic wind pressure P of approximately 1.2kN/m2
2 3
(from the Bernoulli equation P = ½ρV , where ρ is the air density taken as 1.226kg/m ). This limiting
wind speed was derived from studies carried out in the 1950’s and 1960’s in the UK on dwellings of
traditional construction and pre-dates the wind loading codes of practice.
2.0 Proposals for Draft TGD A 2011

The scope of Sub-section 1 Part 3 in TGD A 1997 limits itself to a maximum building height of 10 m
where the gust wind speed does not exceed 44m/s. It is intended to retain the same scope in the
2
proposed guidance by limiting the dynamic pressure of 1.2kN/m . In areas where the gust wind speed
exceeds 44m/s (according to CP2: Ch V) the allowable building height is reduced accordingly so that the
2
dynamic wind pressure is always limited to a maximum value of 1.2kN/m .
It is intended to replace the existing map of wind zones (Diagram 1 of TGD 1997 in Sub-section 1 Part 3)
with the revised values of fundamental basic wind velocity obtained from Figure NA.1 of the National
Annex to I.S. EN 1991-1-4 and elaborate a procedure for determining safe building heights for buildings
within a limited scope.
It is anticipated that this will result in a more user friendly and accurate assessment for the maximum
allowable building heights which fall within the scope of Sub-section 1, Part 3.
3.0 Methodology for determining maximum allowable building height

In order to develop a simplified wind loading methodology for the TGD it is essential to understand and
quantify the effects of the individual factors which influence the calculation of windspeed. The practice
adopted in CP3-ChV-2 (and BS 63999-2) has been to determine the design gust windspeed. However,
the Eurocode approach in EN 1991-1-4 does not directly calculate the gust windspeed, it instead jumps
from a mean wind speed to a peak (gust) velocity pressure qp(z). Therefore the starting point for
determining this simplified methodology must be the peak velocity pressure.
For sites where orography is not significant the Irish National Annex has simplified EN 1991-1-4
expression 4.8 of as follows:
For sites in Country terrain qp(z) = ce(z) qb (NA.3a)

For sites in Town terrain qp(z) = ce(z) ce,T qb (NA.3b)
Where:
ce(z) is the exposure factor given in Figure NA.7 of the Irish NA to EN 1991-1-4
2
ce,T is the exposure correction factor given in Figure NA.8 of the Irish NA to EN 1991-1-4
2
qb is the basic velocity pressure = ½ ρ vm
For sites where orography is significant the Irish National Annex gives two equations for use shown
below:
2
qp(z) = ce(z) ce,T qb [(co(z) + 0.6)/1.6] (NA.4a)
qp(z) = ½ ρ vm2 [1 + 3.0 Iv(z)]2 (NA.4b)
Equation NA.4a (which is applicable to the proposed procedure) is used where the building height is
≤50m.
Equation NA.4b is used for buildings taller than 50 m (outside scope of Sub section 1 Part 3 of Draft
TGD A 2011).
With reference to Equation NA.4a, the primary factors affecting the wind loads are:
• the altitude factor calt;
• the orography factor co;
• the exposure factor ce(z);
• the exposure correction factor ce,T ,and
• the shelter effect from surrounding buildings.
The directional factor, season factor and probability factor may be taken as a fixed value of 1.0 in the
simplified method and so can be ignored for the purposes of this analysis.
The simplified proposed wind model for inclusion in the Draft TGD A 2011 includes the effects of
altitude, orography, exposure factor, exposure correction factor and shelter. The expanded simplified
equation for peak velocity pressure proposed for the Draft TGD A 2011 wind model, based on I.S. EN
1991-1-4 is:
qp(z) = ½ρ (vb,map calt)2 ce(z) ce,T [(co(z) + 0.6)/1.6]2 where orography is significant
2
qp(z) = ½ρ (vb,map calt) ce(z) ce,T where orography is not significant
3.1 Wind map (Figure 1a of Draft TGD A 2011)

The wind map shown in Figure 1a of Draft TGD A 2011 is an extract from the NA to I.S. EN 1991-1-4.
This map was a result of an extensive study carried out to assess the wind speeds around Ireland. Long
term wind records from sixteen weather stations were used in the assessment. This map represents the
most statistically up to date information available (for engineering applications).
For further information on the Eurocode Wind calibration study and derivation of wind map for Ireland
refer to:
http://www.nsai.ie/Our-Services/Standardization/About-Standards/Eurocodes/Studies.aspx
3.2 Orography factor (Figure 1b and Table 4 of Draft TGD A 2011)

The orography factor Co is used to account for the speed up of the mean wind speed over hills,
escarpments, etc. Orography can increase the peak velocity pressure by over 70% near the crest of a
steep hill or escarpment. In moderately steep orography the increase in peak velocity pressure may be
close to 50%.
In EN 1991-1-4, orography is considered moderate or steep terrain when the ground slope is > 0.05
(1:20). Where orography is significant and the site is located within the highlighted grey areas (refer
Figure 1b of Draft TGD A 2011), the site altitude should be taken at the base of the orographic feature.
This is consistent with the NA to I.S. EN 1991-1-4 leading to less conservative results and higher
allowable building heights.
3
Overall, it is acknowledged that the proposed method can be conservative as it takes the worst case
speed-up factor in each of the orographical zones. However, it should be appreciated that this method
is an attempt to simplify a very complex area.
3.3 Altitude factor (Table 5 of Draft TGD A 2011)

The altitude factor is used to adjust the wind speed for the altitude of the site above sea level and the
height of the building above ground level and is given by:
calt = 1 + 0.001A for sites where z ≤ 10m

where A is the site altitude in metres above mean sea level and Z is the height of the building.
Allowable building heights in Tables 6 of Draft TGD A 2011 are based on altitudes ranging from 0 to 400
m above sea level.
3.4 Distance from sea

In order to give three approximately equal step changes in exposure factor the distances from the coast
in country terrain has been taken as ≤2km, 2km to 20km and >20km. The exposure factor Ce(Z) adjusts
the dynamic velocity pressure to account for distance of the site from the coast. Wind speeds reduce
with distance from the coast. With reference to Figure NA.7 of NA to I.S. EN 1991-1-4, the value of
Ce(Z) for each of these zones been calculated at 0.1 km, 2 km and 20 km respectively.
3.5 Distance inside town and shelter effect of surrounding buildings

The exposure factor Ce,T adjusts the dynamic velocity pressure to account for sites in Town terrain to
account for the distance to the site from the upwind edge of the town. These factors are given in Figure
NA.8 of NA to I.S. EN 1991-1-4. For sites in Town terrain the wind speed reduces as the distance in to
the town increases. In order to simplify the procedure and have only a single Town terrain category, a
single distance into town was taken as 1km in the draft procedure as this seems to give a reasonable
compromise. The shelter effect (hdis) from surrounding buildings was taken as 0.6h but in no case
greater than 3 m.
In Country terrain it is always assumed that the effective height equals the actual height and no
advantage can be taken of shelter from surrounding buildings.
3.6 Terrain categories

Table 4.1 of I.S. EN 1991-1-4 defines five terrain categories ranging from sea 0, to city centre IV. The
opportunity was taken to simplify the five terrain categories to Sea, Country and Town in the NA to I.S.
EN 1991-1-4 thus reducing the number of terrain categories to three. This approximately corresponds to
the three terrain categories in BS 6399-2.
These are as follows:

• Sea (category 0);
• Country (categories I and II), and
• Town (categories III and IV).
Refer to Table 1 below for illustrative examples of town and country terrain.
4
Table 1 Assessment of Terrain category
NA to I.S. EN
1991-1-4 and
Annex A1 of I.S. EN 1991-1-4 descriptive and illustrative reference
for use with
Draft TGD A
Terrain category 0
Sea, coastal area exposed to the open
sea
Sea Terrain
Terrain category I
Lakes or area with negligible vegetation
and without obstacles
Country
Terrain Terrain category II
Area with low vegetation such as grass
and isolated obstacles (trees, buildings)
with separations of at least 20 obstacle
heights
Terrain category III

Area with regular cover of vegetation or
buildings or with isolated obstacles with
separations of maximum 20 obstacle
heights (such as villages, suburban
terrain, permanent forest)
Town Terrain Terrain category IV

Area in which at least 15 % of the
surface is covered with buildings and
their average height exceeds 15 m
5
4.0 Sensitivity analysis
A sensitivity analysis was carried out to compare the proposed procedure with the current guidance.
Notional sites were taken throughout Ireland on the extremities of the zonal areas A, B and C as per
Diagram 1 of TGD A 1997. These notional sites were considered to be located in both Country terrain
and Town terrain and on flat level ground, moderately steep ground and steep sloping ground. The
location of the sites on moderately steep and steep terrain was considered to be 0.25L from the crest of
a hill (where L = the upwind hill length).
Refer to Tables 2 to 4 below for comparison with current practice.
Table 2 'Notional' sites with nominally flat terrain, average slope ≤ 0.05 (1 in 20)
Zone A (TGD A 1997) Zone B (TGD A 1997) Zone C (TGD A 1997)
Site Specification
(Near) Maynooth (Near) Galway City (Near) Donegal Town
Site Altitude (m) 25 25 50 50 50 50
Location Town Country Town Country Town Country
Distance to sea (km) 25 21 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0
Average slope(ψ) within 1km radius of
notional site 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Design to CP 3: Chapter V: 1972
44 44 48.45 48.45 48.96 48.96
V m/s (from Diagram 15 TGD A 1997)
2% increase as per Diagram 15 TGD
N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes
A 1997
Factor S1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
(3) Country with (1) Open (3) Country with (2) Open (3) Country with (2) Open country
many country with many windbreaks; country with many with scattered
windbreaks; small no small towns; scattered wind windbreaks; wind breaks
towns; outskirts obstructions outskirts of large breaks small towns; (Note: 1.1.3.7 of
of large cities (Note: cities outskirts of large TGD A 1997 advises
that on cursory
1.1.3.7 of cities observation this
Ground Roughness TGD A 1997 would not normally
advises that be allowed in Zone C
on cursory )
observation
any terrain is
allowed in
Zone A )
Building Class (Dimensions < 50 m) B B B B B B
Factor S2 (Ground roughness) 0.74 0.95 0.74 0.88 0.74 0.88
Factor S3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3 32.56 41.80 35.85 42.64 36.23 43.08
Is this within the scope of TGD A

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
1997 Sub Section 1 Part 3?
(10 m (10 m
i.e. Is Vs < 44 m/s? (10 m allowed) (10 m allowed) (10 m allowed) (10 m allowed)
allowed) allowed)
Draft TGD A 2011 procedure for determining maximum allowable building height within scope of Sub Section 1 Part 3
Vmap (m/s) Figure 1a 24.90 24.90 25.80 25.80 26.20 26.20
Orography factor O (Table 4) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Altitude Factor A (Table 5) 1.025 1.025 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
S factor = Vmap x O x A (Table 6) 25.52 25.52 27.09 27.09 27.51 27.51
Maximum allowable height (m) to
fall within the scope of Sub Section
1 Part 3
10.00 10.00 10.00 9.82 10.00 9.00
6
Table 3 'Notional' sites with moderately steep terrain, average slope ≤ 0.2 (1 in 5)
('Notional' site located within 0.25L of crest of hill whose summit is 150 m and base is 10 m above sea level
Site Specification
Site Altitude (m) (at
115 115 115 115 115 115
0.25L from crest of hill)
Average slope(ψ) of notional site 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
44 44 48.45 48.45 48.96 48.96

A 1997
Factor s (Figure 4 and Figure 6) 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Factor S1= 1.0 + 1.2Zs/L (Table 25) 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16
of large cities cities outskirts of large TGD A 1997 advises
(Note:
that on cursory
TGD A 1997 would not normally
Ground Roughness
on cursory )
observation
any terrain is
allowed in
Zone A )

Factor S3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3 37.64 48.32 41.45 49.29 41.88 49.81
1997 Sub Section 1 Part 3? Yes No Yes No Yes No
i.e. Is Vs < 44 m/s? (10 m allowed) (10 m allowed) (10 m allowed)
Vmap (m/s) Figure 1a 24.90 24.90 25.8 25.80 26.2 26.2
Altitude Factor A (Table 5)
Take altitude at bottom of hill (10
1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
m) as site within shaded zone
(Figure 1b)
1 Part 3
10.00 5.32 8.35 0.00 8.10 0.00
7
Table 4 'Notional' sites with steep terrain, average slope = 0.3 (1 in 3.33)
('Notional' site located within 0.25L of crest of hill whose summit is 150 m and base is 10 m above sea level
Site Specification
Site Altitude (m) (at
0.25L from crest of hill assuming 115 115 115 115 115 115
bottom of hill is 25 m)
44 44 48.45 48.45 48.96 48.96
A 1997
Factor s (Figure 4 and Figure 6) 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Factor S1= 1.0 + 1.2Zs/L (Table 25) 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23
of large cities (Note: cities outskirts of large TGD A 1997 advises
that on cursory
TGD A 1997 would not normally
Ground Roughness
on cursory )
observation
any terrain is
allowed in
Zone A )

Factor S3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3 40.18 51.58 44.24 52.61 44.71 53.17
1997 Sub Section 1 Part 3? Yes No No No No No
i.e. Is Vs < 44 m/s? (10 m allowed)
Vmap (m/s) Figure 1a 24.90 24.90 25.8 25.80 26.2 26.2
Altitude Factor A (Table 5)
Take altitude at bottom of hill (10
1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
m) as site within shaded zone
(Figure 1b)
1 Part 3
8.30 0.00 6.50 0.00 6.50 0.00
8
4.1 Comparison with current practice for sites with nominally flat terrain (refer Table 2 above)
The proposed procedure compares well with the current guidance for sites located in Town terrain.
For sites located in Country terrain a minor reduction in height is noted in Zones B and C. However, as
stated in 1.1.3.1 of Sub-section 1 Part 3 of TGD 1997 “applies to houses with not more than two floors
including the ground floor….” To this end, under normal circumstances, the proposed guidance
allowable heights will still cater for this type of construction comfortably.
4.2 Comparison with current practice for sites with moderately steep terrain (refer Table 3 above)
For sites located in Town terrain, a reduction in height is noted in Zones B and C. This is a result of the
fact that the orography factor does not distinguish the difference between sites located on the crest of a
hill and sites located < 0.5L from the crest of a hill and adopts a conservative approach. However under
normal circumstances, the proposed guidance allowable heights will still cater for this type of
construction comfortably.
Where some sites located in Country terrain had a gust speed exceeding 44 m/s, therefore falling
outside of the scope of Sub-section 1 Part 3 of TGD 1997, the proposed guidance offered a reduced
allowable building heights so as to maintain a pressure of 1.2 k/N/m2.
4.3 Comparison with current practice for sites with steep terrain (refer Table 4 above)
For sites located in Town terrain, a minor reduction in height is noted in Zone A. Again this is a result of
the fact that the orography factor does not distinguish the difference between sites located on the crest
of a hill and sites located 0.4L from the crest of a hill and adopts a conservative approach.
For sites located in Town terrain in Zones B and C, the gust wind speed exceeded 44 m/s therefore
falling outside of the scope of Sub-section 1 Part 3 of TGD 1997. Again the proposed guidance offers
an allowable building height by reducing the building height so as to maintain a pressure of 1.2 k/N/m2.
For sites located in Country Terrain the gust wind speed exceeded 44 m/s in all Zones, therefore falling
outside of the scope of Sub-section 1 Part 3 of TGD 1997. The proposed guidance did not offer any
2
alternative on this occasion as the dynamic site pressures also exceeded 1.2 kN/m .
5.0 Conclusion
The proposed procedure is a simplified evaluation tool and as such contains a level of conservatism.
The procedure simplifies a very complex area whilst allowing one to conduct a much more detailed
evaluation of site wind speed than the procedure in TGD A 1997. Overall, it meets the core objective of
this review to provide a Eurocode compatible method for assessing wind actions on small buildings.
Furthermore the results of applying this procedure may highlight the requirement to conduct further
detailed calculations.
For a more precise and probably higher estimate of the allowable building height I.S. EN 1991-1-4 may
be used to calculate the peak velocity pressure qp for the site at the desired building height at the exact
2
orographic location of up to a maximum building height of 10m. If qp is ≤1.2kN/m then that building
2
height is allowed within the scope of the Sub Section 1 Part 3. If qp is >1.2kN/m then incrementally
reduce the building height and repeat the calculation until qp is ≤1.2kN/m2.
6.0 References
I.S. EN 1991-1-4: 2005 Actions on structures General actions - Wind actions
CP 3: Chap. V: Part 2: 1972 Wind loads AMD 4952; AMD 5152; AMD 5343; AMD 6028; AMD 7908
BS 6399: Loading for buildings Part 2: Code of Practice for wind loads
http://www.nsai.ie/Our-Services/Standardization/About-Standards/Eurocodes/Studies.aspx
Preparation of wind map for Scotland - Building Research Establishment 2009

Determine Max Allowable Building Height

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Determine Max Allowable Building Height

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Background information on proposed procedure to

determine maximum allowable building height

2.0 Proposals for Draft TGD A 2011 2

3.0 Methodology for determining maximum allowable building height 2

4.0 Sensitivity analysis 6

2.0 Proposals for Draft TGD A 2011

3.0 Methodology for determining maximum allowable building height

For sites in Country terrain qp(z) = ce(z) qb (NA.3a)

qp(z) = ½ ρ vm2 [1 + 3.0 Iv(z)]2 (NA.4b)

3.1 Wind map (Figure 1a of Draft TGD A 2011)

3.2 Orography factor (Figure 1b and Table 4 of Draft TGD A 2011)

3.3 Altitude factor (Table 5 of Draft TGD A 2011)

calt = 1 + 0.001A for sites where z ≤ 10m

3.4 Distance from sea

3.5 Distance inside town and shelter effect of surrounding buildings

3.6 Terrain categories

These are as follows:

Terrain category III

Town Terrain Terrain category IV

Refer to Tables 2 to 4 below for comparison with current practice.

Is this within the scope of TGD A

44 44 48.45 48.45 48.96 48.96

Building Class (Dimensions < 50 m) B B B B B B

Building Class (Dimensions < 50 m) B B B B B B

I.S. EN 1991-1-4: 2005 Actions on structures General actions - Wind actions

Preparation of wind map for Scotland - Building Research Establishment 2009

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