RMT 556 – PROJECT AND ORGANISATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Projects Cannot Be Run In

Isolation

➢Projects must operate in a

broad organizational
environment
➢Project managers need to take a
holistic or systems view of a
project and understand how it
is situated within the larger
organization
A Systems View of Project
Management

➢A systems approach emerged in the

1950s to describe a more analytical
approach to management and problem
solving:
▪ Systems philosophy: View things as
systems, interacting components working
within an environment to fulfill some
purpose
▪ Systems analysis: Use a problem-solving
approach
▪ Systems management: Address business,
technological and organizational issues
before making changes to systems
Three Sphere Model for
Systems Management
 Project Phases and the
Project Life Cycle

➢A project life cycle is a collection of

project phases
➢Project phases vary by project or
industry, but some general phases
include
▪ concept
▪ development
▪ implementation
▪ support/maintenance
Phases of the Project
Life Cycle – IT Projects
 Product Life Cycles – IT
Projects

➢Products also have life cycles

➢The Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC) is a framework for describing
the phases involved in developing
and maintaining information systems
➢Typical SDLC phases include planning,
analysis, design, implementation, and
support
 Sample SDLC Models

➢Waterfall model: has well-defined, linear

stages of systems development and
support
➢Spiral model: shows that software is
developed using an iterative or spiral
approach rather than a linear approach
➢Incremental release model: provides for
progressive development of
operational software
➢Prototyping model: used for developing
prototypes to clarify user
requirements
Spiral Model of Software
Development (Boehm, 1988)
Distinguishing Project Life Cycles
and Product Life Cycles

➢The project life cycle applies to all projects,

regardless of the products being produced
➢Product life cycle models vary considerably
based on the nature of the product
➢Most large IT projects for example, are
developed as a series of projects
➢Construction project are also developed as
a series of projects; for example housing
➢Project management is a cross life cycle
activity done through all of the product life
cycle phases
Why Have Project Phases
and Management Reviews?

➢A project should successfully pass

through each of the project phases
in order to continue on to the next
➢Management reviews (also called
phase exits or kill points) should
occur after each phase to evaluate
the project’s progress, likely success,
and continued compatibility with
organizational goals
 Understanding
Organizations
Structural frame:
Human resources
Focuses on roles and
frame: Focuses on
responsibilities,
providing harmony
coordination and
between needs of the
control. Organization
organization and
charts help define this
needs of people.
frame.

Political frame:
Assumes organizations Symbolic frame:
are coalitions Focuses on symbols
composed of varied and meanings related
individuals and interest to events. Culture is
groups. Conflict and important.
power are key issues.
Many Organizations Focus
on the Structural Frame

➢Most people understand what

organizational charts are
➢Many new managers try to change
organizational structure when
other changes are needed
➢3 basic organization structures
▪ functional
▪ project
▪ matrix
Functional Organizational
WEAK MATRIX ORGANIZATION
BALANCED MATRIX
ORGANIZATION
STRONG MATRIX
ORGANIZATION
PROJECTIZED ORGANIZATION
COMPOSITE ORGANIZATION
Organization Structure
Influences on Projects
Recognize the Importance
of Project Stakeholders

➢Recall that project stakeholders are

the people involved in or affected by
project activities
➢Project managers must take time to
identify, understand, and manage
relationships with all project
stakeholders
➢Using the four frames of
organizations can help meet
stakeholder needs and expectations
 Project Management Job
Functions
➢ Define scope of project
➢ Identify stakeholders, decision-
makers, and escalation
procedures
➢ Develop detailed task list (work
breakdown structures)
➢ Estimate time requirements
➢ Develop initial project
management flow chart
➢ Identify required resources and
budget
➢ Evaluate project requirements
➢ Identify and evaluate risks
Prepare contingency plan
➢ Identify interdependencies
➢ Identify and track critical
milestones
➢ Participate in project phase
review
➢ Secure needed resources
➢ Manage the change control
process
➢ Report project status
 Suggested Skills for a
Project Manager

Communication skills • listening, persuading

Organizational skills • planning, goal-setting, analyzing

Team Building skills • empathy, motivation, esprit de corps

• sets example, energetic, vision (big

Leadership skills picture), delegates, positive

Coping skills • flexibility, creativity, patience, persistence

Technological skills • experience, project knowledge

 Most Significant Characteristics of
Effective and Ineffective Project
Managers

EFFECTIVE PROJECT MANAGER INEFFECTIVE PROJECT MANAGER

➢ Leadership by example ➢ Sets bad example
➢ Visionary
➢ Not self-assured
➢ Technically competent
➢ Lacks technical expertise
➢ Decisive
➢ Poor communicator
➢ Good communicator
➢ Good motivator ➢ Poor motivator

➢ Stands up to upper management

when necessary
➢ Supports team members
➢ Encourages new ideas
 Project Management
Process Groups

➢Project management can be viewed

as a number of interlinked processes
➢The project management process
groups include
▪ initiating processes
▪ planning processes
▪ executing processes
▪ controlling processes
▪ closing processes
Level of Process Group
Activity Over Time
 PROCESS GROUP AND
KNOWLEDGE AREA MAPPING
 PROCESS GROUP AND
KNOWLEDGE AREA MAPPING
 Introduction TO PROJECT
LIFE CYCLE

➢PLC and WBS are key for sub-dividing a

project into manageable phases or
work packages
➢WBS - hierarchical sub division of work
➢PLC - sub divides project into sequential
project phases
➢Why sub-divide projects?
▪ Projects are unique, by definition
▪ Involve risk
▪ Smaller work packages allow for better
control
 The Four Phases of the
Project Life Cycle

➢For each phase consider :

▪ Inputs, processes and outputs
▪ Key activities, milestones, holding points and
approvals
▪ Overlaps (fast tracking)
➢Plotting level of effort (cash flow or labour)
➢Plotting level of influence against cost of
changes
➢Project life cycle costing
➢It is commonly accepted that all projects pass
through 4 phases (initiation, planning,
execution, and closure)
 The Four Phases of the
Project Life Cycle

➢Conceptual and Initiation Phase

▪ This phase starts/initiates the project
▪ Establishes a need for the product, facility or
service
▪ The project's feasibility is investigated
▪ Upon acceptance, - moves into the next phase
of the PLC
➢Design and Development Phase
▪ The product/service is designed in this phase
▪ All work performed in this phase are performed
within the parameters set in the Feasibility
Study
▪ Developing detailed schedules and plans for the
completion of the project
 The Four Phases of the
Project Life Cycle

➢Implementation or Construction
Phase
▪ The project is implemented, as per the
base line determined in Phase 2
▪ Base line: Refers to the duration and time
schedule of the project
➢Commissioning and Handover Phase
▪ Confirmation of the project
implementation and completion
▪ Project termination
 Overlap Between Phases
(Fast tracking)

➢In theory the project phases are in

sequential succession, however, in
practice the phases may overlap
(merge into each other)
➢Generally, deliverables from the
previous phase are approved before
work commences on the next phase
➢However, where deliverables are
approved progressively, and work in
the following phases commence before
the previous phase is complete we
refer to it as fast tracking
 Level of effort
➢ The PLC is often depicted with the associated level of
effort
➢ Level of effort can be any measurable parameter (over
the life of the project)
▪ Costs
▪ Manhours
▪ Products

➢ Effort:
▪ Slow build up during design and development
▪ Effort accelerates during design and implementation, to a maximum
▪ Sharp decline during commissioning

➢ Efficiency vs. effectiveness

▪ Just because much effort is exerted at the middle phases of the
project, it does not make this the most important

➢ Doing things right, doing the right things

Level of influence vs. Cost
of changes
➢Emphasis of the project must be placed on the
front end of the project (i.e. concept & design)
➢At the front end:
▪ Stakeholders' end are emphasised
▪ Feasibility studies are conducted
▪ Value management are conducted
▪ Project risks are assessed
▪ Project is designed
▪ Doing the right thing!
➢Offers greatest potential to add value
➢Cost of making changes to the project
increases as the project progresses, therefore,
the correct project issues must be identified
early
 Level of detail

➢The philosophy of project sub-

division can also be applied to the
PLC
➢Division by phases
➢Division by WBS or work package