Applied Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwell’s Equations

1
 Electromagnetic Fields

Four vector quantities

E electric field strength [Volt/meter]

D electric flux density [Coulomb/meter2]

H magnetic field strength [Amp/meter]

B magnetic flux density [Weber/meter2] or [Tesla]

Each are functions of space and time

e.g. E(x,y,z,t)

J electric current density [Amp/meter2]

ρv electric charge density [Coulomb/meter3]

2
 MKS units

length – meter [m]

mass – kilogram [kg]
time – second [sec]

Some common prefixes and the power of ten each represent are listed below
femto - f - 10-15 centi - c - 10-2 mega - M - 106
pico - p - 10-12 deci - d - 10-1 giga - G - 109
nano - n - 10-9 deka - da - 101 tera - T - 1012
micro - μ - 10-6 hecto - h - 102 peta - P - 1015
milli - m - 10-3 kilo - k - 103

3
 Maxwell’s Equations

(Time-varying, differential form)

B
 E = −
t
D
 H = J +
t
 B = 0
 D = ρv

4
 Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish mathematician and
theoretical physicist. His most significant achievement was the
development of the classical electromagnetic theory, synthesizing
all previous unrelated observations, experiments and equations
of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a consistent theory.
His set of equations—Maxwell's equations—demonstrated that
electricity, magnetism and even light are all manifestations of the
same phenomenon: the electromagnetic field. From that moment
on, all other classical laws or equations of these disciplines
became simplified cases of Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's work
in electromagnetism has been called the "second great
unification in physics", after the first one carried out by Isaac
Newton.

Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel

through space in the form of waves, and at the constant speed of
light. Finally, in 1864 Maxwell wrote A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field where he first proposed that light was in
fact undulations in the same medium that is the cause of electric
and magnetic phenomena. His work in producing a unified model
of electromagnetism is considered to be one of the greatest
advances in physics.

(Wikipedia)
5
 Maxwell’s Equations (cont.)

B
 E = − Faraday’s law
t
D Ampere’s law
 H = J +
t
  B = 0 Magnetic Gauss law
 D = ρv Electric Gauss law

Questions: When does a magnetic field produce an electric field? When does an
electric field produce a magnetic field? When does a current flow produce a
magnetic field? When does a charge density produce an electric field?
6
 Charge Density

Q dQ
v ( x, y, z ) = lim =
V → 0 V dV
+ + ++
+ + ++
+ + ++

 v ( x, y , z )

( x, y , z ) dV

dQ Non-uniform cloud of charge density

Example: Protons are closer together as we move to the right.

7
 Current Density Vector

J = current density vector  A/m 2 

J I
+
+
+
S
E
Medium 

I = J  S

Current flow is defined to be in the direction that positive charges move in.
8
 Current Density Vector (cont.)

Ohm’s law Material  [S/m]

Silver 6.3107

J = E Copper 6.0107
Copper (annealed) 5.8107
Gold 4.1107
Aluminum 3.5107
Zinc 1.7107
J
Brass 1.6107
 Nickel 1.4107
E Iron 1.0107
Tin 9.2106
Steel (carbon) 7.0106
Steel (stainless) 1.5106

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity

9
 Current Density Vector (cont.)

Current through a tilted surface:

J n̂
+
+
+
S
E
Medium 

(
I = J  nˆ S )
10
 Current Density Vector (cont.)

( )
I = J  nˆ S
Note:
The direction of the unit normal vector

I =  J  nˆ dS
determines whether the current is
measured going in or out.
S

n̂ J

11
 Law of Conservation of Electric
Charge (Continuity Equation)

∇ × Hӈ = Jӈ

∇ ⋅ ∇ × Hӈ = ∇ ⋅ Jӈ

0 = ∇ ⋅ Jӈ

Flow of electric
current out of volume ∇ ⋅ Jӈ = 𝟎
(per unit volume)

12
 Maxwell’s Equations (cont.)

Time - Dependent

B D
 E = −  H = J +  B = 0   D = v
t t

Time -Independent (Statics)

 E = 0   D = v  H = J B = 0
Decouples E and H  E comes from  v and H comes from J

Note: Regular (not script) font is used for statics, just as it is for phasors.

13
 Constitutive Relations

The characteristics of the media relate D to E and H to B

Free Space

D =  0E ( 0 = permittivity )

B = µ0 H (µ0 = permeability )

𝜀0 ≐ 8.8541878 × 10−12 [F/m]

µ0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 [H/m](exact ∗)
*Prior to 2019

1
c= c  2.99792458  108 [m/s] (exact value that is defined)
 0 0
14
 Divergence Theorem
S
n̂
V

n̂ = outward normal

Please see
   A dV =  A  nˆ dS the
V S Appendix
for a proof.
A = arbitrary vector function

In words:
The volume integral of "flux per volume" equals the total flux!

15
 Gauss’s Law (Differential to integral form)
We can convert the differential form into the integral form by
using the divergence theorem.

  D = v

Integrate both sides over a volume:

   D dV =  
V V
v dV

Apply the divergence theorem to the LHS:

 D  nˆ dS =  
S V
v dV

Use the definition of Qencl :

 D  nˆ dS = Q
S
encl
16
 Gauss’s Law (Summary of two forms)

 D  nˆ dS = Q
S
encl Integral (volume) form of Gauss’s law

Definition of Divergence theorem

divergence

  D = v Differential (point) form of Gauss’s law

Note: All of Maxwell’s equations have both a point (differential) and an integral form.
Note: All of Maxwell’s equations have both a point (differential) and an integral form.

17
 Gauss’s Law
A charge q is inside a closed surface.
z
  D  nˆ dS
S (closed surface) S

 q 
 =  N S
nˆ (outward normal) N
q  f 
y
NS  # flux lines that go through S

x E From the picture:

NS = Nf (all flux lines go through S)

Assume q produces Nf flux lines

Hence  =q
18
 Gauss’s Law (cont.)

The charge q is now outside the surface

NS = 0

(All flux lines enter and

then leave the surface.)

q
S
Hence
 =  D  nˆ dS = 0
S

19
 Gauss’s Law (cont.)
To summarize both cases, we have Gauss’s law:

Carl Friedrich Gauss

 D  nˆ dS = Q
S
encl

n̂ = outward normal

By superposition, this law must be true

for arbitrary charges.

(his signature)
This surface S is called the “Gaussian surface”.

20
 Example

2q
q −q

S3
S1
S2

 D  nˆ dS = q
S1
 D  nˆ dS = 0
S2
 D  nˆ dS = 2q
S3

Note: E  0 on S2 !

Note: All of the charges contribute to the electric field in space.

21
 Using Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law can be used to obtain the electric field
from charges in a simple way.

The problems must be highly symmetrical.

 The problem must reduce to one unknown field component
(in one of the three coordinate systems).

Note:
When Gauss’s law works, it is usually easier to use than Coulomb’s law
(i.e., the superposition formula).

22
 Choice of Gaussian Surface
 D  nˆ dS = Q
S
encl

Rule 1: S must be a closed surface.

Rule 2: S should go through the observation point (usually called r).

Guideline: Pick S to be ⊥ to E as much as possible

E
𝑆 ⊥ 𝐸 ⇒ 𝑛ොӈ ∥ 𝐷
n̂
(This simplifies the dot product calculation.)

S
23
 Example
Point charge

z Find E

y
q

24
 Example (cont.)
z
 D  nˆ dS = Q encl =q
r S

S
Assume D = rˆ Dr (only an r component)
r
y
q  ( D rˆ )  rˆ dS = q
S
r

x
nˆ = rˆ D S
r dS = q

Assume Dr = Dr ( r ) (only a function of r)

Then Dr  dS = q or Dr ( 4 r 2 ) = q
S
25
 Example (cont.)
We then have

LHS =   = r (  )
2
D ˆ
n dS D 4 r
S

RHS = Qencl = q

so

Dr ( 4 r 2 ) = q
q
Dr =
4 r 2
Hence

 q   q 
D = rˆ  
2  
C/m 2
 E = rˆ  2 
 4 r   4 0 r  26
 Example (cont.)
Point charge summary
q1
A point change q1 is at the origin. E (r) = rˆ
z 4 0r 2

y
q1

27
 z
Coulomb’s Law
r̂
Experimental law:

r 𝑞1 𝑞2
q2 𝐹ӈ 2 = 𝑟ӈ Ƹ N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

y 𝜀0 ≐ 8.854187818 × 10−12 F/m

q1
(permittivity of free space)
x
Here is how we can calculate 0 accurately:

c = speed of light  2.99792458108 [m/s] (defined)

1
c= 0 4 10−7  H/m 
0 0
1
0 =
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb 0 c 2
28
 Coulomb’s Law (cont.)
A “test” charge q2 is placed at r to measure the electric field there from charge q1.

z
q1q2
r 2 = r = ( x, y , z ) F2 = rˆ
r̂ 4 0 r 2

r
q2 But F2 = q2 E1 ( r )

y
q1
E1 = E due to q1 r = location of charge q2
r1 = ( 0,0,0 )
x

Hence:
Note:
q1
There is no self-force on charge 2 E1 ( r ) = rˆ
due to its own electric field. 4 0 r 2

29
Note About Spherical Coordinates
Note: In spherical coordinates, the LHS is always the same:

LHS = Dr ( 4 r 2 )

Assumption:

 v ( r,  ,  ) = f ( r ) (a function of r only, not  and  )

D = rˆ Dr ( r ) (in the rˆ direction, and a function of r only, not  and  )

LHS =  D  nˆ dS =  D  rˆ dS =  r
D dS = Dr ( 4 r 2
)
S S S

Spherical Gaussian surface From assumption

30
 Example
Hollow shell of uniform surface charge density

z
Find E everywhere

s = s0

y
a
x

31
 Example (cont.)
z

s = s0 Case a) r < a

LHS = RHS
y
a Dr ( 4 r 2 ) = Qencl = 0
x
so
Dr = 0
s0
r
r Hence
a
E = 0 [ V/m]

32
 Example (cont.)
Case b) r > a LHS = RHS

Dr ( 4 r 2 ) = Qencl =  s 0 4 a 2
r
4 a 2  s 0
a  Dr =
r 4 r 2
Q
s0  Dr =
4 r 2
Hence

Q
E = rˆ [V/m]
4 0 r 2

The electric field outside the sphere of surface charge is the same as
from a point charge at the origin.
33
 Example (cont.)
z
Summary

s = s0
ra E = 0 [ V/m]
y
a Q
r a E = rˆ [V/m]
x 4 0 r 2

Note:
A similar result holds for the force due to gravity from a
shell of material mass.

34
 Example (cont.)
z

Note:
s = s0 The electric field is discontinuous as we cross
the boundary of a surface charge density.

y
a
x Er
Q
Q / ( 4 0 a 2 ) 4 0 r 2

r
a

35
 Example
Solid sphere of uniform volume charge density

z Find E (r) everywhere

v = v 0

y
a
x

36
 z
Example (cont.)

v = v 0
Case a) r < a
y
a
 D  nˆ dS = Q
S
encl

 Dr ( 4 r 2 ) = Qencl
x

r
Qencl =   v ( r ) dV
r
V

a
v 0
Gaussian surface S
37
 Example (cont.)

Calculate RHS:

Qencl =   v 0 dV r
r
V

=  v 0  dV a
V
v 0

4 3 Gaussian surface S
= v 0   r 
3 

LHS = RHS

4 3
Dr ( 4 r ) = v 0   r 
2

3 
38
 Example (cont.)
z

Hence, we have
v = v 0
1 
Dr = v 0  r  r
3  y
a
x

ra
The vector electric field is then:

 r 
E = rˆ v 0   [V/m]
 3 0 
39
 Example (cont.)
Case b) r > a  D  nˆ dS = Q
S
encl

 Dr ( 4 r 2 ) = Qencl
r

a r 4 3
Qencl = v0   a 
v = v 0 3 

Gaussian surface S

so
Hence, we have
4 
Dr ( 4 r 2 ) =  v 0   a 3 
3   v0 a3 
 a3 
E = rˆ  2  V/m
 Dr =  v 0  2  3
 0  r
 3r 
40
 Example (cont.)
We can write this as: z

  v 0 a 3   ( 4 / 3)   v = v 0
E = rˆ  2  

 0   ( 4 / 3) 
3 r 
r
Hence y
a
Q
E = rˆ x
4 0 r 2

ra
where
4 
Q = v 0   a 3  The electric field outside the sphere
3  of charge is the same as from a
point charge at the origin.

41
 Example (cont.)
z

Summary
v = v 0
 r 
E = rˆ v 0   [V/m] ra
y  3 0 
v 0 a 3 Q
a E=r
ˆ =r
ˆ  V/m r a
x 3 0 r 2
4 0 r 2

Er
Note:
v 0 a / ( 3 0 )
The electric field is continuous as we
cross the boundary of a volume
charge density.

r
a
42