Top Ten Church Councils – Group Work

Divide the class into ten (10) groups of five (5) each. Assign each group one Church council.
They must identify three key points to summarize each council and add their notes on the chart
paper provided. These are to be posted for the other groups to look at and make notes from.
Please collect the chart papers from each group in all four classes.

NAME OF COUNCIL/DATE

KEY POINTS

1. ---
2. ----
3. ----
 Top Ten Church Councils
Why does the Catholic Church “look” the way it does today?

How did it develop?

How did it defend itself?

Councils are legally convened assemblies of ecclesiastical dignitaries and theological experts for
the purpose of discussing and regulating matters of church doctrine and discipline. The terms
council and synod are synonymous. Councils are not convened on a regular basis; they are
summoned in response to a crisis.

 You will be assigned to a group of three.

 As a group, look at the handout for your particular Top Ten Church Council and

determine three most important “key” facts about this council.

 Use the ½ piece of chart paper to report your findings and post on the wall.
 Time will be provided to view other groups’ findings and fill in your own. Top Ten chart.

Mosaic depicting the First Council of Nicaea

 Top Ten Church Councils
COUNCIL DATE KEY POINTS
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS
NAME: FIRST COUNCIL OF NICAEA

DATE: 325

WHY CALLED:

In response to the heresy of Arius, which claimed that Christ could not be both human and
Divine, a council was called by the Church which was attended by 318 Bishops and Church
elders.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

The main outcome of this council was to establish a written creed, the Nicene Creed
[interestingly, the Apostles’ Creed came later ~ ca 400 CE]. It was at this point that Christianity
actually became an official ‘religion’. Anthropologically, a religion must have a standard,
written creed to a considered a religion. For example, Judaism became an “official religion” at
Mount Sinai when they received the Ten Commandments.

The Council also standardized the day on which the Sabbath was to be celebrated. Some
churches celebrated on a Saturday, some on a Sunday. Sunday was now the day of the Sabbath.
This council chose the 25th of December as the date to celebrate the birth of Christ, a pagan feast
of light already existed on this date. The last important canon passed was to establish the date
for Easter. It is to be held on the first Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal
equinox.

THE PROFESSION OF FAITH OF THE 318 FATHERS [very early version of the Nicene
Creed we say today]

We believe in one God the Father all powerful, maker of all things both seen and unseen.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten begotten from the Father,
that is from the substance [Gr. ousias, Lat. substantia] of the Father, God from God, light
from light, true God from true God, begotten [Gr. gennethenta, Lat. natum] not made
[Gr. poethenta, Lat. factum], CONSUBSTANTIAL [Gr. homoousion, Lat. unius substantiae
(quod Graeci dicunt homousion)] with the Father, through whom all things came to be, both
those in heaven and those in earth; for us humans and for our salvation he came down and
became incarnate, became human, suffered and rose up on the third day, went up into the
heavens, is coming to judge the living and the dead. And in the holy Spirit.

TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: First Council of Constantinople

DATE: 381

WHY CALLED:
There was a sect within the early Church which denied the existence and divinity of the
Holy Spirit.

Icon depicting Emperor Constantine (center)

and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325)
as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

This council was marked by heated discussion and division. In fact, the
entire Roman delegation withdrew from the Council, leaving some 150 attendees all of them
Eastern Orthodox. The central point of controversy was the date of Easter. The Eastern
delegates insisted that Easter must follow after Passover. They felt that the date of Easter
established at Nicaea I was too close to Passover. This was the impetus of the division between
the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches.

Theologically, the council finalized the Nicene Creed by adding the section dealing with the
Holy Spirit.

The exposition of the 150 fathers ~

We believe in one God the Father all-powerful, maker of heaven and of earth, and of all things
both seen and unseen. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten
from the Father before all the ages, light from light, true God from true God, begotten not made,
consubstantial with the Father, through whom all things came to be; for us humans and for our
salvation he came down from the heavens and became incarnate from the holy Spirit and the
virgin Mary, became human and was crucified on our behalf under Pontius Pilate; he suffered
and was buried and rose up on the third day in accordance with the scriptures; and he went up
into the heavens and is seated at the Father's right hand; he is coming again with glory to judge
the living and the dead; his kingdom will have no end. And in the Spirit, the holy, the lordly and
life-giving one, proceeding forth from the Father, co-worshipped and co-glorified with Father
and Son, the one who spoke through the prophets; in one, holy, catholic and apostolic church.
We confess one baptism for the forgiving of sins. We look forward to a resurrection of the dead
and life in the age to come. Amen.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: The Second Council of Nicaea

DATE: 787

WHY CALLED:
It was called by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VI, however as he was only a child at
the time he was accompanied by his mother the Empress Irene. This council was called to
deal with the iconoclast heresy, which insisted that any and all sacred images be destroyed.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

“To summarize, we declare that we defend free from any innovations all the written and
unwritten ecclesiastical traditions that have been entrusted to us.” Council formulates for the first
time what the Church has always believed regarding icons – that any image can be venerated.

One of these is the production of representational art; this is quite in harmony with the history of
the spread of the gospel, as it provides confirmation that the becoming man of the Word of God
was real and not just imaginary, and as it brings us a similar benefit. For, things that mutually
illustrate one another undoubtedly possess one another's message.

we decree with full precision and care that,

 like the figure of the honoured and life-giving cross,
 the revered and holy images,
 whether painted or
 made of mosaic
 or of other suitable material,
are to be exposed
 in the holy churches of God,
 on sacred instruments and vestments,
 on walls and panels,
 in houses and by public ways,
these are the images of
 our Lord, God and saviour, Jesus Christ, and of
 our Lady without blemish, the holy God-bearer, and of
 the revered angels and of
 Any of the saintly holy men.

TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: First Lateran Council

The papal palace in Rome is called the Lateran Palace because, in ancient times, the site was owned and
occupied by the Laterani family. Five different Ecumenical Councils were held there during the Middle
Ages.

DATE: 1123

WHY CALLED:

At this point, there was an increased melding of Church and State. It was becoming common
practice to purchase the position of Bishop [referred to as “metropolitan bishops” because they
would have been in control of a city and surrounding area]. There was considerable concern that
many unqualified and inappropriate candidates were becoming powerful bishops.

A secondary issue was the Crusades. Those who volunteered to be a Crusader were losing their
homes and property while they were away.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

1. Following the examples of the holy fathers and renewing them as we are bound by our office,
by the authority of the apostolic see we altogether forbid anyone to be ordained or promoted in
the church of God for money. If anyone indeed should have been ordained or promoted in the
church in such a fashion, let him be utterly deprived of the office acquired. {15 }

2. {16 } We absolutely forbid those excommunicated by their own bishops to be received into
communion by other bishops, abbots and clergy {17 }

3. {18} No one may consecrate as a bishop someone who is not canonically elected. If anyone
should presume to do this, let both consecrator and consecrated be deposed {19} beyond hope of
restoration.

10. {34} To those who set out for Jerusalem and offer effective help towards the defence of the
christian people and overcoming the tyranny of the infidels, we grant the remission of their sins,
and we place their houses and families and all their goods under the protection of blessed Peter
and the Roman church, just as has been decreed by our lord pope Urban. Whoever dares to
distrain or carry off their houses, families and goods, while they are on their way, shall be
punished with excommunication. {35 } Those who have put crosses on their clothes, with a view
to journeying to Jerusalem or to Spain, and have later taken them off, we command by our
apostolic authority to wear the crosses again and to complete the journey between this Easter and
the following Easter. Otherwise, from that moment we cut them off from entry into church and
forbid divine services in all their lands, apart from the baptism of infants and confessions for the
dying.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS
NAME: Fourth Lateran Council

DATE: 1215

WHY CALLED:

This Council is generally considered to be the most important council of the Middle Ages,
marking a trend in summoning ecclesiastical business to the Roman curia.

Christian disasters in the Holy Land probably provided the occasion to call the council. Thus,
the pontiff ordered a new crusade to be proclaimed. But he also used the crusade as an
instrument of ecclesiastical administration, combined with reform of the church, namely in a
fierce war against heretics which he thought would restore ecclesiastical society

The bishops were explicitly asked to propose topics for discussion at the council, something
which does not seem to have happened at the preceding Lateran councils.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

13. A prohibition against new religious orders [later relaxed]

Lest too great a variety of religious orders leads to grave confusion in God's church, we strictly
forbid anyone henceforth to found a new religious order. Whoever wants to become a religious
should enter one of the already approved orders. Likewise, whoever wishes to found a new
religious house should take the rule and institutes from already approved religious orders. We
forbid, moreover, anyone to attempt to have a place as a monk in more than one monastery or an
abbot to preside over more than one monastery.

18. Clerics to dissociate from shedding-blood

No cleric may decree or pronounce a sentence involving the shedding of blood, or carry out a
punishment involving the same, or be present when such punishment is carried out. If anyone,
however, under cover of this statute, dares to inflict injury on churches or ecclesiastical persons,
let him be restrained by ecclesiastical censure. A cleric may not write or dictate letters which
require punishments involving the shedding of blood, in the courts of princes this responsibility
should be entrusted to laymen and not to clerics. Moreover no cleric may be put in command of
mercenaries or crossbowmen or suchlike men of blood [NOTE: THE CROSSBOW WAS THE
ONLY WEAPON BANNED BY THE CATHOLIC CHURCH BECAUSE IT WAS SO
DESTRUCTIVE]; nor may a subdeacon, deacon or priest practise the art of surgery, which
involves cauterizing and making incisions; nor may anyone confer a rite of blessing or
consecration on a purgation by ordeal of boiling or cold water or of the red-hot iron, saving
nevertheless the previously promulgated prohibitions regarding single combats and duels.
19. That profane objects may not be stored in churches

We are unwilling to tolerate the fact that certain clerics deposit in churches their own and even
others' furniture, so that the churches look like lay houses rather than basilicas of God, regardless
of the fact that the Lord would not allow a vessel to be carried through the temple. There are
others who not only leave their churches uncared for but also leave the service vessels and
ministers' vestments and altar cloths and even corporals so dirty that they at times horrify some
people. Because zeal for God's house consumes us, we strictly forbid objects of this kind to be
allowed into churches, unless they have to be taken in on account of enemy incursions or sudden
fires or other urgent necessities, and then in such a way that when the emergency is over the
objects are taken back to where they came from. We also order the aforesaid churches, vessels,
corporals and vestments to be kept neat and clean. For it seems too absurd to take no notice of
squalor in sacred things when it is unbecoming even in profane things.

66. Simony and avarice in clerics

It has frequently been reported to the apostolic see that certain clerics demand and extort
payments for funeral rites for the dead, the blessing of those marrying, and the like; and if it
happens that their greed is not satisfied, they deceitfully set up false impediments. On the other
hand some lay people, stirred by a ferment of heretical wickedness, strive to infringe a
praiseworthy custom of holy church, introduced by the pious devotion of the faithful, under the
pretext of canonical scruples. We therefore both forbid wicked exactions to be made in these
matters and order pious customs to be observed, ordaining that the church's sacraments are to be
given freely but also that those who maliciously try to change a praiseworthy custom are to be
restrained, when the truth is known, by the bishop of the place.

69. Jews not to hold public offices

It would be too absurd for a blasphemer of Christ to exercise power over Christians. We
therefore renew in this canon, on account of the boldness of the offenders, what the council of
Toledo providently decreed in this matter: we forbid Jews to be appointed to public offices, since
under cover of them they are very hostile to Christians. If, however, anyone does commit such an
office to them let him, after an admonition, be curbed by the provincial council, which we order
to be held annually, by means of an appropriate sanction. Any official so appointed shall be
denied commerce with Christians in business and in other matters until he has converted to the
use of poor Christians, in accordance with the directions of the diocesan bishop, whatever he has
obtained from Christians by reason of his office so acquired, and he shall surrender with shame
the office which he irreverently assumed. We extend the same thing to pagans.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: Second Council of Lyons

DATE: 1274

WHY CALLED:
Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo, the roof of which was removed in an attempt to speed up the election

The infamous Sede Vacante following the death of Clement IV had disrupted the work of the
Church. The election dragged on for three years, prompting the citizens of the town to storm the
council chamber, ripping off the roof and locking the cardinals in, in an attempt to prompt them
to make a decision and cease their freeloading.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

With the approval of the sacred council {8} , we decree that if the pope dies in a city where he
was residing with his curia, the cardinals present in that city are obliged to await the absent
cardinals, but for ten days only. When these days have passed, whether those absent have arrived
or not, all are to assemble in the palace where the pope lived. Each is to be content with one
servant only, clerical or lay, at choice. We allow however those in evident need to have two, with
the same choice. In this palace all are to live in common in one room, with no partition or
curtain. Apart from free entry to a private room, the conclave is to be completely locked, so that
no one can enter or leave. No one may have access to the cardinals or permission to talk secretly
with them, nor are they themselves to admit anyone to their presence, except those who, by
consent of all the cardinals present, might be summoned only for the business of the imminent
election. It is not lawful for anyone to send a messenger or a written message to the cardinals or
to any one of them.

If, which God forbid, within three days after the cardinals have entered the said conclave, the
church has not been provided with a shepherd, they are to be content for the next five days, every
day both at dinner and supper, with one dish only. If these days also pass without the election of
a pope, henceforth only bread, wine and water are to be served to the cardinals until they do
provide a pope. While the election is in process, the cardinals are to receive nothing from the
papal treasury, nor any other revenue coming from whatever source to the church while the see is
vacant. Everything during this period remains in the custody of him to whose faithfulness and
care the treasury has been entrusted, to be kept by him for the disposal of the future pope. Those
who have accepted something are obliged from then on to abstain from receiving any of the
revenues due to them until they have made full restitution of what they have accepted in this
way. The cardinals are to devote their time so carefully to hastening the election as to occupy
themselves with no other business whatever unless perhaps there occurs such an urgent necessity
as the defence of the states of the church or some part of them, or there be threat of such a great
and evident danger that it seems to each and all the cardinals present, by general consent, that
they should quickly counteract it.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: Council of Vienne

DATE: 1311-1312
WHY CALLED:
At this point in Church history, the monarch of France Philip IV had considerable power over the
papacy. In fact, the Papacy was essentially held captive at Avignon ~ the Avignon Captivity.
Pope Clement V called this council to demonstrate that he still had some degree of ecclesiastical
authority.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

The complaint against the Templars seems to have been the first and greatest concern of the
council. Thus the bull convoking the council was written at the same time as Clement V
summoned the Templar order to a canonical enquiry. Through the whole of Europe cases were
heard concerning the order and individual Templars. This work had not been completed by 1310
and so the pope deferred the opening of the council to 1 October 1311. Events had moved,
however, in such a way that the Templars' condemnation and Philip's victory seemed very
probable. This placed the authority and freedom of the council under severe constraint.

It was been widely speculated that the overriding reason for the persecution of the Templars was
that the Church – financially decimated by a long series of Crusades -- wished to appropriate the
huge fortune of the Order. Myths about the dissolution of the Templars and its secret survival
persist even to our day ~ as seen in the DaVinci Code controversy.

We entertain in our heart a deep longing that the catholic faith prosper in our time and that the
perverseness of heresy be rooted out of christian soil. We have therefore heard with great
displeasure that an abominable sect of wicked men, commonly called Beghards, and of faithless
women, commonly called Beguines, has sprung up in the realm of Germany. This sect, planted
by the sower of evil deeds, holds and asserts in its sacrilegious and perverse doctrine the
following errors.
1. First, that a person in this present life can acquire a degree of perfection which renders
him utterly impeccable and unable to make further progress in grace. For, as they say, if
someone could always make further progress, he could become more perfect than Christ.
2. Secondly, that it is not necessary to fast or pray after gaining this degree of perfection, for
then the sensitive appetite has been so perfectly subjected to the spirit and to reason that
one may freely grant the body whatever pleases it.
3. Thirdly, that those who have reached the said degree of perfection and spirit of liberty,
are not subject to human obedience nor obliged to any commandments of the church, for,
as they say, where the spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom.
4. Fourthly, that a person can gain in this life final beatitude in every degree of perfection
that he will obtain in the life of the blessed.
5. Fifthly, that any intellectual nature in itself is naturally blessed, and that the soul does not
need the light of glory to elevate it to see God and enjoy him blissfully.
6. Sixthly, that the practice of the virtues belongs to the state of imperfection and the perfect
soul is free from virtues.
7. Seventhly, that to kiss a woman is a mortal sin since nature does not incline one to it, but
the act of intercourse is not a sin, especially in time of temptation, since it is an
inclination of nature.
8. Eighthly, that at the elevation of the body of Jesus Christ, they ought not to rise or show
reverence to it; it would be an imperfection for them to come down from the purity and
height of their contemplation so far as to think about the ministry or sacrament of the
eucharist, or about the passion of Christ as man.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: Fifth Lateran Council

DATE: 1512-17

WHY CALLED: Religious upheaval in Germany caused by Luther

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

All the decrees of this council, at which the pope presided in person, are in the form of bulls*. At
the beginning of them are added the words "with the approval of the sacred council", and at the
end "in public session solemnly held in the Lateran basilica". The fathers confirmed all the
decrees by their votes. If anyone wished to reject a proposal, he made his dissenting opinion
known verbally, or briefly in writing. The result was that the matters proposed, after various
debates, were sometimes altered.

The decisions on the reform of the curia produced almost no effect because of the timidity and
inadequacy of the recommendations, especially since the papacy showed slight inclination to
carry the matter through. On the other hand, the council totally suppressed the Pisan schism. It is
clear that bishops were never present in great numbers at the council, and that prelates who lived
outside Italy were notably absent to such an extent that there has been frequent dispute about
whether the council was ecumenical.

[On cardinals]

Since the cardinals of the holy Roman church take precedence in honour and dignity over all the
other members of the church after the sovereign pontiff, it is proper and right that they be
distinguished beyond all others by the purity of their life and the excellence of their virtues. On
that account, we not only exhort and advise them but also decree and order that henceforth each
of the cardinals following the teaching of the Apostle, so live a sober, chaste and godly life that
he shines out before people as one who abstains not merely from evil but from every appearance
of evil

Since the duty of a cardinal is primarily concerned with regular assistance to the Roman pontiff
and the business matters of the apostolic see, we have decided that all cardinals shall reside at the
Roman curia, and those who are absent are to return within six months if they are in Italy, or
within a year from the day of promulgation of this present constitution if they are outside Italy. If
they do not they are to lose the fruits of their benefices and the emoluments of all their offices;
and they lose completely, as long as they arc absent, all privileges granted in general and in
particular to cardinals.
[On printing books]

It is certainly possible to obtain without difficulty some learning by reading books. The skill of
book-printing has been invented, or rather improved and perfected, with God's assistance,
particularly in our time. Without doubt it has brought many benefits to men and women since, at
small expense, it is possible to possess a great number of books. These permit minds to devote
themselves very readily to scholarly studies. Thus there can easily result, particularly among
Catholics, men competent in all kinds of languages; and we desire to see in the Roman church, in
good supply, men of this type who are capable of instructing even unbelievers in the holy
commandments, and of gathering them for their salvation into the body of the faithful by the
teaching of the Christian faith to prevent what has been a healthy discovery for the glory of God,
the advance of the faith, and the propagation of good skills, from being misused for the opposite
purposes and becoming an obstacle to the salvation of Christians, we have judged that our care
must be exercised over the printing of books, precisely so that thorns do not grow up with the
good seed or poisons become mixed with medicines. It is our desire to provide a suitable remedy
for this danger, with the approval of this sacred council, so that the business of book-printing
may go ahead with greater satisfaction the more that there is employed in the future, with greater
zeal and prudence, a more attentive supervision. We therefore establish and ordain that
henceforth, for all future time, no one may dare to print or have printed any book or other writing
of whatever kind in Rome or in any other cities and dioceses, without the book or writings
having first been closely examined, at Rome by our vicar and the master of the sacred palace, in
other cities and dioceses by the bishop or some other person who knows about the printing of
books and writings of this kind and who has been delegated to this office by the bishop in
question, and also by the inquisitor of heresy for the city or diocese where the said printing is to
take place, and unless the books or writings have been approved by a warrant signed in their own
hand, which must be given, under pain of excommunication, freely and without delay .

In addition to the printed books being seized and publicly burnt, payment of a hundred ducats to
the fabric of the basilica of the prince of the apostles in Rome, without hope of relief, and
suspension for a whole year from the possibility of engaging in printing, there is to be imposed
upon anyone presuming to act otherwise the sentence of excommunication. Finally, if the
offender's contumacy increases, he is to be punished with all the sanctions of the law, by his
bishop or by our vicar, in such a way that others will have no incentive to try to follow his
example.

*A Papal bull is a particular type of letter or charter issued by a pope. It is named

after the bulla [seal and cord] that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: Council of Trent

DATE: 1545-1563

WHY CALLED: Convoked to examine and condemn the errors promulgated by Luther
and other Reformers, and to reform the discipline of the Church. Of all councils it lasted
longest, issued the largest number of dogmatic and reformatory decrees, and produced the
most beneficial results.

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

We intend, with the help of the most High, to proceed with the holding of this sacred Lateran
council which has now begun for the praise of God, the peace of the whole church, the union of
the faithful the overthrow of heresies and schisms, the reform of morals, and the campaign
against the dangerous enemies of the faith, so that the mouths of all schismatics and enemies of
peace, those howling dogs, may be silenced and Christians may be able to keep themselves
unstained from such pernicious and poisonous contagion

We renew our letter dated 13 August 1512, at St Peter's, Rome, in the ninth year of our
pontificate, by which, on the advice of the Dominicans, on account of the support, favours,
sustenance and help notoriously provided to schismatics and heretics in the promotion of the said
condemned and rejected quasicouncil of Pisa, by the king of France and not a few other prelates,
officials, nobles and barons of the kingdom of France, we placed under ecclesiastical interdict
the kingdom of France and particularly Lyons, excepting the duchy of Brittany, and we forbade
the customary fairs of Lyons to be held in that city and we transferred them to the city of
Geneva. We also renew the decrees, declarations, prohibitions and every clause contained in the
letter, the said sacred council likewise having full information about them and giving its
approval. As stated, we subject the aforesaid kingdom and its cities, lands, towns and any other
territories to this interdict, and we transfer the fairs from Lyons to the said city of Geneva.

Since the cardinals of the holy Roman church take precedence in honour and dignity over all the
other members of the church after the sovereign pontiff, it is proper and right that they be
distinguished beyond all others by the purity of their life and the excellence of their virtues. On
that account, we not only exhort and advise them but also decree and order that henceforth each
of the cardinals following the teaching of the Apostle, so live a sober, chaste and godly life that
he shines out before people as one who abstains not merely from evil but from every appearance
of evil . In the first place, let him honour God by his works . Let all of them be vigilant, constant
at the divine office and the celebration of masses, and maintain their chapels in a worthy place,
as they were wont to do .
 Their house and establishment, table and furniture, should
not attract blame by display or splendour or superfluous
equipment or in any other way, so as to avoid any fostering
of sin or excess, but, as is right, let them deserve to be called mirrors of moderation and frugality.
Therefore, let them find satisfaction in what contributes to priestly modesty; let them act with
kindness and respect both in public and in private, towards prelates and other distinguished
persons who come to the Roman curia; and let them undertake with grace and generosity the
business committed to them by ourself and our successors .

A lay person who blasphemes, if he is a noble, is to be fined a penalty of twenty-five ducats; for
the second offence the fine is fifty ducats, which are to be applied to the fabric of the basilica of
the prince of the apostles in Rome; for other offences he is to be punished as set out below; for a
third fault, however, he is to lose his noble status. If he is of no rank and a plebian, he is to be
cast into prison. If he has been caught committing blasphemy in public more than twice, he is to
be compelled to stand for a whole day in front of the entrance of the principal church, wearing a
hood signifying his infamy; but if he has fallen several times into the same fault, he is to be
condemned to permanent imprisonment or to the galleys, at the decision of the appointed judge.
to prevent what has been a healthy discovery for the glory of God, the advance of the faith, and
the propagation of good skills, from being misused for the opposite purposes and becoming an
obstacle to the salvation of Christians, we have judged that our care must be exercised over the
printing of books, precisely so that thorns do not grow up with the good seed or poisons become
mixed with medicines. It is our desire to provide a suitable remedy for this danger, with the
approval of this sacred council, so that the business of book-printing may go ahead with greater
satisfaction the more that there is employed in the future, with greater zeal and prudence, a more
attentive supervision. We therefore establish and ordain that henceforth, for all future time, no
one may dare to print or have printed any book or other writing of whatever kind in Rome or in
any other cities and dioceses, without the book or writings having first been closely examined, at
Rome by our vicar and the master of the sacred palace, in other cities and dioceses by the bishop
or some other person who knows about the printing of books and writings of this kind and who
has been delegated to this office by the bishop in question, and also by the inquisitor of heresy
for the city or diocese where the said printing is to take place, and unless the books or writings
have been approved by a warrant signed in their own hand, which must be given, under pain of
excommunication, freely and without delay . In addition to the printed books being seized and
publicly burnt, payment of a hundred ducats to the fabric of the basilica of the prince of the
apostles in Rome, without hope of relief, and suspension for a whole year from the possibility of
engaging in printing, there is to be imposed upon anyone presuming to act otherwise the sentence
of excommunication.
TOP TEN CHURCH COUNCILS

NAME: The Second Vatican Council

DATE: The 21st ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, was
announced by Pope John XXIII on Jan. 25, 1959. On Oct. 11, 1962, after
four years of preparation, the council formally opened. Four sessions
convened; the last three (1963-65) were presided over by Pope Paul VI,
who succeeded John as pontiff in June 1963. The council ended on Dec.
8, 1965.

WHY CALLED: Unlike previous ecumenical councils, the Second Vatican Council was not
held to combat contemporary heresies or deal with awkward disciplinary questions but
simply, in the words of Pope John's opening message, to renew "ourselves and the flocks
committed to us, so that there may radiate before all men the lovable features of Jesus
Christ, who shines in our hearts that God's splendor may be revealed."

WORK OF THE COUNCIL:

Note: the Second Vatican Council was extremely productive and reformed many Church practices. For
example, the Council directed that Mass be said in the vernacular of each locale. For our purposes, the
selected document focuses solely on aspects of Catholic education.

DECLARATION ON CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

GRAVISSIMUM EDUCATIONIS
PROCLAIMED BY
POPE PAUL VI
ON OCTOBER 28, 1965

All men of every race, condition and age, since they enjoy the dignity of a human being, have an
inalienable right to an education (5) that is in keeping with their ultimate goal,(6) their ability,
their sex, and the culture and tradition of their country, and also in harmony with their fraternal
association with other peoples in the fostering of true unity and peace on earth. For a true
education aims at the formation of the human person in the pursuit of his ultimate end and of the
good of the societies of which, as man, he is a member, and in whose obligations, as an adult, he
will share.

Therefore children and young people must be helped, with the aid of the latest advances in
psychology and the arts and science of teaching, to develop harmoniously their physical, moral
and intellectual endowments so that they may gradually acquire a mature sense of responsibility
in striving endlessly to form their own lives properly and in pursuing true freedom as they
surmount the vicissitudes of life with courage and constancy. Let them be given also, as they
advance in years, a positive and prudent sexual education. Moreover they should be so trained to
take their part in social life that properly instructed in the necessary and opportune skills they can
become actively involved in various community organizations, open to discourse with others and
willing to do their best to promote the common good.

Since parents have given children their life, they are bound by the most serious obligation to
educate their offspring and therefore must be recognized as the primary and principal educators.
(11) This role in education is so important that only with difficulty can it be supplied where it is
lacking. Parents are the ones who must create a family atmosphere animated by love and respect
for God and man, in which the well-rounded personal and social education of children is
fostered. Hence the family is the first school of the social virtues that every society needs.
In fulfilling its educational role, the Church, eager to employ all suitable aids, is concerned
especially about those which are her very own. Foremost among these is catechetical instruction,
(16) which enlightens and strengthens the faith, nourishes life according to the spirit of Christ,
leads to intelligent and active participation in the liturgical mystery(17) and gives motivation for
apostolic activity. The Church esteems highly and seeks to penetrate and ennoble with her own
spirit also other aids which belong to the general heritage of man and which are of great
influence in forming souls and molding men, such as the media of communication,(18) various
groups for mental and physical development, youth associations, and, in particular, schools.
Since, therefore, the Catholic school can be such an aid to the fulfillment of the mission of the
People of God and to the fostering of the dialogue between the Church and mankind, to the
benefit of both, it retains even in our present circumstances the utmost importance. Consequently
this sacred synod proclaims anew what has already been taught in several documents of the
magisterium,(26) namely: the right of the Church freely to establish and to conduct schools of
every type and level. And the council calls to mind that the exercise of a right of this kind
contributes in the highest degree to the protection of freedom of conscience, the rights of parents,
as well as to the betterment of culture itself
But let teachers recognize that the Catholic school depends upon them almost entirely for the
accomplishment of its goals and programs.(27) They should therefore be very carefully prepared
so that both in secular and religious knowledge they are equipped with suitable qualifications and
also with a pedagogical skill that is in keeping with the findings of the contemporary world.
Intimately linked in charity to one another and to their students and endowed with an apostolic
spirit, may teachers by their life as much as by their instruction bear witness to Christ, the unique
Teacher
The choice of Nicaea was favourable to the assembling of a large number of bishops. It was easily
accessible to the bishops of nearly all the provinces, but especially to those of Asia, Syria, Palestine,
Egypt, Greece, and Thrace.