Part 9: Apoptosis, cancer, and stem cells

Apoptosis

or programmed cell death/ cellular suicide

A general and convenient way to remove cells that should no longer be

part of the organism

* Some cells need to be "deleted" during development.

* Some cells are abnormal and could hurt the rest of the organism if they
survive, such as cells with viral infections or DNA damage.
* Cells in an adult organism may be eliminated to maintain balance - to make
way for new cells or remove cells needed only for temporaty tasks.

Purpose:

1. Programmed cell death is a normal part of development.

This process occurs in all sorts of vertebrate species that have fingers or toes.
Sections of the interdigital web show cell death (dark staining nuclei). This cell death has the
characteristics of apoptosis.

vertebrate: động vật có xương sống.

interdigital web: màng giữa hai ngón.
dark staining: nhuộm màu xám.

2. Apoptosis can eliminate infected or cancerous cells.

 Cells with DNA damage, pres infected by viruses.
-> Need to be removed undergo apoptosis

3. Apoptosis is key to immune function

Apoptosis also plays an essential role in the development and maintenance of a healthy immune
system.

Eg:

When B and T cells (immune cells that bind specific molecules) are first produced
-> They're tested to see if they react against any of the body's own "self" components
If yes -> Apoptosis
If apoptosis failed -> autoimmune conditions

Pathogen is detected -> immune cells increase -> pathogen is cleared -> immune cells:
apoptosis

pathogen: tác nhân gây bệnh

Apoptosis vs Necrosis
Cellular damage can result in necrosis, which has a different appearance than apoptosis, as organelles
swell and the plasma membrane ruptures, without chromatin condensation.

rupture: sự đứt gãy, gián đoạn

Apoptosis vs autolysis

Apoptosis: a cell kills itself

Autolysis: enzymes kill a cell
 Cell structure changes during apoptosis. The left panel shows a normal cell. The right panel
shows an apoptosing cell; gold arrows indicate condensed nuclear fragments.

Fragmentation of DNA occurs in cells undergoing apoptosis.

Cancer
Definition

Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell division.

Multiphy in culture without growth factor (outside of the body in a dish)

Ignore signals that should cause them to stop dividing.

Replicative immortality: can divide many more times than a normal cell.
-> telomerase

Promote growth of new blood vessels, a process called aniogenesis (which gives tumor cells a
source of oxygen and nutrients)

Gain the ability to migrate to other parts of the body -> metastasis.

tumor cell: tế bào u

How cancer develops

malignant tumor: a group of cells that divide excessively and can invade other tissues.
**Stage 1: Mutation

A series of mutations eliminate restraints on cell division.

mutation: sự đột biến

restraint: giam cầm

Stage 2: Tumor growth

Tumor cells lose organization and profilerate quicklyl angiogenesis ensues.

proliferate: sinh sôi nảy nở

ensue: xảy ra sau đó

Stage 3: Intravastation

Malignant cells spread through blood vessels and lymphatic system

Intravastation: sự thâm nhập

malignant: ác tính
 Stage 4: Metastasis

Malignant cells become established in distant organs.

distant: xa cách

Mutation

About 10% of human cancers have a hereditary basis.

In most cases, the patient inherits one non-functional copy of a tumor-suppressor gene.

Cancer is induced after the second functional copy of the gene is inactivated by mutation (loss of
heterozygosity)

tumor-suppressor gene: gen ức chế u

heterozygosity: tính dị hợp tử

Tumor

An abnormal mass of tissue resulting from uncontrolled division:

Malignant tumor (cancerous)

Benign tumor (non-cancerous)

Benign tumor

Do not spread to other part of the body.

Generally localized and of small size.

Slow rate of division.

Cells that closely resemble, and may function, like normal cells.

Do not break out of originating organ.

Easily to removed by surgery.

Malignant Tumor
Invade or spread to other parts of the body.

High rate of division.

Spread by forming metastasis.

Cells travel through circulation.

Very difficult to treat.

Cell cycle regulators and cancer

Two types of cell cycle regulators may promote the develppment of cancer

Positive regulators maybe over activated (become oncogenic).

Negative regulators (Called tumor suppressors) maybe inactivated.
 ocogenic: sinh khối u
regulator: máy điều chỉnh

Positive regulators: overactivated

A growth facttor receptor may send signals even when growth factors are not there ->
overactivated.

The overactive forms of these genes are called oncogenes, while the normal, not-yet-mutated
are calles proto-oncogenes.

ocogene: gen ung thư

proto-oncogene: gen tiền ung thư
 Tumor suppressors

Stem cells
 Cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body.

"Blank" cells/ Unspecialized.

Proliferation: Renewing themselves for long periods of time.

Differentiation: Have the potential to give rise to specialized cells types.

Plasticity.

proliferation: sự tăng sinh, nảy nở

differentiation: sự biệt hóa
unspecialized: không biệt hóa

Stem cells divide slowly

Stem cells vs. progenitor cells:

Stem cells can keep specialized after divide while progenitor cells can't

Hierarchy of stem cells:

 Stem cells

Source of origin Sifference action of potential

Embryonic Adult Totipotent Pluripotent Multipotent Unipotent

Totipotent Other Stem Cells

Pluripotent Nerve Bone

Blood Stem Cells Muscle

Adult stem cells

Found in small numbers in most adlut tissues (bone marrow, fatm muscle, brain, heart, blood, skin,
intestine...)

intestine: ruột

Source:

Cord blood cells

Umbilical cord
Body (Bone marrow: Red blood cells, platelets, wite blood cells)

platelets: tiểu cầu

Embryonic vs adult stem cells

Embryonic Adult stem cells

Totipotent Multipotent or pluripotent

Large numbers can be harvested Limited numbers, diffucult to isolate

 Embryonic Adult stem cells

Less likely to cause immune rejection, since the patient's

May cause immune rejection
own cells can be used

Function to generate new organs Function the replace cells during the natural course of cells
and tissues turnover

isolate: tách ra, cô lập

immune rejection: từ chối miễn dịch
the natural course of cells turnover: quá trình tự nhiên của luân chuyển tế bào

Purpose:
Cell of variable potency that can self-renew

Normal: used for organ maintenance or repair

Therapeutic: repoair damaged organ by introducing/injecting extra stem cells into Work for
hematopoietic system, skin cells...

variable potency: năng lực biến đổi

hematopoietic system: hệ thống tạo máu
ịnjecting: bơm vào