Bio Test Review

Cell basics

5 processes of life
1. Metabolism: gas exchange (eg. breathing, mitochondria), excretion (poop) lysosome,
and obtaining nutrients (cell membrane)
2. Movement-
3. Response to stimuli, eg. moving to where food is, sensing world around &
responding- cell membrane
4. Reproduction- nucleus
5. Growth- nucleus

Cell theory
1. Cells are the basic foundational units of life
2. All cells come from preexisting cells*
3. All living things are made of one or more cells

Subcategories
Unicellular: organism made up of 1 cell
Multicellular: organism made up of
more than one cell
Prokaryotic: first type of cell to develop,
3.8B years ago. No nucleus, dna
floating around
Eukaryotic: developed later, 2.7B years
ago. DNA in nucleus. First eukaryotes
were protists, unicellular organisms.
Later developed into multicellular
organisms, in animalia, plantae and
fungi groups.

What is a cell?
A place where all the biochemical reactions necessary for life can take place, due the
presence of self replicating molecules (DNA and mRNA), a solvent they can move through,
and a high enough concentration for reactions to occur.
Microscopes

Aim at surface Aim through specimen

Light Dissecting Microscope Compound Light

- Light surface
- Low magnification
- Can’t see cells or bacteria
- Suited for large, not thin
specimen
- Low-med magnification
- Light shoots through spec.
- Inside of specimen
- What we have in class

Electron Scanning Electron Transmission electron

- Beautiful - Black and white
- High magnification - Inside of specimen
- Surface of cells - High mag, high detail
- Beam of electrons at - Beam of electrons through
- Vivid, colourful

Magnification: how much bigger an object appears on

a microscope than irl
- Compound light has 3 mags: 40x (low), 100x
(med), 400x (high)
Field of View: diameter of the spotlight of the
microscope, ie. how much you see
Scanning has colour, transmission has detail. Compound is us, dissecting for bugs
Organelles
Differences
Plant cells have a cell wall, which gives them structure alongside the central vacuole. Plant
cells have a more rigid structure because they don’t have a skeleton to support them like
animal cells. Plant cells also have chloroplasts because they do photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis: capture energy from light and store it as glucose, get the energy for later
6CO2+6H2O+energy=C6H12O6+6O2

CR: release energy stored in glucose. C6H12O16+6O2=6CO2+6H2IO+energy

Cell Membrane
The membrane containing the inside of the cell, separating it from its surroundings. It is semi
permeable and only lets some substances pass through. Made of phospholipids.

Cells are surrounded by and filled with water. Since the lipid tails are hydrophobic, the
phospholipids form a bilayer, where the hydrophilic phosphate heads are exposed to the
water inside and outside the cell, and the hydrophobic lipid tails are shielded from the water
and are inside of the cell membrane.

Membrane Transport
Diffusion: when a substance moves along its concentration gradient (high to low
concentration) //// /// //// /// // // / / / / / /
- Simple diffusion: substance diffuses right through cell membrane
- Eg. O2, CO2, anything small, w/o charge
- Facilitated diffusion: charged or large substance can’t get through cell membrane on
its own, instead diffuse through channel proteins (like tunnel)
- Glucose, any ions
Active transport: substance moves against concentration gradient using the protein pump.
Uses energy input from cell. Opposite of diffusion.

The Cell
Cycle
Organization of DNA
DNA is stored in long strands called chromosomes. During
interphase they are all jumbled together in the nucleus, in a form
called chromatin. We have 46 chromosomes. During DNA
synthesis, an exact copy is made of each strand and remains
attached. Both copies are called chromatids. Then the
chromatids wind up during prophase, then pull apart in anaphase.
Each chromatid becomes its own chromosome.

Stages of Mitosis

Recognizing from microscope:

- Interphase looks like the cell is empty
- Prophase looks like dark splotches in a circle
- Metaphase looks like a zipper
- Anaphase looks like jaws
- Telophase looks like the cell is pinched

Cell Cycle:
- Cell spends most of its life in interphase, where it does its function. In interphase
there is Growth 1, DNA synthesis, and Growth 2.
- Checkpoints happen before/after dramatic changes in the cell.
1. G1, to make sure there is no mutation in the DNA before undergoing DNA
synthesis (duplicating each piece of chromatin, remains attached).
2. G2, after DNA synthesis, to make sure DNA was properly synthesized.
3. During metaphase, to make sure that the DNA is aligned properly before
being pulled apart

Cytokinesis: when everything else in the cell is divided (organelles, cytoplasm)

Cell Division and Cell Death

How often do cells divide?
- Enough to grow the organism, replace worn down cells and repair the organism
- Divide often: plant root, cells lining digestive tract and skin cells

Factors that affect cell division:

- Environmental factors:
- Chemicals can increase cell division (growth hormones) or decrease/disorder
it (poisons)
- Cell division decreases when refrigerated

More cells needed (increase in cell division):

- High altitudes, less oxygen, so body creates red blood cells faster
- Plants bend toward light, increase cell division on opposite side
- Regeneration: rapid cell division to replace a lost or damaged part of the
organism, eg. part of liver, skin (humans), lizard tail, crab limbs
Increase: regeneration, altitude, growth
Decrease: fridge, poison

Cells divide until…

Necrosis: traumatic cell death due to injury, eg. scrapes, burns, pulling muscle. Triggers
immune response eg. redness, pain, swelling.

Or…
Apoptosis
Purposeful cell death which removes cells that are not needed or no longer function. Does
not cause immune response.
Why?
- After undergoing mitosis 50-60x: Cell is old, doesn’t function optimally
- Excess cells that impede functioning of body
- Fetal webbing, cells do apoptosis so body forms fingers and toes
- Pruning: during adolescence, neurons no longer needed do apoptosis
so brain can work more efficiently
- Immune cells after fighting a pathogen
- When cell is compromised, has mutation or virus in DNA, self destructs to
prevent harm to rest of body
Unless it is…

Cancer
Definition: The accumulation of mutations resulting in a clump of cells called a tumour

Formation
Cancer happens when these 3 genes are mutated. Happens in every cancerous cell
1. Tumour suppressor: scan DNA for mutations and fix them. If these genes are
mutated, other mutations build up and can’t be fixed
2. p53: gene which triggers apoptosis, thus even though cell is mutated, it can’t self
destruct for the benefit of the whole organism
3. Oncogenes: cause cells to divide rapidly while body is developing in utero, then
switched off. If mutation switches them back on, the cell divides rapidly

Overall: cell cannot detect and fix mutations, cannot destroy itself, and divides quickly

Behaviour
Regular Cell Cancer Cell

- Detects and fixes mutations - Mutations build up

- Divides 50-60x before apoptosis
- Divides at healthy rate
- Forms tissues with other cells,
performs a function
- Divides rapidly and can’t stop
- Forms tumour, which doesn’t
perform useful function for body
- Blood vessels grow towards it,
taking nutrients from nearby cells
- Metastasize (move through blood
stream) to spread across body

Risk factors: radiation, smoke, alcohol, genetics, unhealthy weight, cured/processed meats

Terminology
Gene: section of DNA which codes for a particular protein -> characteristic of organ
Mutation: an altercation in DNA code in a gene. Usually unnoticeable, sometimes harmful,
occasionally good (evolution)
Carcinogen: something known to cause cancerous mutations, eg. smoking, alcohol,
processed meats, excess solar radiation

Treatments
Radiation: shrinks tumours by killing outer cells
Surgery: tumour is removed
Chemotherapy: poison is ingested which targets cells undergoing mitosis. Healthy cells most
affected: skin cells, cells lining GI tract

Specialization and Animal Tissues

Specialization: all cells in an organism have the same genes, but not every gene is used in
each cell. The expressed genes lead to certain proteins being made, which can lead to
different results.

Specialized cells: cells that have turned off some of their genes. These have differentiated
into specialized cells

Stem cells: have not differentiated yet, will differentiate when exposed to particular
conditions
- Embryonic stem cells: have potential to become anything, plentiful, from fetus
- Adult stem cells: partially differentiated, can become any cell type within a cell
classification, eg. any type of immune cell. Fewer

Tissues: groups of cells that work together to perform a function. Form organs
- Epithelial tissue:
- Tightly packed cells, form layer 1+ cells thick
- Lines outside of body (skin) and inside of body
cavities (lung, stomach lining)
- Protective layer and glands (structure that
releases substance, eg. salivary glands, tear
duct)
- Connective tissue:
- Joins other tissues together, supports structures, fills space
- Tendons, ligaments, bones, cartilage, adipose (fatty tissue), blood
- Found in knees, elbows, bloodstream, under skin

- Muscle tissue:
- Made of cells that can contract to allow movement
1. Skeletal: contracts voluntarily, attached to bones, moves you around
2. Smooth: contracts involuntarily, blood vessel walls, GI tract,
reproductive tract. Breathing
3. Cardiac: only found in heart, contracts involuntarily
- Nervous tissue:
- Creates and transmits nerve impulses throughout body
- Forms body network
- Carries messages to and from brain
- Found everywhere, anything that senses or moves

Plants
Plant tissues
- Meristematic: ends of plant, allows it to grow. Root tips, stem tips, around outside,
made of plant stem cells
- Epidermal:
- Protective outer covering
- Waxy on top
- Underside has stomata, which are tiny openings that
allows gas exchange
- Vascular: transports water and nutrients around plant
- Xylem carries water and minerals UP from roots
- Transpiration pull: water is pulled up from roots by
suction force, leading where there is an abundance
of water to where it is needed
- Phloem carries glucose from leaves to where it is needed
or will be stored. Goes up and down
- Ground: most of plant, function depends on location
- Leaves: called mesophyl, site of photosynthesis
- Stem: fills interior to provide support
- Roots: stores food and water

Root tip

Stem cross section

Plant organs

Roots
- Anchor the plant, first to grow
- Collect water and minerals from soil and transport to stem
- Store glucose made in leaves
- Center is group and vascular. Surrounded by meristematic so it can grow quickly,
then root cap made of epidermal
Stem
- Supports and elevates leaves and flowers
- Transports water and nutrients
- Mostly ground, vascular for transport, epidermal as waxy covering
Leaves
- Site of photosynthesis, done by ground tissue called mesophyl
- Vascular tissue brings up water and brings down sugar leaf creates, covered in
epidermal and does gas exchange through somata on underside
Flowers
 - Reproductive organs and produces seeds
- Stamen is filament with anther at top, produces pollen
- Pistil contains ovary, which produces eggs
- Pollination: pollen is collected from stamen of one flower by a pollinator, who is
attracted to the flower by the petals. The pollinator then deposits some of the pollen
into the pistil of another flower, which produces seeds from pollen and egg
- Seeds surrounded by flesh are fruits, by hard casing are nuts

Vegetables vs. fruit

Vegetables are part of main body of plant (root [carrot, beet], stem [celery green onion],
leaf[spinach)

Fruits are protective bodies formed around seeds. Tomatoes, apples, nuts.