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FORM/TINGKATAN 4 LESSON/PELAJARAN 6 KEVIN

Chapter 6: Cell Division

Diploid
6.1 Cell Division
 Have 2 sets of chromosomes = 2n
 Involve 2 stages
 2n = 46
(a) Karyokinesis = Division of nucleus
(b) Cytokinesis = Division of cytoplasm
Haploid
 Organism body’s cell divided into
 Have 1 set of chromosome = n
(a) Somatic cell
 n = 23
(b) Gamete
Somatic cell Gamete
Body cells except gametes Reproductive cells
Produced through mitosis Produced through meiosis
Contains diploid number Contains haploid number

 Diploid cell
- 1 set of chromosome from male parent = Paternal chromosome
- 1 set of chromosomes from female parent = Maternal chromosome
- Both paternal & maternal chromosomes have same structural characteristics
- Known as homologous chromosome

Chromatin
Chromosome that looks like a long
thread
6.2 Cell Cycle & Mitosis
 Sequence of events that involve DNA multiplication & cell division
 Produce 2 daughter cells
 Cell cycle consists of interphase & M phase (Mitotic phase)
 Interphase = Longest (G1 , S & G2 phase)

Phase Description
G1  Involve the growth of cell
 High metabolic rate Conducive
 Stage to decide whether to proceed with cell division or not Proceed
 Mitochondrion & endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are produced
 Protein used for cell division are synthesized Not conducive
 Nucleus → Big & Defined No division
 Chromosome → In the form of chromatin
S  DNA synthesis (Replication of DNA in the nucleus)
- Each chromosome multiplies into 2 identical chromosomes (sister chromatids)
- Both chromatid contains the same copy of DNA molecule & joined at the
centromere
G2  Cells continue to grow & remain metabolically active
 Cells gather energy for final preparation of cell division
M  Made up of mitosis & cytokinesis
- Mitosis → Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT)
Mitosis
 Division of the nucleus in the parent cell into 2 nuclei
 Each nucleus has same number of chromosomes & genetic content with the nucleus of
parent cell
 Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase

Prophase

Chromosomes  Chromatin shorten & thicken → Chromosome (Visible under light

microscope)
 Chromosome = Made up of 2 identical threads → Sister chromatids
 2 sister chromatids are joined at centromere
Spindle fibre  Start to form & extend between centrioles
Centriole  Start to migrate to opposite poles
 Each pair acts as centre point for the formation of spindle fibre
At the end  Nucleolus disappear
 Nuclear membrane disintegrate

Metaphase
 Chromosomes  Lined up on a plane called metaphase plate at the equator of the cell
 Arranged randomly
 Sister chromatids are attached at centromere
Spindle fibre  Fully formed (Maintain the chromosomes at the equatorial plane)
 Still attached to centromere
Centrioles  At the opposite poles of the cell
At the end  Centromere starts to divide (Metaphase ends)

Anaphase

Chromosomes  Sister chromatids of each chromosome separated at centromere

 Sister chromatids are pulled apart
Spindle fibre  Shorten & contract → Sister chromatids are attracted to opposite poles
At the end  Chromatids reached the opposite poles

Telophase

Chromosomes  Chromatids arrived at opposite poles → Known as daughter chromosome

 Each pole contains 1 set of complete & identical chromosomes
 Start to uncoil & form back chromatin structure
Spindle fibre  Disappear
At the end  Nucleolus reform
 Nuclear membrane reform
Calculation of chromosomes & chromatids
Example Explanation
A chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids

8 chromosomes but have 16 chromatids

(Metaphase)

When sister chromatids are separated, each

chromatids are known as individual
chromosomes. It is having 16 chromosomes &
16 chromatids. (Anaphase)
Cytokinesis
 Plant cells do not contain centrioles → But able to form spindle fibre during mitosis

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

 Plasma membrane constrict in the middle  The membranous vesicles are formed
of cell between 2 nuclei along the equator between the two
 Microfilament at the point of constriction nuclei
contract  The vesicles are fused to form cell plate
 Forming a groove called a cleavage  The cell plates grow outwards until its
furrow edges fuse with the plasma membrane
 The cleavage furrow pinches at the of the parents cell
equator of the cell and deepens  At the end of cytokinesis, cellulose
progressively until two daughter cells are fibres are produced by the cells to
separated strengthen the new cell walls

Similarities
 Both involved the division of the cytoplasm to produce two daughter cells
 Both produced two nuclei each with identical chromosomes

Differences
 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of cleavage furrow / actin filament while
in plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of cell plate
Importance of Mitosis
Replacing old, worn out Replace the RBC as die after 120 days
& dead cells
Increase number of cells For embryo development & the growth of organisms
in growth & development
Repair injured organs Liver able to regenerate the missing part due to liver transplant
Regeneration of body Lizard able to grow a new tail if tail breaks
parts
Asexual reproduction Amoeba sp. & Paramecium sp. → Binary fission
Growth of vegetative organs in plants → Tuber (Potato) & Bulb (Onion)
Tissue culture Produce genetically identical young plants through the culturing of parent
cells
Stem cell therapy Stem cell from bone marrow is used to treat damaged cartilage

Importance of Controlled Mitosis

Orderly & precise division  Ensure exact copy of parent chromosomes are inherited to
for exact distribution daughter cells
 For proper functioning of cells
Maintain chromosomal  Chromosomal number & genetic content of parent are inherited
number & genetic content to daughter cells from 1 generation to another
Growth, development &  Ensure that these processes occur at the right time &
maintenance synchronized with other organs for overall maturity at a specific
time
6.3 Meiosis
 Cell division that occurs in reproductive organs = Testis (Male) & Ovary (Female)
 Produce gametes that contains half the number of chromosomes (haploid) of the parent
cells (diploid) → Produce genetic variation
 Form gametes through gametogenesis

Prophase I

Crossing over between non-

sister chromatids of
homologous chromosome pair
occurs on chiasma

 Chromosome begins to condense as they become shorter & thicker & clearly visible
 Homologous chromosome are paired to form bivalent through process of synapsis
 Each bivalent consists of a four part structure called tetrad (two homologous
chromosomes which is made up of two sister chromatids each)
 An exchange of DNA segment / genetic materials between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes occurs through crossing-over (Result in new combination
of genes on a chromosomes)
 Nucleolus & Nucleus membrane disappears
Result in new combination of alleles on
 Both centrioles move to opposite pole
chromosomes (genetic variation occurs)
 Spindle fibre are formed

Enhance the ability of animal species to

adapt to different environment
Metaphase I
Metaphase I contribute to
variation in organism
because of the independent
assortment of chromosomes
which are randomly arranged
during metaphase I & it
produce different haploid
gametes

 The spindle fibre pulls the tetrads to the middle of the cell
 Pairs of homologous chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate & lined up by the
side as tetrads
 1 chromosome from each pair of homologous chromosome is tied to spindle fibres from
1 pole cell & its homologue is tied to the spindle fibres from opposite pole cell
 Centromere does not divide & sister chromatid still tied together

Anaphase I

 The spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes apart from one another & pull
them to opposite pole of the cells (Spindle fibre shortens)
 Each chromosomes consists of two sister chromatids
 Each homologous chromosomes are attached to spindle fibre
 Each poles has only two chromosomes each with two sister chromatids
Telophase I

 Chromosomes are arrived at the poles

 Each poles has haploid daughter cells as it contains one set of chromosomes only
 The spindle fibres disappear / degenerates
 The nuclear membrane & nucleolus reformed in each nucleus
 Succeeded by cytokinesis that produces 2 daughter cells (Haploid)
 Interphase for meiosis I is short & DNA does not replicate

Prophase II

 Nucleolus disappear & nuclear membrane disintegrates

 Each chromosome is made up of sister chromatids that joined at the centromere
 Spindle fibre starts to form in both daughter cells
Metaphase II

 The chromosomes line up randomly on the metaphase plate for each daughter cell
 Each sister chromatid is tied to spindle fibre of opposite poles at the centromere

Anaphase II

 2 sister chromatids of each chromosomes are segregated at the centromere

 The sister chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles
 Sister chromatids of each chromosomes are now individual chromosomes

Telophase II

 Chromosomes arrive the pole of cell

 Nucleolus & nuclear membrane are reformed
 Spindle fibres disappear
 Number of chromosome for each daughter cell is half of the number of parent chromosome
 Ends with cytokinesis that produces 4 haploid daughter cells
 Each haploid cell contains half the number of parent cell chromosomes
 Genetic content is different from diploid parent cell
 Haploid cell → Gamete
Calculation of chromosomes & chromatids
Example Explanation
A tetrad (Also known as bivalents) consists of
2 attached homologous chromosomes (4
chromatids)

There are 8 chromosomes & 16 chromatids

(Metaphase I)

There are 8 chromosomes & 16 chromatids

(Anaphase I)

There are 4 chromosomes & 8 chromatids

(Metaphase II)

There are 8 chromosomes & 8 chromatids

(Anaphase II)
 Function of meiosis
 Produce haploid gametes for sexual reproduction
- Fertilization of 2 haploid gametes regenerates diploid number of chromosomes
in the offspring
 Gametes produced through meiosis have genetic variation
- Produce variation in zygote

Sample Essay
Differences between mitosis & meiosis I
Stage Mitosis Meiosis I
Prophase Location of chromosomes at Homologous chromosomes come
random. No crossing over occurs together through synapsis. Crossing
& chiasmata is absent. over occurs & chiasmata is present.
Metaphase Chromosomes are arranged at the Homologous chromosomes are
middle of cell arranged at the middle of cell
Anaphase Chromatid are moved to opposite Homologous chromosomes are
poles moved to opposite poles
Telophase Each daughter cell has the same Each daughter cell has half the
number of chromosomes as number of chromosomes of parent
parent
Difference between meiosis I & meiosis II

Metaphase I
Prophase I

Prophase I Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes are randomly Homologous chromosomes are arranged on
arranged the metaphase plate
The centromeres of chromosomes are not The centromeres of chromosomes are
hold by any spindle fibre attached to spindle fibre
The homologous chromosomes are paired & Homologous chromosomes are paired but
crossing over take place crossing over does not take place

Stage Meiosis I Meiosis II

Prophase Homologous chromosome come Chromosome are located at
together to form bivalent through random & no crossing-over occurs
synapsis & crossing-over occurs
Metaphase Pairs of homologous Chromosomes are arranged at
chromosomes are arranged at metaphase plate in a straight line
metaphase plate
Anaphase Separation of homologous Separation of sister chromatids to
chromosomes to opposite poles opposite poles
Telophase Chromosomes arrived at the poles Chromatids arrived at the poles
& single cytokinesis
Difference between mitosis & meiosis

Similarities
 Both are process of cell division that occurs in living cells
 DNA replicate only once in both processes

Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in reproductive cells only
Function: To produce new cells for growth & Function: To produce gametes for sexual
repair for damaged tissue reproduction
Synapsis does not occur Synapsis occur in prophase I
Crossing over does not occur Crossing over occur in prophase I
One cell division Two cell division
Produce two daughter cells (Diploid = 2n) Produce four daughter cells (Haploid = n)
Maintain the number of chromosomes Halved the number of chromosomes
Daughter cells are genetically identical to Daughter cells are not genetically identical to
parent cells parent cells
One time cytokinesis Two times cytokinesis
No genetic variation Has genetic variation
6.4 Issues of Cell Division on Human Health
 Cell cycle is controlled by a special control system at G1, S, G2 and M phase → Ensure
proper cell division
 Uncontrolled cell division → Formation of tumours (Benign & Malignant)
- Benign tumour = Not dangerous & can be removed through surgery
- Malignant tumour = Dangerous & also known as cancer
 Cancer can be caused by a few factors Continuous cell division & develop
- Radiation → X-ray, gamma rays & ultraviolet rays into tumor
- Chemical substances → Tar in tobacco
- Genetic factors → Formaldehyde & benzene Cancer cells spread & destroy normal
- Bacteria & virus cells around it

Differences between normal cells & cancer cells

Normal cells Cancer cells

Controlled growth
Monolayer & organized
Cells are differentiated
specialized functions
Normal chromosomal number
Uncontrolled growth
Multilayer & disorganized
to carry out Cells are undifferentiated & do not have
specialized functions
Abnormal chromosomal number
Effect of uncontrolled mitosis

 Tumour is abnormal mass of cells that can invade & destroy neighbouring cells
 When cell divides through uncontrolled mitosis which caused by severe disruptions to
mechanism that control cell cycle / mutation → Cancerous cells will be formed
 Cancerous cells compete with surrounding normal cells to obtain nutrients & energy
for growth
 Cancerous cells will grow to form tumour (abnormal mass of cells) & continuously
undergo mitosis to produce more cancerous cells
 Tumour can spread & expand & destroy neighbouring cells

Down syndrome
 Abnormality during meiosis → Genetic diseases
 Spindle fibres fail to function during anaphase I or anaphase II
 Chromosomes fails to separate = Non-disjunction
Importance of meiotic cell division

 Sperm has 24 chromosomes as homologous chromosome fail to separate equally during

anaphase I (Non-disjunction of chromosomes number 21 during anaphase I)
 Which caused by exposure to mutagen
 When fertilization occurs, 24 chromosomes in sperms will fuse with 23 chromosomes
in ovum which produce the zygote / offspring with 47 chromosomes
 This genetic disease is known as Down’s syndrome (Trisomy 21)
 The chromosome number 21 has three chromosomes
 The characteristics of this genetic disease
- Has short tongue
- Broad face

Klinefelter syndrome Turner syndrome

(XXY) (XO)
Sample Essay
Tissue culture

 Parent plant with good characteristics was chosen

 Segment actively mitosis part of plant (shoot / root) meristem was cut
 The segment was cut into smaller pieces → Explant
 Explant is placed into sterile culture which contains auxin & cytokinin (To stimulate
mitotic cell division = mitosis forming callus)
 Callus is then transferred into sterile culture (adding auxin & gibberellin) (To stimulate
growth through mitosis forming plantlets)
 Plantlet is transferred to soil & forming clones
 Advantages:
- Large number of clones is produced in short period of time
- The clones have the same characteristics as parental plant
(i) Same flower colour & same number of flowers
(ii) Same fruit size Good traits /
characteristics
(iii) Fruit & flower are produced at same time
 Disadvantage:
- No genetic variation (Same resistance to diseases as parental plant)
Animal cloning

 Parental animal with good characteristics are chosen

 Diploid cell (Somatic cell) from parental animal are obtained (Which contains complete
genetic material of animal)
 Nucleus of the cells are isolated
 Unfertilized eggs from same species female animal are obtained
 Nucleus of egg cells are destroyed through UV treatment
 Diploid nucleus inserted into egg cells without nucleus
 Forming egg cells with diploid nucleus
 Diploid cell is placed into culture solution & grow through mitotic cell division =
mitosis
 Forming 8 cell embryo (Has high ability for implantation & higher survival rate)
 Embryo is transferred into uterus through cervix A population of organism produced
 Implantation success and pregnancy occurs asexually & have same genetic
 Clone born composition as parental organism
 Advantages: Large number of clones are produced within short time & same
characteristics with parental organism (More milk & meat production for cow)