Chapter 6 : Cell Division

6.1 Cell Division

Cell division = process through which a parent cell divides into daughter cells (2 or more).

 Karyokinesis : division of nucleus

 Cytokinesis : division of cytoplasm

Cells

- reproductive cells
 produced through meiosis
 e.g. ovum and sperm cells
 haploid cells
Reason : they only have one set of chromosomes/ 23 chromosomes {n = 23}
 non-homologous chromosomes which contain different genes

Sperm – 23 chromosomes
Ovum – 23 chromosomes
Zygote - Total : 46
chromosomes

- somatic cells
produced through mitosis
e.g. all body cells except ovum and sperm cells
diploid cells
Reason : they have 2 sets of chromosomes/ 46 chromosomes {2n =46}
23 – paternal chromosome/ male parent
23 – maternal chromosome/ female parent
homologous chromosomes which have similar length, genes and centromere
position
6.2 Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Cell cycle = sequence of events which involves DNA multiplication/ replication and cell division to
produce daughter cells.

Interphase = G₁ phase, S phase, G₂ phase

G₁  Known as cell growth phase

(First Gap phase)  To prepare cells for DNA replication (which happens at S phase)
and cell division.
 What happen here?
1. Cell is active.
2. Cell grows to be larger rapidly.
3. Organelles, nutrients and proteins (ie. enzymes) needed are
synthesised.
4. Accumulating energy for later stage (S phase).
5. Cell contents duplicated except chromosomes.
 Nucleus is big. Chromosome is not visible because it is still in the
form of chromatin. Each chromosome is a single chromatid at this
stage.

After acquiring sufficient size and energy in the form of ATP, the cells proceed to DNA
synthesis/ replication.
S phase  Synthesis of DNA by replicating DNA/ copying DNA.
(Synthesis phase)  What happen here?
1. DNA in the nucleus is replicated/ making more copies of itself.
2. Chromosome condenses and replicates into 2 identical
chromosomes known as sister chromatids.
3. Energy-draining. 能量消耗
After replication, each chromosome now consists of 2 sister chromatids
 attached at centromere. The amount of DNA doubled.

G₂  Known as cell growth phase 2/ second growth/ final preparation

(Second Gap phase)  What happen here?
1. Cell begins to recognize its contents to prepare for cell
division.
2. Cell grows more and is still active metabolically.
3. Cell synthesise more/ additional molecules needed for
division. For example, proteins such as microtubules and
organelles.
4. Acquisition/ accumulation of energy after much of the energy
is drained after DNA replication.
 Additional cell growth.
Size of cell increases and volume of cytoplasm increases.
Organelles reproduced.
G₂ phase ends when mitosis begins.
** During interphase, chromosomes are fully or partially condense
Cell division

- Mitosis (nuclear division – prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase) and cytokinesis
(cytoplasm division)

Mitosis nuclear division/ division of nucleus of parent cell

into 2 identical daughter cells.
a process where parent cell divides into 2
identical daughter cells.
involves prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase
segregation 分离 of chromosomes into daughter
cells.
Prophase 1. Condensation of chromosomes
- Chromatin starts to coil/ condense/ thicken/
become more compact and shorten to form
chromosomes which are visible under
microscopes.
- Chromosomes are made up of 2 identical threads
called sister chromatids joined at centromere.
2. Breakdown of nucleoli/ nucleolus and nucleus
membrane
- The nucleus membrane breaks down/
 disintegrates.
- The nucleolus breaks down/ disappears.
3. Formation of spindle fibres/ mitotic fibres
- Centrioles move to the opposite poles of the cell.
- Then, the spindle fibres begin to form between
the centrioles at opposite poles.

Chromosome = 2 chromatids/ sister chromatids

Metaphase 1. Position of centrioles

- The centrioles arrives at the opposite poles of the
cell.
2. Movement of chromosomes
- Chromosomes move/ migrate to the equator of
the spindle fibres.
- The chromosomes are now aligned 对齐 in a
single row on the equator/ equatorial plane.
- The spindle fibres maintain the position of
chromosomes at the equator.

Metaphase ends when the centromere begins to divide/ split.

Anaphase 1. Separation of sister chromatids and division of
centromere by the pulling of spindle fibres
- The spindle fibres shorten and contract, pulling
and separating the sister chromatids to the
opposite poles.
- Chromosomes/ sister chromatids divide and
separate at the centromere.

Anaphase ends when the daughter chromosomes arrive at each pole of the cell.
Telophase Telophase mark the arrival of chromatids.
Chromatids arrive at each pole of the cell. This is
when the chromatids are called daughter
chromosomes.
1. Completion
- Each pole now contains complete set of
identical chromosomes.
2. Chromosome uncoil into chromatin
3. Reformation of nucleoli/ nucleolus and
nucleus membrane
4. Disappearance of spindle fibres

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm which happens immediately after telophase/ division of
nucleus.

Animal cell
 Has centrioles which helps with formation of spindle fibres.
 A contractile ring is formed around the equator of the cell/ in the middle of the cell
beneath the plasma membrane.
 The contractile ring shrinks/ constricts at the equator. This pinches plasma membrane
inward and forms cleavage furrow.
 The contractile ring constricts/ shrinks until it splits to form 2 daughter cells.
Results : 2 daughter cells are bound by its own plasma membrane.

Plant cell
 Has no centrioles but still can form spindle fibres.
 A carbohydrate-rich vesicle is formed around the equator of the cell/ in the middle of the
cell beneath the plasma membrane.
 The vesicles fuses/ combines to form cell plate at the equator/ in the middle of the cell.
 The cell plate expand outwards/ enlarge until it combine with the plasma membrane to
form 2 daughter cells.
Result : 2 daughter cells are bound by its own plasma membrane and cell wall./ New cell walls
formed between 2 daughter cells.
Questions
Interphase includes G1, S, G2.
At G2 phase, the cell ‘ double checks’ the duplicated chromosomes for error and make any
repair needed
At cytokinesis, the division of cytoplasm occurs, creating 2 daughter cells.
At G1 phase, cellular contents are duplicated except chromosomes.
Application
1. Continuous mitosis result in the increase in the number of cells. For example, form a single
cell (zygote) to a complex organism such as human.
2. Mitosis produces new cells and replaces cells that are damaged and old. For example, skin
cells and red blood cells.
3. Mitosis ensure genetic stability. Daughter cells formed are genetically uniform and identical
to the parent cell.
4. Mitosis involved in regeneration of body parts. For example, starfish and lizard.
5. Mitosis is a method of asexual reproduction. For example, budding of hydra and yeast ;
Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. Reproduce through binary fission.
6. Cloning involves mitosis where a genetically identical individual is created from an existing
individual.
7. Stem cell therapy/ bone marrow transplant used to treat diseases such as leukaemia.

6.3 Meiosis
Meiosis - A process where a diploid cell divides twice to produce four haploid daughter cells which
contain half the number of chromosomes of parent cell./ haploid number of chromosomes.

Sperm (n=23) + Ovum (n=23)

FERTILISATION
Zygote (2n=46) [Fertilised egg]

MEIOSIS
Organism

MEIOSIS I
Prophase I

1. Condensation of chromosomes
Chromatin condenses, shortens, thickens and forms visible chromosomes.
2. Breakdown of nucleolus and nucleus membrane
The nucleus membrane disintegrates/ breaks down and nucleolus disappears.
3. Formation of spindle fibres/ mitotic fibres
As the centrioles move to the opposite poles, the spindle fibres start to form between
centrioles at the opposite end.
4. Pairing of homologous chromosomes through synapsis
The pairing forms bivalent/ tetrad.
Bivalent = a pair of homologous chromosomes/ 2 homologous chromosomes/ a group of 2
homologous chromosomes.
Tetrad = a group of 4 sister chromatids in the homologous chromosome pair.
5. Exchange of genetic material through crossing over
The crossing over takes place at the chiasma between non-identical chromatids.
This produces a combination of genes that are new to the chromosomes.

Metaphase I = M(middle)

1. Movement of centrioles
Centrioles arrive at the each opposite end of the cell.
2. Movement of homologous chromosomes
- Homologous chromosomes migrate/ move to the equator of the spindle fibre. They are
now aligned in a single row on the equator/ equatorial plane.
- One chromosome from each pair of homologous chromosomes is tied to the spindle
fibre from one pole.
- Meanwhile, its homologous is tied to the spindle fibre from opposite pole.
- The spindle fibre maintain the homologous chromosomes at the equator.
Anaphase I = A(away)

1. Pulling homologous chromosomes

The spindle fibres shortens and contracts. This pulls and separates the homologous
chromosomes from its homologous to each opposite end of cell.
2. Separation of homologous chromosomes
Each chromosome is still made up of sister chromatids which are tied to centromere and
move as 1 unit to the each pole.

Telophase I

1. Chromosomes arrive at each pole.

Each pole contains a complete haploid set of chromosomes. (n=23)
2. Reformation of nucleoli/ nucleolus and nucleus membrane
3. Disappearance of spindle fibres
Telophase I results in 2 non-identical haploid daughter cells.
MEIOSIS II

Prophase II

1. Condensation of chromosomes
- Chromosomes starts to condense and shorten. They become more visible under
microscope.
- Chromosomes are made up of 2 identical threads called sister chromatids joined at
centromere.
2. Breakdown of nucleoli/ nucleolus and nucleus membrane
- The nucleus membrane breaks down/ disintegrates.
- The nucleolus breaks down/ disappears.
3. Formation of spindle fibres/ mitotic fibres
As the centrioles move to the opposite poles, the spindle fibres start to form between
centrioles at the opposite end.

Metaphase II = M(middle)

1. Movement of centrioles
Centrioles are at the opposite poles of the cell.
2. Movement of chromosomes
- Chromosomes migrate to the equator. The chromosomes are now aligned in a single row
on the equator/ equatorial plane.
- Each sister chromatids is tied to the spindle fibre at the centromere. The spindle fibre
maintains chromosomes position at the plane.
Anaphase II = A(away)

1. Separation of sister chromatids and division of centromere by the pulling of spindle fibres
- The spindle fibres shorten and contract, pulling and separating the sister chromatids to the
opposite poles./
The spindle fibres shorten and contract. This causes the spindle fibres tp start pulling and
separating the sister chromatids to the opposite poles.
- Chromosomes/ sister chromatids divide and separate at the centromere.

Telophase II
Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
1. Nucleus membrane and nucleoli reforms
2. Spindle fibres disappear.

Genetic disorder due to error in Meiosis

Down Syndrome ( Trisomy 21)

1. When homologous chromosome fail to separate at Anaphase I or

2. When sister chromatids fail to separate at Anaphase II.

Nondisjunction = failure of separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids at

Anaphase I or Anaphase II respectively.

When the homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate at Anaphase I or

Anaphase II respectively, the gametes with abnormal number of chromosomes will form. If a
sperm with normal number of chromosomes (n = 23) fertilises the ovum with abnormal number of
chromosomes (n = 24), the zygote will carry 47 chromosomes which is abnormal.
 o Explain how does down syndrome relate to meiosis.
How does down syndrome occur?
Explain down syndrome.
Explain what will happen if anaphase goes wrong/ homologous chromosomes does not
separate at Anaphase I.
- Almond shaped face
- Slight bent in 5th finger
- Short stature
- Small nose, mouth and
ears

Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)

- Man born with extra X chromosome.

- Long arms and legs, smaller testes, wider hips, lack of pubic hair, poor beard growth and
breast development

Triple X syndrome (XXX)

- Female born with extra copy of chromosome

- Learning disability, organ abnormalities, delayed speech development
Error in Mitosis

- Cancer is a disease where the cell division is uncontrolled.

- This happens when DNA sequence is altered/ changed. // DNA shape is altered/ damaged.
- This cause DNA mutation.
- Accumulation of DNA mutation disrupt the cell regulation.
- This leads to uncontrolled cell growth which then causes cancer.
- Cancerous cells divide faster than normal/ healthy cells. They take up place and nutrients
that the healthy cell needs.
- This further damage the tissues and organs.
- And leads to death.
Chemical substances, radiation (X-rays), toxins, UV rays, carcinogens found in smoke

Tumour (mass of abnormal cells)

= Benign 良性肿瘤 (can be removed by surgery) and malignant 恶性肿瘤 (chemotherapy/

radiotherapy)

Carcinogen from cigarette/ smoke

- Can change the sequence of DNA

- This leads to DNA mutation.
- Over times, DNA mutation is accumulating.
- This disrupts the normal cell control/ division. Later, the mitosis goes uncontrolled will cause
development of cancerous cell.

UV rays

- Change the shape/ sequence of your DNA.

- Cumulatively 累计地，while our body can repair the damage DNA in the skin cells, it cannot
repair all of it immediately/ fast enough.
- The unrepaired damaged DNA will build up/ accumulate.
- This disrupts normal cell regulation.
- This leads to uncontrolled cell growth which is the cause of skin cancer.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
o They start with a diploid parent cell (2n = 46)
o They consist of interphase, prophase, anaphase, metaphase, and telophase.
o They end with cytokinesis.
o In both Metaphase and Metaphase II, the individual chromosome line up in the middle at
the equator/ equatorial plane.
o In both Anaphase and Anaphase II, sister chromatids are pulled and separated to opposite
poles.
o In Telophase and Telophase II, chromosomes arrive at the opposite pole, nuclear membrane
and nucleolus reform and spindle fibre disappear.
It involves 1 cycle of cell division. It involves 2 successive cycles of cell division.
It results in two identical daughter cells. It results in 4 non-identical daughter cells.
It results in diploid daughter cells (2n = 46)./ It results in haploid daughter cells (n = 23)./ The
The resulting daughter cells have the same resulting daughter cells have half the number of
number of chromosomes as parent cell. chromosomes of parent cell.
The daughter cells are genetically identical.
It produces all body cells/ somatic cells except
sex cells/ sperm and ovum/ gametes.
Pairing up of pair of homologous chromosomes
does not occur in Prophase I.
Crossing over does not occur in Prophase.
The individual chromosomes line up in the
middle at the equator/ equatorial plane in
Metaphase.
The sister chromatids are pulled and separated
to opposite poles in Anaphase.
The sister chromatids (can be known as
chromosomes at this stage) arrive at the
opposite pole in Telophase.
The daughter cells are genetically different
because of the exchange of genetic material due
to the crossing over.
It produces sex cells/ sperm and ovum/ gametes.
Pairing up of pair of homologous chromosomes
occur in Prophase I.
Crossing over occurs between non-sister
chromatids to enable the exchange of genetic
material in Prophase I.
The pair of homologous chromosomes line up in
the middle at the equator/ equatorial plane in
Metaphase I.
The sister chromatids are not separated but
moved together to opposite poles in Anaphase I.
The homologous chromosomes arrive at the
opposite pole in Telophase I.

Importance of crossing over

- Ensure genetic variation/ genetic recombination/ recombination of genetic material from

generation to generation.

Question---Definition :

Cytokinesis – Division of the cytoplasm

Karyokinesis – Division of the nucleus

Chromatin – condensed structure of DNA / doubled stranded DNA/ a substance in chromosomes

that consists of DNA and protein.

Mitosis – Division of nucleus of parent cell into 2 nuclei.

Meiosis – the process where diploid cell divides to produce four haploid cells.