Evolutionary relationship in Kingdom
Plantae
Size
From small in size in form of thallus that lack true
Polytrichum strictum (Bryophytes) to sporophyte generation
roots leaves and stems in Polytrichum strictum
(Bryophytes) to true root, stems and leaves in the
form of Lycopodium japonicum (Pteridophytes), Cycas
circinalis (Gymnosperms) and Citrus reticulata
(Angiosperms).
and Lycopodium japonicum (Pteridophytes) to the presence
From absence of fruits in Polytrichum strictum (Bryophytes)
and Lycopodium japonicum (Pteridophytes), Cycas circinalis
Dependence of gametophyte
and sporophyte
From free-living gametophye in Polytrichum strictum
(Bryophytes) and Lycopodium japonicum
(Pteridophytes) to protected gametophyte within
sporophyte in Cycas circinalis (Gymnosperms) and
Citrus reticulata (Angiosperms).
From small size sporophyte in Polytrichum strictum
(Bryophytes) to bigger size in Citrus reticulata
(Angiosperms).
Presence and complexity of
vascular tissue
From absence of vascular tissue in Polytrichum strictum
(Bryophytes) to presence of simple vascular tissue in
Lycopodium japonicum (Pteridophytes) to complex
vascular tissues in Cycas circinalis (Gymnosperms) and
Citrus reticulata (Angiosperms).
Dominance to gametophyte and
sporophyte
From gametophyte generation that is dominant in
that is dominant in Lycopodium japonicum (Pteridophytes),
Cycas circinalis (Gymnosperms) and Citrus reticulata
(Angiosperms).
From one type of spore in Polytrichum strictum and most
Pteridophytes (Lycopodium japonicum) to two types of
spore in some Pteridophytes ,Cycas circinalis
(Gymnosperms) and Citrus reticulata (Angiosperms).
From absence of seed in Polytrichum strictum (Bryophytes)
of naked seed in Cycas circinalis (Gymnosperms) and
protected seed in Citrus reticulata (Angiosperms).
(Gymnosperms) to presence of fruits in Citrus reticulata
(Angiosperms).
Water dependence in
fertilization
From motile sperms that need watery medium for
fertilization in Polytrichum strictum (Bryophytes) and
Lycopodium japonicum (Pteridophytes) to non-motile male
gametes that do not need watery medium for fertilization
in Cycas circinalis (Gymmnosperms) and Citrus reticulata
(Angiosperms).
Embryo protection
From embryo that develop to form sporophyte and
remain attached to the gametophytes and dependent to
its nutrients in Polytrichum strictum (Bryophytes) to
embryos which develop into young sporophytes and
absorbs nutrients from the gametophyte until they are
able to photosynthesizes in Lycopodium japonicum
(Pteridophytes) to embryos are surrounded by stored
food and protected within hard seed coats in Cycas
circinalis (Gymnosperms) and Citrus reticulata
(Angiosperms).
Evolutionary relationships in kingdom Animalia

Level of cell organization

From the level of cell organization, Parazoa is a group of cells are loosely arranged and does not
form true tissue,while Eumetazoa have distinct tissue with highly specialized cells. From Parazoa
in Leucosolenia eleanor (Porifera) to Eumetazoa in Condylactis gigantea (Cnidaria), Polycelis tenuis
(Platyhelminthes) , Trichuris trichiura (Nematoda) , Loligo opalescens (Mollusca) , Glossiphonia
complanata (Annelida), Heliconius sara (Arthropoda), Asterias rubens (Echinodermata) and
Oryctolagus cunniculus (Chordata).

Body plan
Linked with bilateral symmetry is cephalization. Cephalization includes the development of cental
nervous system concentrated in the head and extending toward the tail as a longitudinal nerve chord.
The symmetry of an animal generally fits its lifestyle. Many radial animals are sessile or planktonic
whereas an animal that move actively are bilateral. Radial have many planes can divide body into
similar halves while Bilateral have only 1 plane can divide body into similar halves. From asymmetry
body in Leucosolenia eleanor (Porifera) to radially symmetrical in Condylactis gigantea (Cnidaria) to
bilateral symmetry in Polycelis tenuis (Platyhelminthes), Trichuris trichiura (Nematoda) , Loligo opalescens
(Mollusca), Glossiphonia complanata (Annelida) , Heliconius sara (Arthropoda) , Asterias rubens
(Echinodermata) and Oryctolagus cunniculus (Chordata) .

Germ layer
From Leucosolenia eleanor (Porifera) that do not have true tissues and lack of organ to
diploblastic germ layer which is ectoderm and endoderm in Condylactis gigantea (Cnidaria) to
Triploblastic which complies endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm in Polycelis tenuis
(Platyhelminthes), Trichuris trichiura (Nematoda), Loligo opalescens (Mollusca) , Glossiphonia
complanata (Annelida), Heliconius sara (Arthropoda), , Asterias rubens (Echinodermata) and
Oryctolagus cunniculus (Chordata).
 Body cavity

Function of ceolom is its fluid cushions the suspended iternal organs, helping to prevet internal
injury. In soft bodied ceolomates such as earthworm, non-compressible fluid acts like hydrostatic
skeleton so that muscles can work. This enables the internal organs to grow and move independently
of the outer body wall. This permits the formation of circulatory system and separates the action of
body wall muscle from those ofinternal organs, such as digestive muscles. From Aceolomate in
Polycelis tenuis (Platyhelminthes) to Pseudocoelomate in Trichuris trichiura (Nematoda) to Ceolomate
in Loligo opalescens (Mollusca) , Glossiphonia complanata (Annelida) , Heliconius sara (Arthropoda) ,
Asterias rubens (Echinodermata) and Oryctolagus cunniculus (Chordata).

Segmentation /metamerism

The division of an animal body into a number of compartments each containing the same organ. Both
Protostome and Deutrostome have divided into two which is unsegmented and segmented. From
unsegmented body in Loligo opalescens (Mollusca) and Asterias rubens (Echinodermata) to segmented
body which have unjointed appendage in Glossiphonia complanata (Annelida) and jointed appendage in
Heliconius sara (Arthropoda) to segmented body in Oryctolagus cunniculus (Chordata).
 References

Lakna, (2017) Differences between Protostomes and Deuterostomes.

Retrieved at https://pediaa.com/difference-between-protostomes-
and-deuterostomes/ Accesed on 5 march 2020.

Lumen learning Biology for majors ii (2020) Animal Phylogeny .Retrieved at

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-biology2/chapter/animal-
phylogeny/ Accesed on 5 march 2020

Whittaker, R.H. (1959). “On the broad classification of organisms.

‘The quartely review of biology 34, no. 3 (1959) : 210-226. Accesed on
6 March 2020

Fedonkin, M.A., Gehling, J. G., Grey, K., Narbonne, G.M., &Vickers-Rich, P.

(2007).
The rise of animals : evolution and diversification of the kingdom Animalia.
Jhu Press. Accesed on 6 march 2020

Ramel.G ( 2020 ) Main differences between Ceoloms and Pseudocoeloms.

Retrieved at
https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/coelom.html#:~:text=The%20coelom
ate%20phyla%20are%20Entoprocta,%2C%20Chaetognatha%2C%20H
emichordata%2C%20Chordata . Accesed on 5 March 2020.