Anatomy and Physiology PDF

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM
ANIMALS
ANIMAL SCIENCE
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF FARM ANIMALS
 Anatomy- Science that deals with the form and structure of all organisms.
 Gross (macroscopic) anatomy- study of the form and relations (relative positions)
of the structures of the body that can be seen with the unaided eyes.
 Microscopic anatomy or histology- study of the tissues and cells that can be seen
only with the aide of the microscope.
 Comparative anatomy- study of the structures of various species of animals, with
particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in classifications.
 Embryology- is the study of the developmental anatomy, covering the period from
conception (fertilization of eggs) to birth.
 Physiology- study of the integrated functions of the body and the function of all its
parts (system, organs, tissues, cells and cell components), including biophysical and
biochemical processes
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS USEFUL IN THE STUDY OF ANATOMY
 Cranial- directional term meaning toward the head

 Caudal- toward the tail
 Rostral or caudal- directional terms used in reference to features of the head to
mean toward the nose(rostral) or toward the tail (caudal)
 Median plane- imaginary plane passing through the body so as to divide body into
equal right and left halves.
 Sagittal plane- plane parallel to the median plane . the median plane is sometimes
called the midsagittal plane
 Transverse plane- right angle to the median plane and divides the body into cranial
and caudal segments
 Horizontal plane- right angle to both the median plane and transverse plane
 Medial- meaning close to or toward the median plane
 Lateral- antonym of medial. Away from the median plane
 Dorsal- toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral column
 Ventral- away from the vertebral column or toward the mid abdominal wall.
 Proximal- relatively close to a given part.
 Distal- farther from the vertebral column.
REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 2

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PROPERTIES OF LIFE
 Homeostasis- is the tendency of living things to attempt to maintain a state of

relative stability.
 Growth- increase in size.
o Hypertrophy- increased in size of a cell or organ beyond normal
o Hyperplasia- an increased in the size of a structure because of an increase
in the numbers of cells
o Atrophy- decrease in size from normal
o Aplasia- failure of a tissue or organ to develop
o Hypoplasia- incomplete development or a defective development of a tissue
or organ
 Reproduction- of a cell or of an organisms implies that the ability to produce more
cells or more organisms that are essentially the same as the original
 Absorption- process of taking dissolved materials or water through the cell
membrane into the substance of the cells
 Endocytosis- extracellular materials enter the cells, the exterior cell membranes
moves to surround extracellular metrials in a membrane pocket.
 Phagocytosis- if a large amount of particulate materials is endocytosed by ameboid
movement of the cells
 Metabolism- sum total of the physical and biochemical reactions occurring in each
cell and therefore in the entire animals.
o Anabolic-reaction that builds and maintains cellular components
o Catabolic- break down cellular components or constitutents
 Irritability (also called excitability)- property of being able to react to stimulus.
The reaction must necessarily consist of one other properties of protoplasm, such as
conduction, contraction or secretion.
 Conductivity- property of transmitting an electrical impulse from one point in the
cell to another
 Contractility- ability to shorten in one direction.

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SKELETAL SYSTEM
This system is made up of hard tissues like bone and cartilages. This system gives form and
shape to animal body .The skeleton of a living animal is made up living structures of bones.
The bones have blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. They are subject to disease,
repair themselves and adjust to changes during stress.
 Bone – a highly specialized supportive tissues which is characterized by its rigidity

and hardness.
MAIN FUNCTION
 Mechanical support (body framework)/ Rigidity and form to the body:

animals without a skeleton of some type have little or no regular form. The skeleton
gives a basis for the external structure and appearance of most animals.
 Permit locomotion and movement/ Act as lever: in the vertebrates, locomotion,
defense, offense, grasping, and other activities of this type depend largely upon the
action of muscles that are attach to the levers. Almost without exception, these
levers are made of bone and are integral parts of skeleton.
 Protection of vital organs - protection of some vital organs from the external
damages is one of the important functions of bones. The central nervous system
(CNS) is protected by the skull and vertebral column; the heart and lungs by rib
cage; and pelvis protects the internal parts of urogenital system.
 Metabolic reservoirs of minerals calcium, and phosphorous- the entire
skeleton serves as a dynamic storage area for minerals, particularly calcium and
phosphorous. These minerals are deposited and withdrawn as needed in the on-
going homeokinetic process.
 Hemopoisis/ Site for blood formation: blood formation is not strictly a function
of bone proper, but of the marrow found within the marrow cavity of long bones and
within the spongy substance of all young bones.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
 LONG BONES: are relatively cylindrical in shape with two extremities called
epiphyses There is metaphysis between each epiphysis and the diaphysis. A long
bone grows in length only at the epiphyseal cartilage which is located within the
metaphysis.
 Function of long bones: chiefly as levers and aid in support, locomotion and
prehension. The best examples of long bones are pectoral limb, humerus,
radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges; pelvic limb, femur, fibula, tibia,
metatarsals and phalanges.
 SHORT BONES: are somewhat cuboid in shape i.e approximately equal in all
dimensions. There is no marrow cavity. They are found in complex joints such as the
carpus (knee) and tarsus (hock). Example of short bones: Patella.
 Function: - for variety of movement ,absorption of shock
 FLAT BONES: are relatively thin and expanded in two dimensions. They consist of
two plats of compact substance, lamina externa and lamina interna, separated by
diploe. Example of flat bone: frontal base of skull, scapula and pelvic bones

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 Functions: - protects vital organs such as brain, the heart and lungs. - many
provide large areas for muscle attachment.
 SESAMOID BONES: they are developed along the course of tendons. Example:
Patella (knee cap) is the largest sesamoid in the body.
 Functions: - reduces friction or change the course of tendons, may change
the angle of the pull of muscles and this give a greater mechanical
advantage.
 PHUNUMATIC BONES: they contain air spaces or sinuses that communicate with
the exterior. Example: long bones of bird, frontal bones and maxillary bones of the
skull.
 IRREGULAR BONES: are unpaired bones located on the median plane and include
the vertebrae and some of the unpaired bones of the skull.
 Functions: - protection, support and muscle attachment.
For better understanding the skeletal system can be divided into two parts viz the axial
skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
 Axial skeleton: is made up of skull, and vertebral column sternum and ribs.
Skull Vertebrae
Cranial bones cervical
-occipital thoracic
- parietal lumbar
- interparietal sacral
- temporal caudal
- frontal
- ethmoid Ribs
- sphenoid
Facial bones True ribs -join sternum by costal cartilages
- pterygoid
- lacrimal False ribs- not directly connected with sternum
- nasal
- palatine Floating ribs- last 1 or 2 pair connected only with
- conchae (turbinates) vertebrae
- maxilla
- incisive (premaxilla) Sternum
- zygomatic (malar) manubrium
Vomer body
Mandible xiphoid process
Hyoid
Skull: forms the basis of the head. It consists of cranial bones, which surround the brain
and facial bones, which exhibits observable variation among the species.
Function: - protection of brain

- Supports many sense organs

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- Forms passage for the beginning of digestive and respiratory system
Vertebral column: composed of median, unpaired and irregular bones. The following
indicates the part of vertebral column and letters are used to designate the respective
regions.
• Cervical vertebrae (C) - neck region
• Thoracic or dorsal (T) - chest region
• Lumbar (L) - loin region
• Sacral (S) - in region of pelvis- fused vertebrae
• Fused Lumbar and Sacral (LS)- in fowl
• Caudal or Coccygeal (Cd) - located in tail
Vertebral formula: for a given species consist of the letter symbol for each region followed
by the number of vertebrae in that region in the given species. The following shows the
vertebral formula of common farm animals.
Cow: C7 T13 L6 S5 cd18-20

Sheep: C7 T13 L6-7 S4 cd16-18
Pig: C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 cd20-23
Horse: C7 T18 L6 S5 cd15-20
Chicken: C14 T7 LS14 cd6
Sternum and Ribs: forms the floor of the bony thoracic wall and gives attachment to the
costal cartilages of the sternal (true) ribs as well as forming a place of origin for the pectoral
muscles. The sternum consists of segments called sternebrae which tend to fuse together as
age advances. The number of sternebrae varies with species as follows:
Pig: 6; Sheep: 6; Cow: 7; Goat: 7; Horse: 8
Sometimes the last one or two pair of ribs have no connection with other ribs at the ventral
end. Such ribs are called floating ribs. The spaces between the ribs are called intercostal
spaces.
Table 1. Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Bones. Spurgeon 1992.
Pectoral limb Pelvic limb

Pectoral girdle (shoulder Pelvic girdle (os coxae)-
girdle) pelvis
Scapula Ilium
Clavicle Ishium
Coracoid Pubis
Humerus-arm Femur- thigh
Radius-forearm Patella
Ulna- forearm Tibia- leg
Carpus- Fibula-
Metacarpus- cannon Tarsus- hock
Phalanges- digits Metatarsus- cannon
Phalanges- digits

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Pectoral limbs:
• Scapula (shoulder blade)- in all animals, it is rather flat, triangular bone.
• Humerus (arm bone)- is a typical long bone that varies only in minor details from
one animal to another.
• Radius- is the larger of the two forearm bones, and the ulna is the smaller mammal
but not in birds. The radius is well developed in all species.
• Ulna- varies in its degree of development from species to species. In horse the
proximal portion of the shaft of the ulna is well developed but fused to the radius.
The cow, sheep, goat and pig each have a complete ulna, but with restricted or no
movement between the ulna and radius. The cat and dog have considerably more
movement between these complete bones, but not nearly as much as man.
• Carpus- in all animals is a complete region that includes two rows of small bones.
Those in the proximal row are called radial, intermediate and ulnar. Those in the
distal row are numbered as 1,2,3, and 4.
Anatomy of chicken
The domestic chicken is descendent of red jungle fowl. All systems are present but there is
modification of each system to meet the requirements of species. Modifications are
described below:
General modification
Cattle Chicken
1. Mouth Beak
2. Fore limb Wings
3. Long bones with Pneumatic

marrow without Without marrow,
marrow, pneumatic pneumatic
4. Lungs and kidneys Attached to dorsal wall

not attached Presence of comb and
wattle in head
Skeletal System- Is made up of bones that are pneumatic in nature making the body light
for flight.

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Functions of the muscular system
 Layers of smooth muscle in the walls of the stomach and intestines contract to mix
and propel food along the gastroentistinal tract
 Smooth muscle layers in the walls of the blood vessels control distribution of blood,
which is propelled by the contraction by the cardiac muscle of the heart
 In the inner eye, smooth muscle fibers adjust the diameter of the pupil and thickness
of the lens for optimal visions
 In skin, contraction of smooth muscle causes the hair to stand up.
 Skeletal muscle permits locomotion by contracting to change the relative positions of
the bones during movement and by maintaining joint angles against the pull of
gravity during support
 Skeletal muscle of respiration move air into and out of the lungs by contracting to
change the volume of the thoracic cavity
Types of muscle tissues
Skeletal Muscle
 The bulk of the muscle of the body and is responsible for producing the voluntary
movement of the limbs, trunk and head.
 These muscle are usually attached to the bones of the skeleton (hence the term
skeletal muscle) and are under voluntary control of the animal.
 Skeletal muscles are striated muscles
Smooth (involuntary or unstraited muscle)
 Composed of muscle cells that have no striations visible with a microscope.

 Found in a system of the body with autonomic functions
 Contraction of smooth muscle is an intrinsic property of the fibers themselves , which
means the contraction does not generally require stimulation by a nerve
Cardiac Muscle
 Characterized by fibers with visible striations, so it is considered a type of striated

muscles
 Contracts intrinsically and is not under voluntary control
 Restricted to the heart, where it constitute most of the thickness of the wall. Its
rhythmic contraction is responsible for the circulation of blood.

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The general structure of a muscle fiber include myofibrils (chains of repeating subunits)
composed of two kinds of filaments:
 thin filaments (composed of myosin) and thick filaments (composed
of actin, tropomyosin and troponin) that interact by binding to produce a sliding
movement between the filaments, and that creates tension in the muscle fiber
leading to muscle contraction.
GENERAL MUSCLE TERMINOLOGIES
1. Action-• takes place by contraction, which creates tension in the muscle so that it
shortens and thus moves what it is attached to (whether it is a bone, hair or the
epithelium of an organ)
• for skeletal muscles, each muscular unit may be described based on a number of
factors, such as where the main body of the muscle (belly) is located, such as
shoulder muscles, pectoral muscles, gluteal muscles, etc.
2. Origin: the end of a muscle that attaches to the more fixed part of the skeleton,
which is the proximal end in limb muscles
3. Insertion: the point of attachment of a muscle that moves the most when the
muscle shortens, and is the most distal end of limb muscles
4. Antagonistic - oppose or resist the action of another muscle (such as is the case of
the biceps and the triceps)
5. Synergistic - work together to produce a common effect (such as in the action of
making a fist, in which the muscles of the forearm and fingers work together)
6. Flexor - decreases the angle at a joint
7. Extensor - increases the angle at a joint
8. Abductor - moves a bone away from the midline
9. Adductor - moves a bone closer to the midline
10. Levator - produces an upward movement
11. Depressor - produces a downward movement
12. Sphincter - decreases the size of an opening
13. Tensor - makes a body part more rigid
14. Rotator - moves a bone around its longitudinal axis
Arrangement of the muscle fibers:
Strap-shaped muscles - have parallel fibers and broad attachments (teres major)
Fusiform muscles - parallel fibers, but narrow tendons for attachments (biceps)
Pinnate muscles - diagonally arranged fibers that insert on the side of the muscle
into a tendon. (subscapularis)
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Size:
Maximus = largest
Minimus = smallest
Longus = longest
Brevis = shortest
Number of origins:
Biceps = two origins

Triceps = three origins
Quadriceps = four origins
Relative shape
Deltoid = triangular
Trapezius = trapezoid
Serratus = saw-toothed
Rhomboideus = rhomboid or diamond-shaped
COMMON MUSCLES FOUND IN LIVESTOCK ANIMALS
1. The masseter is the superficial muscle of the cheek that aids in chewing and biting
movements.
2. The trapezius is the superficial, triangular muscle of the shoulder that helps move
front appendages
3. The latissimus dorsi is a long muscle that connects the humerus bone of the forearm
to the back of the animal.
4. The abdominal obliques are large muscles that run along the sides of the animal and
help support the internal organs of digestion and reproduction.
5. The gluteals are the large muscles in the upper hind quarter region of the animal
that aid in rear leg
6. The biceps femoris is a large muscle found in the rear leg of an animal.
7. The biceps brachii is the muscle responsible for the flexing of the front legs (elbow
joint) of an animal.
8. The triceps brachii is the muscle responsible for the extension of the front legs
(elbow joint) of an animal.movement.
9. The pectorals are large muscles that run across the chest of the animal and are
responsible for the primary movement of the front legs.
10. The serratus ventralis are muscles that connect the forelimbs (or front legs) to the
trunk of the animal.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Controls the rapid activities of the body such as muscular contraction, secretions of some
endocrine glands, heart rate, respiration rate, gastro-intestinal motility etc.
BASIC UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is composed of the brain, the spinal chord and the nerves
 The nerve cell or the neurons specialize in impulse conduction or the relay of
messages from the effector organs to the nervous system and vice-versa
Classification of neurons according to the direction of impulse conduction
a. Afferent (sensory) neurons- transmit nerve impulses from effector organs to the
spinal chord or brain
b. Efferent (motor) neurons- transmit nerve impulses away from the brain or spinal
chord to or towards muscles or glands (effector organs). The effector organs could
either be the skeletal, muscle, cardiac muscle , smooth muscle or some other gland
; and
c. Interneurons- conduct impulses from an afferent neurons to an efferent neurons
within the central nervous system(CNS) which is made up of the brain and the spinal
chord.
Structure of Neurons
 All neurons consist of a cell body, one axon and one or more dendrites. Axon and
dendrites of sensory neurons are threadlike extensions from the cell body and are
often called nerve fibers. The distal end of dendrites of sensory neurons are called
receptors because they receive the stimuli that initiate the conduction of impulses
to the cell body of the neuron. The axon is a single process that extends out from
the cell body, and may end up or any effector organ.
 Neurons or nerve cells do not come in direct contact with one another; instead, there
is a small gap of about 200o A ( Angstrom= 1/106 inch) between them. This gap is
called a synapse where nerve impulses are transmitted from one nerve cell to
another. Thus, synapse are located between the axon terminals of one neuron
(presynaptic or pregnaglionic cell) and the cell body or dendrites of another
neuron (postsynaptic or postganglionic cell). The transmission of nerve impulses
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across the synapse involves the release from presynaptic neuron of a chemical
mediator or neurotransmitter (mostly acetylcholine) which crosses the synaptic
cleft and brings about a generation of signal or initiation of impulses in the
postsynaptic neuron.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The brain and the spinal column jointly control the activities of the skeletal or
voluntary muscle and the involuntary or smooth muscle of the body in response to
stimuli in their environment. Information about the internal and external
environment reaches the CNS via a variety of sensory receptors. The sensory
receptors are transducers that convert various forms of energy in the environment
into action potential or nerve impulse in the neurons.
 The sensory receptors could be a part of a neuron or a specialized cell that generates
action potential in neurons. The receptor is often associated with non-neural cells
that surrounds it, forming sense organ. The form of energy converted by the
receptors include for example, mechanical (touch-pressure), thermal (degree
of warmth); electromagnetic (light) and chemical energy (odor, taste, and
O2 content of blood). The receptor in each sense organs are adapted to respond to
one particular form of energy at a much lower threshold than other receptors
respond to this form of energy. The particular form of energy to which an action
potential is called adequate stimulus.
The Sensory Modalities-This consist of the various sense organs of the body. This include
the senses of smell, vision, hearing, rotational and linear acceleration, taste and cutaneous
senses with receptors in the skin to monitor touch-pressure, cold, warmth and pain. There
are in addition, a large number of sensory receptors which relay information that does not
reach consciousness. The rods and cones of the eye, for example, respond maximally to
light of different wavelengths, and there are different cones for each of the primary colors.
There are four different modalities of tastes-sweet, salty, sour and bitter- and each is
perceived by a more or less distinct type of taste bud in the tongue. Sounds of different

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pitches are heard primarily because different groups of hair cells in the organ of Corti are
activated maximally by sound waves of different frequencies.
 The sensation evoked by impulses generated by a specific receptor is interpreted by
a specific part of the brain which ultimately activates.
The Somatic Nervous System-The striated or skeletal muscles of the body are innervated
by the somatic division of the nervous system. This part of the nervous system brings about
quick adjustments of the muscles to changes in the environment.
Autonomic Nervous System-The autonomic nervous system, like the somatic has afferent
components, central integrating stations, and effector pathways. The glands and visceral
musculature of the body receive efferent fibers from the autonomic nervous system. The
adjustments in the gland and visceral musculature are made by means of chemical
mediators, acetylcholine and epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the terminal
neurons of the autonomic fibers
Major divisions (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
 The cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division are
contained in the grey matter of the thoracic and lumbic regions of the spinal chord,
while the cell bodies of the pregnaglionic neurons of the parasympathetic system are
situated within the midbrain, the hindbrain and in the sacral region of the spinal
chord. The preganglionic neurons extend from the grey matter of the CNS to one of
the ganglia where they make synaptic junctions with post-ganglionic neurons which
extend from the ganglia to the effector organs
 The preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic division
produces acetylcholine as do the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic
divisions. However, postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division produce
mainly norephinephrine and this compound is generally considered as the andrenic
neurohumor, although small amounts of epinephrine may also be produced by
certain neurons. In general, the two types of fibers produce antagonistic effects in
the end organs they innervate, and many organs received fibers from both systems.

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Hormone- substance or chemical mediators produced by the endocrine glands and

carried by the blood to some distant part of the body where it exerts its effects
 Hormones do not initiate reactions in a cell but only excite or inhibit the on-going cell
reactions. The cell must have all the materials or ingredients, the enzyme system
and the required environment to carry on the reaction de novo. Thus, the hormone
has only neither an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the existing cell reaction. It is
effective in very minute quantities (biocatalytic amount) but unlike enzymes which
has also a catalytic effect, hormones are destroyed in the process of participating in
the reaction, whereas enzymes are not.
 Some hormones exert their effect by participating in , or affecting enzymatically
controlled reaction in the animal. Some facilitate the passage of an important
metabolites across the cell membranes. Hormones are not secreted in regular
amount; the amount of secretion depends on the need of the animals
 Hormones may be classified as simple protein, glycoprotein and steroids but they all
have common characteristics and functions
1) Regulate rather initiate reactions

2) Effective in biocatalytic amount
3) Inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect or at some other glands
or organs
4) Transported through the circulatory system or blood stream
 Not all hormones have specific target organs like growth hormone or
somatotropin (STH) but for those with specific target organs, the cells in
the target organ contain receptors that specifically recognize the hormone.
Hormone receptors bond specific hormones and directly or indirectly trigger a
metabolic effect.

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CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
1. Amines: these are the smallest group of hormones derived from two amino acids e.g.
epinephrine
2. Steroids: these are large group of hormones originating from cholesterol e.g.
testosterone and estrogen
3. Proteins and polypeptides: these are the largest group of hormones and they vary in
length from 8 to more than 180 amino acids with CHO attached to it e.g.
hypothalamic and pituitary hormones
HYPOPHYSIS OR PITUITARY GLANDS
This is located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the sphenoid bone called Sella
turtica, which protects it from outside pressure. It has three lobes or portion
A. Anterior pituitatry lobe or adenohypophydid

B. Intermediate lobe or Pars Intermedia and
C. Posterior Pituitary Lobe or Meurophysis
The Adenohypophysis secretes the following hormones
a. Growth Hormone of Somatotropic Hormone (STH)- promotes growth of the

long bones before the epiphyseal-diaphyseal plate is fused together in adulthood.
Over secretion of STH results in gigantisms when this happen before adulthood and
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Acromegaly when this happen after adulthood in human. Dwarfism occurs when
there is a deficiency of STH during growth development
b. Adrenocorticotropic Hormoone or ACTH)- stimulate the adrenal cortex to
produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone.
c. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH- stimulated the thyroid gland to produce
thyroid hormones (T4 and T3).
d. Prolactin or Leutotropic hormone- (LTH)- stimulate milk secretion in lactating
mammary glands.
e. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)- stimulates the ovary to produce grafean
follicle ; in the male, it maintains the integrity of the seminiferous tubules of the
testis.
f. Luteinizing Hormone- stimulates ovulation in maturing grafian follicle and the
formation of the corpus luteum in ovulated follicle as well as the production of
progesterone by the corpus luteum. In the male it stimulates the cell of the Leydig or
inspertitial cells to produce testosterone, a male sex hormone.
The intermediate lobes secretes MSH or melanophore stimulating hormone which is

essential for some reptiles and amphibians to enable them to change skin color by
dispensing melanin granules in a melanophore of the skin.
The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:
1) Oxytocin- stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females

2) Vasopressin or Antideuretic Hormone ADH)- important in conserving body water
by reducing urine formation
THYROID GLAND
 This gland is located at the neck area just below the Larynx. There are two lobes of
thyroid connected to each other by a bridge of tissue called Isthmus.
 The thyroid gland maintain the level of metabolism in the tissues that is optimal for
their normal function. It secretes the hormone thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) which stimulates the oxygen consumption of most cells in
the body, helpd regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and is necessary for
normal growth and maturation. Thyroxine increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
of an individual.
 The thyroid gland is made up of follicles which are filled with colloids. When the
gland is inactive, the colloid is abundant , the follicle is large, and the cells lining
them are flat. When the gland is active, the follicles are small, and the cells are
cuboids or columnar.
 Thyroid gland is not essential for life, but in its absence, there is poor resistance to
cold, mental and physical slowing, and in children, mental retardation and dwarfism
(cretinism). Conversely excess thyroid secretion lead to body wasting,nervousness,
tachycardia, tremor and excess heat production. The common disease associated
with over activity of the thyroid gland is thyrotoxicosis such as Graves diseases
(exopthalmic goiter) caused by thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI).
There is marked stimulation of the secretion of thyroid hormones , and high
circulating T4 and T3 levels inhibit TSH secretion , so the circulating TSH is
depressed. The exophthalmos in Graves diseases is due to the swelling of the tissue,
particularly the extraocular muscles within the rigid bony walls of the orbits. This
pushes the eyeballs forward.
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 In the case of hypothyrodism such as simple goiter, there is lack of thyroxine

secretion due to a deficiency of iodine in the diet. Iodine is an important component
of thyroxine, thus iodine deficiency will concomitantly result in thyroxine deficiency.
The low level of thryoxine in circulation will stimulate TSH production by the pituitary
in an effort to increase thyroid activity. In the process there will be hypertrophy and
hyperplasia of the thyroid gland resulting in the production of goiter.
 The secretion of T4 or thyroxine is controlled by TSH of the pituitary. Whenever T4 is
low, TSH production is increased and this will turn, stimulate increased secretion of
TSH and TSH level will decrease in circulation. This type of control is known as
negative feedback mechanisms.
THE PANCREAS
 This gland is located at the duodenal lope of the small intestine. It is both an
exocrine and an endocrine gland. Its functions as exocrine gland when it acinar
cells secrete pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. The endocrine
function is limited to the cells of the islet of langerhams which are found
throughout the pancreas. The alpha cells of the islet of langerhams secrete
sugar levels; and the beta cells secrete insulin which is responsible for
lowering blood glucose level.

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 The insulin facilitates the transport of glucose from the blood into the cells of the
tissues, thus, increasing the storage of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids. On the
other hand, glucagons is catabolic, mobilizing glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
from the stores into the bloodstream. The two hormones are thus reciprocal in their
overall action and are reciprocally secreted in most circumstances. Insulin excess
hypoglycemia, which leads to convulsion and coma. Insulin deficiency, either
absolute or relative causes diabetes mellitus, a complex and debilitating disease that
if untreated is eventually fatal. Glucagon deficiency can cause hypoglycemia, and
glucagons excess makes diabetes worse. A third hormone somastostatin play a role
in the regulation of islet cell secretion. It produces hyperglycemis and other
manifestations of diabetes when there is hypersecretion of overproduction of
somatostatin.
THE ADRENAL GLAND
 There are two endocrine organs in the adrenal gland, one surrounding the other.
The main secretion of the inner adrenal medulla are the epinephrine and
norepinephrine ; the outer adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones such as 1)
aldosterone which regulate sodium metabolism by reabsorbing sodium from the
kidney tubules; 2) glucocortoids (cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone ) which
stimulates glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis, thus, hyperglycemic.
 The adrenal medulla is in effect a sympathetic ganglion in which the postganglionic
neurons have lost their axons and becomes secretory cells. The cells secret
epinephrine and norepinephrine which are not essential for life, but they help to
prepare the individual to deal with emergencies.
 The secretion of glucocorticoids is controlled primarily by ACTH from the anterior
pituitary. Where there is low low levels of glucocorticoids in circulation , ACTH
secretion is increased which in turn, stimulates increased production of
glucocorticoids. The increased level of glucocorticoids in circulation will in turn inhibit
further secretion of ACTH. Stressful stimuli will also stimulate the production of
ACTH which is independent from that elicited by the level of glucocorticoids in
circulation.
 The secretion of aldesterone is not under the control of ACTH but by circulating
factors such as blood pressure and/or the extra cellular fluid volume (ECF). When the
blood pressure or the EFC is low, this would stimulate the adrenal cortex, to produce
aldosterone which in turn will act in the kidney tubules to reabsorb sodium as well as
water which has a close affinity to sodium, thus increasing EFC volume and
eventually blood pressure.

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 The adrenal cortex has three types of cell making up the three zones of the cortex;
the zona glumerulosa which secretes aldosterone and zona fasciculate and zona
reticularis which both secrete the glucocorticoids.
PARATHYROID GLANDS
 In human there are usually four parathyroid glands which are embedded the thyroid
gland. However, the location of the individual parathyroids and their number vary
considerably. Parathyroid tissue is sometimes found in the mediastinum. There are
two distinct types of cells making up the parathyroid : 1) the chief cells which have
clear cytoplasm secrete the parathyroid hormone or PTH, and 2) the less abundant
and larger oxyphil cells which have oxyphil granules in their cytoplasm, contain large
numbers of mitochondria. The function of oxyphil cell is unknown.
 Parathyroid hormone or PTH mobilizes calcium from bone and increases urinary
phosphate excretion, thus in effect increases blood calcium level.
Hyperparathyroidism due to hyper-secretion of a functioning tumor in humans is
characterized by a hypercalcemia, hypophosphatamia, hypercalciuria, and
hyperphospheturia. There will be demineralization of the bones and the formation
of calcium-containing kidney stones. In young animals, demineralization of the bones
results in rickets but in adults, it is known as osteomalacia. In rickets of
orsteomalacia the amounts of mineral accretion in bone per unit of bone matrix is
deficient. When there is a decrease in bone mass with preservation of the normal
ratio of mineral to matrix, the condition is known as osteoporosis. Likewise, these
bone diseases will also manifest in severe vitamin D deficiency. Thus, vitamin is
closely associated with the function of the parathyroid gland. Vitamin D is
metabolized in the kidney tubules into 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol which increases
the efficiency of calcium and phosphate absorption into the intestinal wall, thus
making these minerals available for bone formation. On the other hand, when there
is vitamin D deficiency, limited amounts of calcium and phosphate are absorbed from
the intestines resulting in low blood calcium level, thus, stimulating the parathyroid
gland to secrete PTH, resulting in calcium mobilization from the bones.
 In hyperthyroidism, osteoclerosis, may set in due to increased amount of calcified
bones. Symptoms manifested include hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia,
hypercaliurea, and hypophosphaturia

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 Calcitocin or also known as thyrocalcitocin is a hormone that lowers calcium

level in the blood, thus, has an opposite effect to that of parahormone which
increases calcium level in the blood. Thyrocalcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland
upon stimulated by a secretion coming from the parathyroid gland in response to a
high calcium level in the blood perfusing the parathyroid gland. Thyrocalcitonin
lowers calcium level by preventing bone resorption through the activation of the
osteoblast cells which stimulates bone formation. Also, thyrocalcitonin increases
calcium excretion in the urine, thus, contributing to the lowering of blood calcium
level.
There are three types of cells associated with bone formation and bone resorption
a. Osteoblast stimulates bone formation
b. Osteoclasts
c. Osteocystes are both associated with bone formation.
 When there is hypersecretion of PTH, osteoclasts, and oteocytes cells
predominates to cause bone resorptioon ; on the other hand, when there is a
hyposecretion of PTH or hypersecretion of calcitocin, osteoblasts cells
predominate to cause bone formation

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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (CVS)
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, the blood and the blood vessels through
which the blood flows in circulation
Functions of CVS
a. To convey the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to the tissues;
b. To carry O2 from the lungs to the tissues and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs ;
c. To remove the waste products of metabolisms and take them through the excretory
organs for disposals ;
d. To transport hormones from one part of the body to another ;
e. To help in maintaining the water equilibrium of the body ;
f. To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body;
g. To regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in the body and ;
h. To assist in overcoming diseases by the antidotes contained in the blood
THE HEART
 The heart is located in the middle mediastinal space. It is enclosed with a

pericardium or pericardial sac. The mammalian heart has 4 chambers : the
upper 2 chambers are the atria, and the lower 2 chambers, are the ventricles.
There is a complete septum separating the left and the right side of the heart.
However free communication exists between the atrium (auricle) and the ventricle
on the same side of the side. The atrio-ventricular or A-V valve prevents the
backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium during ventricular systole. The
valve on the right side is called tricuspid valve and on the left side is known as
bicuspid or mitral valve. A valve also stands at the aortic orifice (aortic valve)
and at the pulmonary orifice (pulmonary valve). These valves prevent the backflow
of the blood from these blood vessels (aorta and pulmonary artery) into the
ventricles during diastole.
 The heart normally beats in an orderly sequence : contraction of the atria (atrial
systole) is followed by the contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systoles) and
followed by diastole in which all the 4 chambers are relaxed. During diastole, when
all the four chambers are in isometric relaxation, the AV valves opens, thus,
allowing the blood to fill up the ventricles. In fact ¾ of ventricular filling occurs
during diastole and complete filling occurs during atrial systole. At the start
of ventricular systole , the AV valves are closed. At the start of the ventricular
systole, the AV valves are closed, and the aortic and pulmonary valves are opened to
allow the flow of ventricular blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery, respectively.
However, not all ventricular blood are ejected at the end of the ventricular systole;
about 50 ml of blood are left in each ventricle in human heart as end systolic
ventricular volumes.
 Contraction of the heart is spontaneous and is initiated the depolarization of the
sino-atrial node (SA node). The depolarization spreads radially through the atria
resulting in atrial systole, and converges on the atrio-ventricular nodes (AV nodes).
From the AV nodes, the wave of depolarization passes through the bundle of His
then through the Purkinje system to the ventricular muscle, causing ventricular
systole. The SA node is the cardiac pacemaker and its rate of discharge
determines the rate at which the heart beats. However, the vagal stimulation
results in bradychardia or slowing of the heart rate and stimulation of the
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sympathetic cardiac nerve results in tachycardia or increased heart rate.

Temperature also influences the rate of discharge of SA node. Increased temperature
results in tachycardia.
Heart Sound
 Two sounds are normally heard through the stethoscope during cardiac cycle; a low,
slightly “lub” sound (first sound), caused by the closure of the mitral and
tricuspid valves; and a shorter, high pitch “dub” sound (second sound) caused
by closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves just after the end of ventricular
systole.
 The blood forced into the aorta during systole not only moves the blood in the
vessels forward but also set up a pressure wave which travels down the arteries. The
pressure waves expand the arterial wall has its travels, and the blood vessels
forward but also sets up a pressure wave which travels down the arteries. The
pressure wave expands the arterial wall as it travels, and the expansion is palpable
as the pulse. Thus, the pulse is a wave of dilation of an artery originating
from the aorta as the blood flows into it from the heart. The rate of heart beat
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is usually measured by determining the pulse rate. The average pulse rate per
minute in different classes of animals is as follows :
Elephant 30-45 pulse rate/ min.

Horses 38 pulse rate / min.
Carabao and Cattle 54 pulse rate / min.
Goat 78 pulse rate / min.
Chicken 200-400 pulse rate / min.
Mouse 600 pulse rate / min.
Pulse rate may be taken by feeling the artery on the following animals:
 Horse- external maxillary artery or about the middle of the lower jaw
 Cattle and carabao- similar location as in the horse but slightly on the outer
surface; coccygeal artery at the base of the underneath of the tail
 Sheep, goat, dog and cat- femoral artery ; saphenous artery
 Pigs and others- auscultation method using stethoscope at the cardiac or chest
region.
The Blood Vessels-In general the blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart is
called the artery; and that which carries blood back to the heart is called a vein. Also the
blood running through the artery is oxygenated blood; and that which run through the
vein is unoxygenated blood. The only exception to this principle is the pulmonary artery
which carries unoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, and
pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart. The aorta or aortic artery carries blood from the left ventricle to the
different systemic circulations, such as the head, neck, trunk, limbs, and the visceral
organs. The aorta gives off to smaller branches of arteries which in turn give rise to several
arterioles. An arterioles gives rise to a bed of capillaries which eventually join together to
form a venule. A venule joins to a bigger vein which eventually end up on the vena cava
which return unoxygenetaed blood from several systemic circulations to the right atrium
of the heart.
Blood Circulation-Venous blood coming from the different parts of the body is returned
back to the heart via the vena cava to the right atrium. From the right atrium it goes to
the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. Then it passes through the pulmonary
valve and goes to the pulmonary artery. Which carries the blood to the lungs
(pulmonary circulation). In the lungs the exchange of gases takes place; carbon dioxide
is given off and oxygen is taken in by the circulation blood. The oxygenated blood is
returned back to the heart by the pulmonary veins which enter the heart at the left
atrium. From the left atrium, the blood goes to the left ventricles through the mitral and
or bicuspid valve. Then it goes through the aortic valve to the aorta which carries the
blood to the different systemic circulations. In systemic circulations, the oxygen is taken in
by the tissues and carbon dioxide is given off by the tissues to the circulating blood. These
cellular exchange of gases take place from the different capillary beds. Then all the
venous blood from the systemic circulations are returned back to the heart via the vena
cava.
The systemic circulation includes the following special system of blood circulation:

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1) CORONARY CIRCULATION- systemic circulation; it supplies blood to the heart

itself
2) HEPATIC CIRCULATION- part of the systemic circulation ; it supplies arterial blood
to the liver
3) CEREBRAL CIRCULATION- supplies arterial blood to the brain
4) RENAL CIRCULATION- supplies arterial blood to the kidney
5) SPLANCHNIC CIRCULATION- supplies blood to the digestive tract.

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The Blood-Blood is a thick suspension of cellular elements in aqueous solutions of

electrolytes and some non-electrolytes. By centrifugation, the blood is separated into two
categories of plasma and cells.
1) Plasma- the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic
molecules , and organic molecules which are in transit to various parts of the
body or which aid in the transport of other substances. Blood plasma is composed
of the following important constituents : water, gases (oxygen, CO2, nitrogen),
proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen) glucose, lipids (fats, lecithin,cholesterol),
non-protein nitrogen substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine ammonia, salts, etc), inorganic salts and minerals (chlrorides,
bicorabonates, sulfates, phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron, and traces of manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc etc), enzymes, hormones,
vitamins, immune substances etc. The normal plasma volume is about 3 to 5% of
the body weight.
2) Blood Cells- made up of the white blood cells or WBC (leokocyctes), the red
blood cells (erythrocytes) and the platelets, which are all suspended in the
plasma. The number of each kind of cell present in the blood is determined by
means of haemocytometer.
a) The white blood cells are of the three types : Granulocytes, Lymphocytes,
and Monocytes. Of these the granulocyctes or polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMN) are the most numerous. The granulocyctes are
subdivided into neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils based on their
affinity to either neutral , acidic, or basic dyes, respectively. They are
formed from stem cells in the bone marrow, mature rapidly and enter the
circulation where they survive for no more than 2 weeks. Their main
functions is phagocytic in nature. At least in the nuetrophils and
eosinophils, the granules appear to be lysosomes and functions in the
digestion of material (like bacteria) taken into the cells by phagocytosis.
Old granulocytes are normally destroyed in the spleen and other portions of
the reticulo-endothelial system
 Lymphocytes are mostly formed in the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus
and to some extent also in the bone marrow. They enter the blood circulation
for the most part via the lympahtics. They are believed to produce
antibodies and counteract toxins
 Monocytes are large none-nuclear leukocytes. They are also called the
transitional cells and have well developed motility. They are believed to
come from the reticulo- endothelial cells. Like neutrophilic leukocyetes
, they are actively phagocytic and are capable of ingesting all sorts of
foreign matters.
b) The erythrocytes are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone marrow.

In mammals, they lose their nuclei before entering the circulation. These
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non-nucleated cells are soft and contain hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a

complex iron-containing conjugated protein with a molecular weight of about
68,000. it is globular molecule made up of 4 subunit, and each unit contains
a red pigment, iron-containing derivative porphyrin called heme moiety
conjugated to a polypeptide globin. The oxygen-carrying property of
hemoglobin is due to the iron content in the pigment. Hemoglobin binds 02
to form oxyhemoglobin, O2 attaching to the Fe++ in the heme. Since
hemoglobin contains 4 Hb units, the hemoglobin molecule actually reacts
with 4 molecules of O2 to form Hb408…………….
Hb4 + 402-- Hb408
This reaction is oxygenated (not an oxidation) and requires less than

0.01 second. Oxygen is afterwards readily given off to the tissues as the blood
goes to the systemic capillaries. In the muscles, oxygen is taken up by
myohemoglobin
c) Platelets or thrombocytes- are small oval disk-like granulated bodies 2-4

microns in diameter. There are about 300,000 /cu mm of circulating blood.
The megakaryocytes, giant cells in the bone marrow form platelets by
pinching off bits of cytoplasms, and extruding them into circulation. When
blood vessel walls are injured, platelets collect at the site, sticking to the
vessel wall and liberating serotonin, which leads to local vasoconstriction.
They also liberate thromboplastin which aids in blood clotting, and they
play a role in clot reactions.
Blood Coagulation-The essential process in coagulation is the conversion of the soluble

plasma protein, fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein,fibrin, a reaction that is catalyzed by
the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin is formed from its inactive circulating precursor,
prothrombin, in the presence of calcium ions by the action of activated thromboplastin.
Thrombin is synthesized in the liver and vitamin K is essential in the hepatic synthesis of
prothrombin. This is precisely why vitamin K is essential in blood clotting mechanisms

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LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The circulatory system and the lymphatic system are related to the body fluid
compartments. The animal body is made up of 60-70% water. This is distributed as
intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is about 40-50%
of the body weight and the ECF is about 20% of the body weight.
 In animals with closed vascular system,the ECF is divided into 2 compartments : the
Interstitial fluid which consists of cerebrospinal fluids, synovial fluid and the lymph;
and the blood plasma. The interstitial fluid is about 15% of the body weight and the
blood plasma is about 5% of the body weight.
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph node lymph vessels and the lymph.
The lymph nodes and its function-The lymph nodes are small bodies of lymphoid tissues
which are ovoid or bean shaped and located in strategic points of the body through which
the lymph passes on its ways to the blood stream. It is generally agreed that lymph nodes
have at least 2 functions. One of these is the production of lymphocytes of which the lymph
nodes contain large numbers. Another function is to stop foreign materials that come to
them in the lymph. This filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by the
filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by the phagocytic activity of the
reticulo- endothelial cells.
They become swollen or inflamed during severe bacterial infections.
The Lymph Vessels-The lymphatic drain from the lungs and from the rest of the body
tissues via a system of vessels that end in the various system. The lymph vessels begin in

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the tissues as blind lymph capillaries, similar in structure to blood capillaries. By the
convergence of lymph capillaries, smaller lymph vessels are formed, and these in turn to
form larger lymph vessels. Like the veins, the lymph vessels contain valves which prevent
the back flow of its content, but have thinner walls than the veins. Ultimately, all the lymph
vessels drain into either the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct, which empty into the
venous system anterior to the heart. Lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the
right forelegs and the right side of the thorax drain to the right lymphatic duct: that from
the rest of the body, to the thoracic duct.
Flow of lymph-The tissue fluid is in communication with the blood in the capillaries, the
intercellular fluid, and the lymph capillaries. The latter remove from the tissues spaces
materials that do not or cannot enter the blood capillaries. Water and crystalloids can move
either way. Particulate matter and large molecules such as proteins and lipids cannot enter
the blood capillaries but can penetrate the much more permeable wall of the lymph
capillaries. The flow of lymph in the lymph vessels is sluggish and in one directions only,
from the tissues towards the heart. The factor concerned in lymph flow are : (1) the
difference in pressure at the two ends of the lymph systems (2) the massaging effect of
muscular movement; and (3) the presence in the lymph vessels of valves, which permit
flow in only one direction, that is, towards the heart.
Composition of Lymph
 Tissue fluid and lymph proper, that is, the fluid in the lymph vessels are different.
Lymph derived largely from the blood is similar in composition to blood plasma. The
plasma of the blood passes through the thin wall of the blood capillaries, enters the
tissues themselves also contribute somewhat to the composition of the lymph, for
there is free interchange between intracellular fluid and the tissue fluid. In this way
the cells rid themselves of the waste products of metabolisms and absorb foodstuffs.
 The composition of the lymph varies with the state of activity of the digestive
organs; lymph derives from the intestine during fat absorption has a milky
appearance because of the fat that it contains and is known as chyle.
 Ordinarily, the lymph is colorless, clear, watery liquid having a specific gravity of
about 1.015. it contains a few red cells normally, and lymphocytes are present. The
latter cells are more abundant in lymph that has passed through lymphoid tissue.
Whether or not monocytes are present in uncertain. Neutrophilic leukocytes are
ordinarily absent; however, they may be present in greater number in infections.
Platelets are said to be absent; nevertheless, lymph will clot, though feebly. Lymph
contains water, glucose, gases, proteins, non-protein nitrogenous substances,
inorganic substances, hormones, coenzymes, vitamins and immune substances. The
proteins are the same kind as in blood plasma but the amount is less. This is
especially true of lymph from the limbs, for the capillary walls in these regions are
less permeable to the blood proteins than in other regions
Inter-relationship between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system
 All body tissues are supplied with blood capillaries as well as lymph capillaries. The
blood capillaries absorb substances produced by the cells and other nutrients and
metabolites presents in the interstitial fluid which require the circulatory system for
their distributions to other parts of the body. However, there are substances which
cannot readily enter the walls of the blood capillaries because of the size of their
molecules, such as protein molecules of certain hormones and enzymes. These
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proteins molecules can still join the circulatory system by way of the lymphatic
system. Since the lymph capillaries have more permeable walls than the blood
capillaries, all metabolites of big molecular size which cannot be absorbed by the
blood capillaries will be absorbed by the lymph capillaries. Eventually, the lymph fluid
will enter the circulatory system through the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic
duct.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The main function of respiration is to provide oxygen to the cells of the body
and to remove excess carbon dioxide from them. Different species achieve this
in different ways. Unicellular organisms get their O2 by diffusion from the fluid
surrounding them and eliminate CO2 in the same way; larger organisms cannot.
Some larger organism that live in air (certain insects) do get enough O2 by diffusion
alone, but they have a special system of air tubes (trachea or spiracles) that pipe air
directly to many regions of the body, so that the distances O2 must diffuse to reach
tissue cells are short. Large animals, including man, make use of two systems:
1) The blood circulatory system to carry to and from the tissue cells large quantities
of O2 and CO2 with the help of hemoglobin
2) A respiratory system , a gas exchange , to load the blood with CO2 and remove
excess CO2. In fish, blood flows through gills vessels and extracts O2 from the water
flowing around hem. In man and other farm animals, the respiratory surfaces are
folded within the body to prevent drying of the delicate membranes ; air saturated
with water vapor is drawn into intimate contact with the blood flowing through the
pulmonary capillaries and gases are exchanged.
 These two systems cooperate to supply the needs of the tissues. One system
supplies air; the other supplies blood. The ultimate purpose is the transfer of gases
between air and cells. The respiratory system is an air pump which draws fresh air
through the air tube to small air sacs (alveoli) that have very thin membranes. The
circulatory system is a blood pump which which drives the whole output of the heart
the fine thin-walled blood tubes (capillaries) surrounding the alveoli.
The Respiratory Apparatus
 The nasal cavity has two nasal tubes (sometimes a third tube, the mouth is also
used), and then becomes one, the trachea. The trachea is always kept open by the
presence of rings of cartilage in its wall. It subdivides into two main branches, the
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right and left bronchi, which are similar in structure and function as trachea. Each of
the two bronchidivides into two more, ad each of these into two more, and so on
until there have been 20-30 subdivisions in all. A simple calculation shows that 20
subdivisions of this type produce about a million terminal tubes. At the end of each
are numerous blind pouches, the alveoli or alveolar sacs; here gas exchange occurs.
There are about 300 million of these in the two lungs of amn; their diameter varies
from 75 to 300 microns.
 The lungs may be regarded as two elastic membranous sac whose interior (in free
communication with the outside air through the respiratory passages) is highly
modified and enlarged by the presence of numerous alveleoli. The wall of the
alveolus is composed of a single layer of respiratory epithelium. Across this layer of
cells and the endothelium of the blood capillaries, gaseous exchange between the
air in the blood in the numerous adjacent capillaries takes place. The total area of
the alvelolar walls in contact with the capillaries in both lungs is estimated to be 70
square meters in human, which is about 40 times the surface area of the body.
 The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the mediastinal organs. This activity is
completely separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The pleura, a
serous membrane line the thoracic cavity, forming the lateral walls of mediastinum
and are reflected from there on the lungs, thus forming a pleural cavity. The pleural
cavity is merely a capillary space, occupied by a thin film of fluid, which serves to
moisten and lubricate the two pleural layers. The pressure of the pleural cavity is
negative. Therefore when the pleural cavity is opened, air rushes in and the lungs
will collapse.
 The inspiratory muscles consists of the diaphragm and the external intercostals
muscles. The movement of the diaphragm accounts for 75% of the change in
intrathoracic volume during quite inspiration. The diaphragm is attached around the
bottom of the thoracic cage and arches over the liver and moves downward like a
piston it contacts. The distance of movement is about 1.5 to 7.0 cm.
 The external intercostals muscles run obliquely downward and forward from rib to
rib. The rib pivot as if hinged at the back, so that when the external intercostals
muscles contract, they elevate the lower ribs. This pushes the stenum outward and
increases the antero-posterior diameter of the chest.
 The expiratory muscles consist of internal intercostals muscles and the muscles of
the anterior abdominal wall. The internal intercostals muscles pass obliquely
downward and posteriorly from rib to rib, and therefore, pull the rib cage downward
when they contract. The muscles of the anterior abdominal wall also aid expiration
by pulling the rib cage downward and inward; and by increasing the extrabdominal
pressure which pushes the diaphragm upward.

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The Respiratory Center
1. Medullary cavity- capable of initiating and maintaining sequences of the respiratory

cycle. This contains the minimal number of neurons necessary for the basic
coordinated sequence of inspiration, expiration , inspiration. The center is often is
often divided into an inspirational center and expiratory center, because maximal
sustained inspiration follows electrical stimulation of some region and maximal
expiration follows stimulation of adjacent regions. As the lateral sides of this region,
there are special receptors which are believed to respond to H concentrations. A rise
in H results in hyperventilation.
2. Pneumonotaxic center- located in the upper pons above the medullary center.
Stimulation of this center accelerates respiration, especially expiration. It is
postulated that inspiration sets up impulses that ascend from the medullary
inspiratory center to the pneumotaxic center, where they generate impulses that
descend to the expiratory center and inhibit inspiration, a negative feedback
mechanisms
3. Apneustic center- located in the lower pons, between the pneumotaxic center and
the medullary center. The role of the center is revealed when both the pneumotaxic
center and the vagi are inactivated; prolonged apneusis then results. (Apneusis is
the cessation of respiration in the inspiratory position.)
Regulation of Respiratory Center Activity-Respiration would increase whenever cells of

the body need more O2 or form more CO2 and would decrease whenever they need less O2
or form less CO2. there are many sensory receptors, in many locations which can influence
respiration rate : appropriate electrical stimulation of almost any sensory nerve and of many
parts of the brain can affect respiration. However, some receptors appear to be highly
specialized for the task of respiratory regulation. These receptors are sensitive to chemical
changes in their environment- therefore called generally as chemoreceptors. The well known
of the chemoreceptors are :
1) Medullary chemoreceptors- believed to be located on the ventral surface of the

brain system. It is believed to monitor the H- concentration of the cerebrospinal fluid
or, possibly the brain interstitial fluid. An increase in H concentration stimulates
respiration.
2) Carotid bodies- are small, pinkish nodules located just beyond the bifurcation of
the common carotid artery into the external and internal carotids. The carotid bodies
are completely different from the carotid sinuses in structure and function. The
carotid sinuses contain mechanoreceptors that respond to changes in stretch or
deformation of the carotid artery wall; the carotid bodies contains chemoreceptors
that respond to certain changes in their chemical environment.
3) Aortic bodies- contain chemoreceptors that function separately from aortic
pressoreceptors, which are in the wall of the ascending arch of the aorta. Most of the
aortic chemoreceptors lie between the arch of the aorta and the pulmonary artery or
on the dorsal aspect of the pulmonary artery.
The carotid and aortic chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in PO2, PCO2 and H-
concentration in arterial blood. When the PCO2 or H- in arterial blood is increased, or
when arterial PO2 is decreased, the carotid and aortic chemoreceptors are stimulated
and the respiratory center activity increases.

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 Application of the acetylcholine or nicotine to the chemoreceptor areas stimulates

respiration; whereas applicatopm of cyanide or procaine resuces or abolishes
respiration.
 The non-chemical influence of respiration can be shown by the fact that breathing
can be controlled. Irritation on the walls of the trachea or bronchi produces
coughing which begins with a deep inspiration followed by forced expiration against a
closed glottis. The glottis is then suddenly opened, thus producing an explosive
outflow of air at velocities up to 600 miles per hour. Sneezing is a similar expiratory
effort with a continuously open glottis. This illustrates that non-chemical factors can
influence the activity of the respiratory center in response to some mechanical
stimuli.
 The respiratory adjustments during vomiting, swallowing, and gagging are other
examples of non-chemical control of respiratory. Inhibition of respiration and closure
of the glottis during these activities not only prevents the aspiration of food or
vomitus into the trachea but, in the case of vomiting, fixes the chest so that
contraction of the abdominal muscles increases the intra-abdominal pressure.
Mechanisms of Inspiration
 Inspiration is an active process. Contraction of the diaphragm increases the

longitudinal diameter of the chest. Also, the contraction of the external intercostals
muscles elevates the ribs, resulting in an increased transverse diameter of the
thorax.
 At the start of inspiration, the intrapleural pressure is about -2.5 mmHg (relative
atmosphere pressure). When the chest volume is increased, the interpleural pressure
is further decreased to about -6 mmHg, and the lungs are pulled into a more
expanded position. The pressure in the airway becomes slightly negative, and air
flows into the lungs.
Mechanisms of Expiration
 Following an inspiration, the enlarged thorax may return to its resting position by
purely passive forces, that is, without muscular effort. At the end of inspiration, the
lung recoil pulls the chest back to the expiratory position where the recoil pressures
of the lungs and chest wall balance. The pressure in the airways becomes slightly
positive, and air flows out of the lungs
 Although in quite breathing expiration is passive, labored breathing is accompanied
by active expiration, that is ,the return of the thorax to the resting position being
hastened. This is accompanied by the contraction of the expiratory muscles (internal
intercostals muscles and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall). Very active
expiration is seen also in coughing , talking, laughing, barking etc)
Regulation of Expiration-The muscle of respiration posses no inherent rhythm.

Spontaneous respiration is completely dependent upon the discharge of the respiratory
center in the medulla oblongata. It is the efferent connection from the center to the
respiratory muscles are interrupted, or if the center is destroyed, breathing stops.
Lung Volume
 The amount of air that moves into the lungs with each inspiration (or the amount
that moves out with each expiration) is called the tidal volume or TV. The air
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inspired with a maximal inspiratory effort in excess of the tidal volume is the
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). The volume expelled by the active expiratory effort
aster passive expiration is the expiratory reserved volume (ERV), and the air left in
the lungs after maximal expiratory effort is air left in the lungs after a maximal
expiratory effort is the residual volume (RV). The space in the conducting zone of
the airways occupied by gas that does not exchange with blood in the pulmonary
vessels is the respiratory dead space. The vital capacity, the greatest amount of
air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort is frequently measured
clinically as an index of pulmonary function. It gives useful information about the
strength of the respiratory muscles and other aspects of pulmonary function. The
fraction of the vital capacity expired in 1 second( timed vital capacity ; also called
forced expired volume in 1 second, or FEV 1”) gives additional information ; the vital
capacity may be normal but the timed vital capacity is greatly reduced in diseases
such as asthma, in which the resistance of the airways is increased owing to
bronchial constriction. The amount of air inspired per minutes (pulmonary
ventilation, respiratory minute volume) is normally about 6 L (500 ml/ breadth x 12
breaths/ min)
Gas Exchange
 Oxygen continuously diffuse out of the gas in the alveoli (alveolar gas) into the blood
stream, and CO2 continuously diffuses into the alveoli from the blood. In the steady
state, inspired air mixes with the alveolar gas, replacing the O2 that has entered the
blood and diluting the CO2 that has entered the alveoli. Part of this mixing is
expired. The O2 content of the alveolar gas then falls and its CO2 content rises until
the next inspiration. Since the volume of gas in the alveoli is about 1.8 – 2.0 L at
the end of expiration (functional residual capacity), each 350-ml to 500ml increment
of inspired and expired air changes the PO2 and PCO2 very little. Indeed the
composition of alveolar gas remains remarkably constant, not only at rest but in a
variety of conditions as well.
 Oxygen moves from the alveoli to the capillaries across the thin membrane formed
by the epithelial cells, the endothelial cells, and their fused basement membrane.
The PO2 of the alveolar air is 100 mmHg, whereas, that in the venous blood in the
pulmonary artery is 40 mmHg. There is no evidence that any process other than
passive diffusion is involved in the movement of O2 into the blood along this
pressure gradient. Diffusion into the blood must be very rapid, since the time each
millimeter of blood is in the capillaries is short. Nevertheless, O2, diffusion is
adequate in health to raise the PO2 of the blood to 95 mm Hg, a value just under the
alveolar PO2. On the other hand CO2 diffuses from the capillaries to alveolar air,
thus, reducing the CO2 content of the blood which returned to the heart at 40 mm
Hg.
 In short, the arterial blood distributed to the different systematic circulation, has a
PO2 of 95 mmHg and PCO2 of 40 mmHg. The tissues which would received the
arterial blood has PO2 of 40 mmHg and PCO2 of 46 mmHg. Thus at the tissue level
O2 diffuses out of the blood capillaries to the tissues, whereas, CO2 diffuses from the
tissues to the blood capillaries. The resultant venous blood has PO2 of 40 mmHg.
And PCO2 of 46 mmHg when returned back to the right atrium of the heart.

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THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM-Kidney and Body Fluids
The kidneys play a prominent role in regulating
a) The concentration of metabolic wastes

b) The osmotic pressure
c) The fluid volume ; and
d) The ionic composition of the internal environment
 The kidneys are commonly describe as excretory organs; but actually, they
are primarily organs which regulate volume and composition of the internal
fluid environment. Their excretory function is incidental to their regulatory
mechanisms.
The kidney aids in keeping the concentration of blood plasma constant by:
a) The excretion of urea and other nitrogenous waste products of metabolism;

b) The elimination of excess inorganic salts
c) The elimination of excess water;
d) The elimination of non-volatile, soluble foreign substances that may have gained
entrance to the blood.
Structure of the Kidney
 The kidneys are paired, somewhat flattened bean-shaped organs which lie
retroperitoneally on either side of the vertebral column against the posterior
abdominal wall. Each kidney is supplied with blood by a single renal artery which
arises from the abdominal aorta. Each renal artery divides into a series of branches
which pass dorsal and ventral to the pelvis. These arterial branches pass between
the calyxes and penetrate the parenchyma. Within the parynchyma, these arteries
are designated as interlobar because they course between the lobes or pyramids.
 At the junction of the cortex and medulla , the interlobar arteries bend over the
bases of the pyramids to form a series of incomplete arches, the aciform arteries.
Interlobular arteries arises at right angles from the acriform arteries and run radially
toward the periphery in the cortical medullary rays. In their course through the
cortex they give rise to short lateral branches, the afferent arterioles, each of which
supplies a glomerulus. The venous system which drains blood out of the kidney runs
parallel with the arterial system and comes out of the kidney as renal veins.
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Each kidney is composed of over a million units of nephrons. A nephron consists of several
parts
1. The glomerulus is formed by the invagination of tuft of capillaries into the dilated,
blind end of the nephron called the Bowman’s capsule. The glumerulus and the
Bowman’s capsule is collectively called as the renal corpuscle or malphigian.
2. The proximal tubule is joined to Bowman’s capsule by a short connecting
segments. The convulated portion of the proximal tubule (pars concoluta) enters a
cortical medulla ray to penetrate the deeper layers of the cortex and become the
loop of Henle. The proximal tubule is composed of a single layer of cuboidal or
truncated pyramid cells on a basement membrane. The cells are coarsely granular;
nuclei are large and basally located. The apical surfaces of the cells which bulge into
the tubular lumen are covered with numerous cytoplasmic filaments which are
revealed by electronmicroscopy as microvilli.
3. The Loop of Henle includes : the descending thick limb (pars recta) of the proximal
tubule; the descending and ascending thin limbs; and the ascending thick limbs. The
thin segments of the loop of Henle arises abruptly from the descending thick
segments of the loop, the so-called pars recta of the proximal tubule. The diameter
of its lumen is less than that of either the proximal or the distal segment. The cells
are flattened and thin except in the nuclear region, which bulges into the lumen. The
descending limb of the loop of Henle bends upward forming the ascending limb of the
loop of Henle, which communicate with the pars recta of the distal convulated tubule.
4. The distal tubule is shorter than the proximal tubule, and its convolution are less
complex. The cells of the distal tubule are cuboidal in the region of the pars recta
and become more columnar in the cortical convulations.
5. Several distal tubules coalesce to form collecting ducts which pass through the renal
medulla to empty into the pyramids of the kidney at the apices of the meduallary
pyramids. The renal pelvis drains into the ureter and the latter enters the urinary
bladder.

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Figure ___. Several kidney tubules or nephron
Figure ___A kidney nephron or tubule
Urine Formation
 In the kidneys, a fluid that resembles plasma is filtered through a glomerular

capillaries into the renal tubules (glomerular filtration). As this glumerular filtrates
passes down the tubules, its volume is reduced and its composition altered by the
processes of tubular reabsorption, active transport and osmosis to form urine.
 Each day about 160 to 180 liters of water are filtered through the glumeruli of
normal man. Each liter contains 300 mOsm/L of solute, consisting largely of sodium,
chloride and bicarbonate ions. As the filtrate flows along the proximal convulated
tubules , sodium is actively exruded into the intersittium of the cortex. Chloride
follows sodium passively down an electrical gradient and water is reabsorb by
osmosis. The ions and water deposited in the interstitium are rapidly carried away by
blood perfusing the cortical capillaries. Although the volume of the tubular fluid is
sharply reduced to perhaps 20% of that of the filtrate at the ends of the thick
descending limbs of the Henle’s loops, the osmolar concentration remains unchanged
at 300 mOsm /L
 As the tubular fluid progresses down the thin descending limbs of Henle’s loops,
water diffuses out into the hypertonic interstitium of the medulla and papilla; and
increases progressively to the bneds of the loops. In the ascending limbs of Henle’s
loop, sodium is extruded into the interstitium. Because of the ascending limbs are
impermeable to water, the osmolar concentration of the tubular fluid is reduced. At
each level, a gradient of about 200 mOsl/ L is established between tubular contents
and hypertonic interstitium. Indeed, it is this capacity of the tubular epithelium to
establish a modest gradient at each level accounts for the much more significant
gradient of 300 to 1200 mOsm /L developed along the length of the loops. This
process is termed as countercurrent multiplication of concentration.
 The fluid which enters the distal convoluted tubules is hypotonic to the surrounding
cortical interstitial fluid. Its volume is perhaps 15% of that of the glomerular filtrate.
The continued active extrusion of sodium and the passive osmotic diffusion of water
continue in the distal tubule, reducing volume to a few percent of that of the filtrate
as the fluid enters the collecting duct. This fluid becomes progressively concentrated
as it flows along the collecting duct and gives up water to the hypertonic medullary
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and papillary interstitium. The final urine entering the renal pelvis is essentially as
concentrated as the interstitial tissue of the tips of the papillae.
 The water which diffuses out of the descending limb of Henle’s loops and out of the
collecting ducts, and the sodium, which is pumped out of the ascending limbs of
Henle’s loop, are removed by blood perfusing the vesa recta of the papilla.
 In water diuresis, in which the titer of circulating ADH is low, the epithelium of the
distal tubules and collecting ducts is impermeable to water. The hypotonicity of the
tubular urine leaving the loops of Henle is maintained throughout the remainder of
the nephron and is increased by the continued active extrusion of ions. The final
urine is dilute and its volume large.
Role of ADH in Water Conservation
Vasopressin or ADH conserves body water by the following actions:
1. Since ADH is a vasoconstrictor, it reduces medullary and papillary blood flow in the
renal interstitium, thus, increasing tissues hypertonicity of the interstitium. This
would increase the concentration gradient of the solute between the interstitium and
the fluid in the lumen of the kidney tubules, thus, the reabsoprtion of water by
osmosis would increase.
2. ADH may stimulate the “sodium pump” of the ascending loop of Henle, thus ,
increasing both the rate of sodium transport from the tubule lumen to the
interstitium and the concentration gradient of sodium between the interstitium and
the fluid in the lumen of the tubules.
3. ADH may dilate the “pores” of the collecting duct, thus, facilitate water reabsorption.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The principal sex organs of the female are the ovaries. The ovaries have two main
functions are
a) Production of sex cell or ovum

b) Production of female sex hormone estrogen
The ovaries are almond-shaped bodies attached by the broad ligament to the dorsal
wall in the sublumbar region of the body cavity. The outer layer (cortex) of the ovary is
made up of germinal epithelium with very large number of primary follicles ech of which
contains a potential ovum. The inner layer (medulla) contains blood vessels, nerves
ganglion cells, stroma and embryonic vestiges.
 The accessory reproductive tract includes the infundibulum, oviducts, uterus (horn
and body), cervix, vagina and vulva.
 The infundibulum is a funnel-shaped structure which picks up the egg when
released by the ovary. The “picking-up” of the egg is believed to evolve the active
participation of the celia-like structures at the rim of the infundibular funnel which
attract the eggs into the infundibulum.
 The oviduct is s tubular structure connecting the infundibulum to the horn of the
uterus. It serves as the passage way of the egg on its way to the uterus. It is the
site of fertilization and the beginning of embryonic development after fertilization.
 The horn of the uterus is the organ which serves as the site of implantation for
the fertilized egg. This is where the fetus would develop during the stage of
pregnancy in gestating animals. The body of the uterus unites the two horns of
the uterus and connects them to the cervix.

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 The cervix is sometimes considered as the neck of the uterus. Its opening, os uteri,
closes when the animal gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents. It serves as
sperm receptacle in certain animals.
 The vagina is the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the receptacle of
the sperm cells in many species. It also comprises a part of the birth canal of
the animal at parturition.
 The vulva is a common passage way for the products of reproduction and for
urine. The vulva of mammals is comparable to the ventral portion of the cloaca of
birds. It is also homologous with the scrotum of the male, since both are derived
from the same embryonic structure.
 Clitoris is a rudimentary organ located in the ventral commissure of the vulva of
animals. It is homologous to the glans penis of the male.
 The broad ligaments suspends the female genital system from the dorsolateral wall
of the pelvic canal. Three specialized regions of the broad ligaments are recognized.
1) Mesometrium- is that portion of the broad ligaments which suspends the anterior
portion of the vagina, the cervix and the uterus and comprises the major portion of
the broad ligaments.
2) Mesosalpinx- is a lateral fold on the anterior portion of the broad ligaments which
suspends the oviduct (Salpinx)
3) Mesovarium- is a specialized portion of the anterior edge of the broad ligament
which suspend the ovary proper.
 In some species a pocket-like structure called Bursa is formed by fusion of
two or more of the mesovarium, mesoslpinx and the infundibulum. It
encloses, more or less, completely the ovary.
 A bind pouch opening into the floor of the genital tract at the external urethral
opening of the junction between the vagina and the vulva is the sub-
urethral diverticulum. The neck of the bladder opens through the roof of
the sub-urethral divericulum. This relationship of the neck of the bladder to
the blind pouch and hence to the external urethral opening would appear to
be safety feature to prevent entrance of foreign objects into the urinary
bladder proper.

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o
v Raptured follicle
a
r
y Infundibulum (fertilization)
Magnum
(Albumen )
o
v
i Isthmus (shell
d membrane )
u
c
t Uterus/ Shell glands
(water anfd shell)
Vagina(bloom cuticle )
Cloaca
Avian Female Reproductive Tract
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 The main sex organ of the male is the testis. In birds, the two testes are located
within the body cavity in the dorsolumbar region. In farm animals, the testes are
located outside the body cavity within the scrotum. The scrotum is the cutaneous
sac that serves as the external covering of the testes. It protects the testes from
the direct mechnanical injuries and provides an environment which is a few degrees
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(6-8F) cooler than the body temperature which is required for normal
spermatogenesis. The thermoregulatory muscles of the testes are the cremaster
muscle and the dartos muscles.
 During fetal development, the initial development of the testes starts inside the body
cavity. As the fetus grows, the testes start to descend to the scrotum through the
inguinal canal. In certain instances, when both testes failed to ascend to the scrotal
sac, the individual is said to be bilateral cryptorchid, hence is sterile. If only one of
the testes failed to descend to the scrotal sac, the individual is said to be unilateral
cryptorchid , but capable of fertilization. However, cryptorchid animals should be
culled and not allowed to mate because this condition is heritable.
The testes has two main functions:
a) Production of sperm cells

b) Production of sex hormone, testosterone.
 The testosterone is the male sex hormone responsible for the development
of secondary sex characteristics. Male characteristics such as muscular
development at the rear quarters and shoulders, aggressiveness and libido
when confronted with an in heat female animal of the same species are
governed or influenced by the hormone testosterone.
 The seat of spermatozoa production in a testes is in the seminiferous
tubules. The semineferous tubules joins together to form the rete testis
and come out of the testes as vasa efferenta. The vasa efferentia
converged to form the head of the epididymis, then the body and tail of the
epidiidymis. The convulated epididymis straightens up to form the vas
deferens which then enters the inguinal canal and enlarges to form the
ampulla. The ampulla joins with the urethra of penis. The penis is the male
organ of copulation and serves to introduce the spermatozoa into the female
reproductive tract.
There are three accessory glands which contribute to the bulk of the semen ejaculate :
these are the
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 Seminal vesicles
 Prostate glands
 Cowpers gland or bulbo-urethral gland.
The semen consists of the sperm cells plus the secretions of the three accessory
glands. In vasectomized animals, the vas deferens are severed, thus the ejaculate
consists only of the secretions of the accessory glands- making the vasectomized
male sterile but without losing libido. On the other hand, in castrated animals both
testes are removed, thus rendering the male sterile with loss of libido.
 The secretions of the accessory glands serves as the vehicle for the transport of the
spermatozoa from the vagina to the oviduct. It stimulates also spermatozoa activity
and serves as the lubricating substance during copulation particularly the secretions
of the bulbo-urethral glands. The seat of the spermatogenesis is the seminiferous
tubules. FSH stimulates the germinal epithelium lining the seminiferous tubules to
initiate spermatogenesis up to the secondary spermatocytes stage. On the other
hand, LH stimulates the interstitial cells or the cells of Leydig to secrete
testosterone; and testosterone is required for the final maturation of the
spermatozoa. Therefore both FSH and LH are required for normal spermatogenesis.
FSH has a direct influence on spermatogenesis, whereas the influence of LH on
spermatozoa production in through its stimulating effect on testosterone secretion,
which is required for the final stages of spermatogenesis. The level of testosterone in
circulation also serves as the negative feedback in controlling LH production by the
anterior pituitary ; whereas inhibin, produced by the sertoli cells in the seminferous
tubules has a negative feedback effect on FSH secretions.
 Testicular and epididymal sperii cells are non-motile. They become motile only when
they are suspended in a fluid and this occurs when they come in contact with the
secretions of the accessory glands
 The normal spermatozoa consists of a head, neck or mid-piece and a tail. The head
is covered by a protoplasmic cap( galea capitis) and the shape is flattened ovoid in
bull, ram, boar and rabbit and rounded in men. It varies with species like rat, rooster
and salamander.
 The mid-piece and the tail are composed of several strands or fibrils which are
covered by a sheath. At the tip of the tail, these fibrils flare out into a naked brush.
 The common abnormalities encountered in a semen sample are sperm cells with
protoplasmic droplets at the mid-piece; headless or tailess; giant and miniature
heads; bent, coiled and shoe-hooked tailed sperm cells. When sperm abnormalities
in a semen ejaculate are about 50% of the total sperm cell counts, the male is
usually sterile. Abnormal sperm are often seen in males suffering from fever, males
used too frequently for breeding, or too young males. In the same manner, if the
number of dead sperms in a semen ejaculate, as determined by a dead-alive staining
techniques, is 50% or more, the males has impaired fertility if not sterile.
 The life-span of ejaculated spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract is about 24
hrs (20-30 hrs) in most mammals and about 14 days in chickens. Of so many million
sperms per ejaculate, only a few thousand reach the oviduct and few dozens actually
reach the vicinity of the ovum. Several may penetrate the zona pellucida, but only
one sperm cells enters the ovum proper and accomplishes fertilization.

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Avian Male Reproductive Tract
Castration
Male calves and lambs that are kept for meat may be castrated when they are young to
prevent them from developing secondary sexual characteristics. Castration can also make
management easier as they will not be able to mate with female livestock on the farm, may
be less aggressive, safer and easier to handle. However growth rate may be reduced.
Piglets may also be castrated,
however, the practice is less common than in the past. Castration can prevent boar taint
(meat from entire males having an unpleasant taste), but many pigs are slaughtered at a
sufficiently early age for it not to be a problem.
Vasectomies
Entire males produce pheromones (chemicals) that send messages to females which can
stimulate female hormone production. Rams which have been vasectomised are called
teasers; that is they have had the vas deferens
cut so that the sperm which is produced will not be able to reach the penis. Teasers will
produce pheromones and behave like entires, however they will be infertile. They are used
to synchronise the breeding season of female livestock.
Puberty and Estrous Cycles
 The female reproductive tract starts to function when a female reaches the age of
puberty. Puberty indicates that the female has reached sexual maturity –capable of
producing offspring. The age of puberty varies between breeds of animals among
female animals of the same breed. The first manifestation to indicate that the female
animal has reached the age of puberty is when it starts to show signs of estrus.
 When the animal reaches puberty, the anterior pituitary gland starts to secrete
gonadotrophic hormones which could affect the ovaries. The first gonadotropin
secreted in significant amount is follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) with little
leutenizing hormone or LH. FSH causes the growth and development of the Graafian
follicles (GF) in the ovary. In turn, this developing follicles secretes a hormone
known as estrogen. This is the hormone which causes estrus in female. The presence
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of estrogen stimulates the production of LH. At the peak of estrogen production LH

production increases which coincides with the production of inhibin hormone from the
ovary, which inhibits FSH production. Usually, LH is also produced with little FSH
because the cells in the anterior pituitary which secretes the former are the same
cells that secrete the latter. These cells are the basophils of the anterior pituitary.
 LH is the hormone that causes ovulation of maturing follicles. It also initiates the
formation of corpus luteum (CL) by converting the cells of the stratum granulusom
into lutein cells. Eventually, upon the action of LH, what used to be the GF will be
filled up with lutein cells and becomes the corpus luteum or CL. So, the GF with the
action of LH becomes the CL.
 The CL secretes a specific hormone known as progesterone. It has a strong inhibitory
of FSH production. As long as the CL is secreting progesterone, estrus is inhibited .
Progesterone prepares the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of the
fertilized egg. It also maintains normal pregnancy until birth. Thus, CL persists if
there is pregnancy; however, if there is no pregnancy, the CL will regress. It is
known that the uterus secretes prostaglandin F2 alpha which could destroy the CL.
In a normal cycle or if there is no pregnancy, prostaglandin F2 alpha is secreted by
the uterus and causes the luteolysis or regression of the CL.
 To summarize, in an estrous cycle, the sequence of events are follows : the anterior
pituitary secretes FSH which causes the formation of GF in the ovary. In turn, the GF
secretes estrogens which stimulates LH production and at the same time causes heat
or estrus cycle in the female animal. This is the best time to breed the animal. Then,
the surge of LH released by the anterior pituitary causes the ovulation of maturing
GF. At the same time, LH would initiate the formation of CL and causes the
production of progesterone by the CL. Progesterone would prepare the uterus for
implantation of the fertilized egg if fertilization had taken place. Also progesterone
maintains pregnancy, but if the animal is not pregnant, the uterus then would
produce prostaglandin which causes the destruction of the CL, resulting in the
cessation of progesterone production. When this happen, FSH production would
again continue and a new cycle begins. The period from one estrus to the next
estrus is known as estrus cycle. In many farm animals like carabao, cattle, pigs,
and horses estrus comes every 21 days if the female animal is cycling regularly,
although it could vary from 12 to 30 days.
Animals may be classified based on the occurrence of their estrous cycle as

 Monoestrus- if the animal comes in heat only once a year, such as dogs
 Seasonally polyestrus-if it comes in heat at certain seasons only, such as sheep
 Polyestrus- if it comes in heat all throughout the year, like cattle, swine and
carabao.
Portions of an estrous cycle
1) Proestrus- characterized by follicular growth

2) Estrus- which is under the influence of estrogen
3) Metestrus- characterized by the formation of CL
4) Diestrus- under the influence of progesterone secreted by the CL.
 Spontaneous ovulators- are those that ovulate spontaneously during or around

estrus, such as cattle, carabao, goat, sheep, hogs etc
 Induced ovulators- are those animals that do not ovulate unless there is
copulation, such as rabbit
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Signs of Heat or Estrus
Estrus is perceived through physiological manifestations that the female show or exhibit.
The manifestations of heat are as follows:
1. Reddening and swelling of the vulva

2. Mucus discharge from the vagina
3. Frequent urination
4. Animals become restless and lacks appetite
5. Mounting other animals in herd
6. Female stand still when mounted by the male
The mucus discharge is watery at first and towards the end of estrus becomes sticky. The
vaginal lining of in heat animal is pinkish and it is pale when not in heat. However, the best
sign of heat is when the animals stands still when mounted by male animals of the same
species
When to Breed or Inseminate
 In cattle and carabaos, oculations takes place about 15-18 hours from the end of
estrus. The best time to inseminate a female animal is toward the end of its estrus.
But since the duration of estrus is variable and no one can tell exactly when the
animal started its heat, it is then recommended that once the animal is observed to
be in heat, then inseminate it immediately. If the animal is observed to be in heat in
the morning, inseminate immediately, and if it is still in heat in the afternoon,
inseminate again. Likewise, if it is observed to exhibit heat in the afternoon,
inseminate immediately and if is is still in heat the following morning, give the
second insemination. This is the thumb rule that should be followed. The duration of
estrus in carabao lasts from 5 to 36 hours or an average of 18 hours (less than a
day)
 In swine the duration of estrus is about 2-3 days. The best time to breed or
inseminate a sow is on the second and third day of estrus.
In mares (female horse that has already given a birth), estrus duration is about 6-7 days.
Mating or insemination is recommended on the fourth and fifth day of estrus

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BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Vertebrate animals may be classified into two groups based on their ability to regulate their
body temperature with respect to the environment.
1) Homeotherms or warm-blooded animals – whose body temperature is largely

independent of that of the environment
2) Poikilotherms or cold-blooded animals- whose body temperature varies directly
with that of the environment.
Homeotherms attain body temperature by :
1) Chemical Regulation
a) Altering the metabolic rate by adjusting the production of certain hormones

such as thyroxine and / or epinephrine
b) Shivering and changing muscle tension- the animal performs no external
works while shivering because its position does not change, but the energy
developed in the transfer of chemical-substrate energy to mechanical work of
muscular contraction is liberated as heat within the muscles
2) Physical devices and activities
a) Sweating with evaporation of water from the skin

b) Changing the rate of breathing to alter vaporization from the lungs
c) Altering the volume of blood flowing to the body surface by vasodilation or
vasoconstriction.
d) Changing the amount of internal and external thermal insulation such as
subcutaneous fat, feathers, fur, hair or clothing
e) Changing the “free” body surface area by lying down huddling when it is cold or by
standing in a stretch position when it is hot
f) Locating more favorable environment such as sunshine, shade, dry or wet areas,
shelter from winds, etc
Processes of heat dissipation
1. Conduction- involves direct contact of the animal with a part of its environment.
Thermal energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighboring molecule. The
amount of heat transferred and its direction depends on the following:
a. Contacting surface area of the animal;

b. The difference in temperature between the animal body and its environment;
and
c. Conduciveness of the contracting surface
This process of heat transfer has its greatest significance in the transfer of heat from the
interior to the surface of the animal body rather than from the animal body to the
environment and the reverse
2. Convection- heat is transferred to or from the animal by the movement of heated

air “particles”; it is the process by which actual mass motion of heated gas (or liquid)
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ANIMAL SCIENCE
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transfers heat from one place to another. The rate of heat dissipation from the body
by convection is :
a) Proportional to the surface area of the body;

b) Affected by the velocity of the air moving along the animal surface; and
c) Affected by the temperature of the animal’s surface and of the ambient air.
Thus, posture of the animal and other conditions affecting surface area affect the convection
transfer of heat
3. Radiation- involves the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves

traveling at the speed of 186,000 miles per second; there is no material medium or
physical contact between the animal and the segment of its contact between the
animal is reacting in the transmission of heat. The transfer of heat by radiation
depends on :
a) The effective surface area- example posture

b) The absolute temperature of the animal’s surface and of the surrounding surfaces.
c) Surface quality known as “emissivity”- example, color, texture and sheen of the skin
and hair coat. White surface may absorbed only 20% of the visible solar radiation
falling on it, wheras, a black surface may absorbed as much as 95 to 100% of the
same radiation
4. Vaporization- though not a strictly a homeothermic reactions, this is the most

important process by which the animal loses heat to maintain a constant body
temperature. The extent of heat loss from the skin and respiratory surfaces depends
on the following:
a) Temperature of the skin

b) Covering of the skin- when the skin is covered with hair, water vapor may be
trapped to form a high humidity layer over the surface, tending to prevent air
contact and evaporation.
The extent of heat loss by vaporization from the lungs depends on :
a) Ventilation rate or respiration rate

b) Humidity of the inspired-expired air
The normal rectal temperature range of the different classes of animals is as follows :
 Primates, asses, horses, mice, rats, elephants, ruminants, and dogs 36-38C or 96-
101F
 Cats, pigs and rabbits 38-40C or 100-103 F
 Chicken, turkey, goose, and ducks- 40-41C or 103-106F
 Quail, pheasant, sparrow 41-43C or 106-109F
The effect of environmental temperature on body heat loss:
If the ambient temperature is the same as the body temperature, the body cannot lose the
heat by radiation, convection, or conduction; all the heat has to be lost by vaporization. The
vaporization of one (1) liter of water dissipates about 583 kcal of heat.
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When the ambient temperature is higher than that of the body temperature, the body
absorbs heat by radiation, convection and conduction. The body, therefore, must dissipate
not only the heat it produces but also that which it absorbs at higher environmental
temperature, the body can lose heat only by vaporization of water.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON PRODUCTIVITY OF LIVESTOCK
 The effect of climate varies on account of interactions between the climatic variables
and diurnal, daily and seasonal changes
 Animals have different levels of adaptation to different climatic stress, e. g.
temperate-type Holstein cattle have a thermal comfort zone for milk production
within the range -5 to20oC, with optimal production at around 10oC and with a
critical temperature range afterwhich milk production declines steeply, of 21-27oC.
the critical temperature is however inother temperate breeds (Jersey and Brown
Swiss) and higher still in tropical breeds
 Seasonal fluctuation in availability and quality of roughages for livestock during dry
season also affect productivity in the tropics
 Other factors affecting animal productivity includes diseases and parasites, low
genetic potential and poor management system
Some effects can be seen in:
 Reduced growth rate and prolonged time to reach puberty

 Low milk yield per lactation
 Reduced fertility and libido in male
 Reduced length and intensity of oestrus
 Slow return to oestrus and conception after weaning
 Embryonic mortality
 Reduced feed utilization
 Increased morbidity and mortality
HEAT STRESS
 Some of the common factors that can lead to stress (stressors) in livestock
production include transportation, noise, fasting, water deprivation, hotness,
coldness, etc.
 Most livestock (mammals and avians) are homeothermic animals
 They maintain the core body temperature constant or within a narrow range
 They employ various means to regulate the body temperature which include both
sensible and insensible heat loss methods
 They have a thermoneutral zone in environmental temperature in which body
temperature maintenance is possible
 When ambient temperature increases beyond the thermoneutral zone, animals
exhibit varying physiological responses depicting that they are stressed
 This form of stress is termed heat stress or distress
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 Heat stress is a multi-faceted adaptive response that occurs when an animal’s

capacity for heat dissipation is exceeded by the heat load acquired through excessive
exposure to high environmental temperature. It results from the interactions of air
temperature, humidity, radiant heat and air speed, where the air temperature plays
the major role
Indicators of heat stress in livestock
 Increase water intake

 Increased rectal temperature and respiratory rate
 Changes in haematological parameters
 Increased blood pH
 Changes in electrolytes and metabolites
 Reduced tri-iodothyronine, thyroxine and immune function
 Reduced feed intake and growth performance
 Increased mortality and morbidity
 Reduced egg size, production and shell quality in layers
 Reduced fertility and egg hatchability in breeders

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REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
ABGREGANA, K.W. 2012. Review / Lecture Notes in Anatomy and Physiology of Farm
Animals. In preparation for the 2012 Licensure Examination for Agriculturist.
FRANDSON, R.D., WILKE, W.L., & FAILS, A.D. 2003. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm
Animals. 6th Edition. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE . Lecture Notes in Animal Science 1a. Introduction to

Animal Science. The Institute of Animal Science. College of Agriculture. University of the
Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna.
PEPITO, J. 2004. Review/ Lecture Notes in Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. IN
preparation for the 2004 Licensure Examination for Agriculturists.
"’THE CLOSER YOU GET TO SUCCESS, THE HARDER IT IS TO REACH IT”
END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

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ANATOMY AND

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS USEFUL IN THE STUDY OF ANATOMY

 Cranial- directional term meaning toward the head

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 2

 Homeostasis- is the tendency of living things to attempt to maintain a state of

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 Bone – a highly specialized supportive tissues which is characterized by its rigidity

 Mechanical support (body framework)/ Rigidity and form to the body:

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Function: - protection of brain

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- Forms passage for the beginning of digestive and respiratory system

Cow: C7 T13 L6 S5 cd18-20

Pig: 6; Sheep: 6; Cow: 7; Goat: 7; Horse: 8

Table 1. Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Bones. Spurgeon 1992.

Pectoral limb Pelvic limb

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3. Long bones with Pneumatic

4. Lungs and kidneys Attached to dorsal wall

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Functions of the muscular system

Types of muscle tissues

Smooth (involuntary or unstraited muscle)

 Composed of muscle cells that have no striations visible with a microscope.

 Characterized by fibers with visible striations, so it is considered a type of striated

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GENERAL MUSCLE TERMINOLOGIES

Arrangement of the muscle fibers:

Biceps = two origins

COMMON MUSCLES FOUND IN LIVESTOCK ANIMALS

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BASIC UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Classification of neurons according to the direction of impulse conduction

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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Major divisions (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Hormone- substance or chemical mediators produced by the endocrine glands and

1) Regulate rather initiate reactions

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HYPOPHYSIS OR PITUITARY GLANDS

A. Anterior pituitatry lobe or adenohypophydid

The Adenohypophysis secretes the following hormones

a. Growth Hormone of Somatotropic Hormone (STH)- promotes growth of the

The intermediate lobes secretes MSH or melanophore stimulating hormone which is

The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:

1) Oxytocin- stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females

 In the case of hypothyrodism such as simple goiter, there is lack of thyroxine

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THE ADRENAL GLAND

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 Calcitocin or also known as thyrocalcitocin is a hormone that lowers calcium

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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (CVS)

 The heart is located in the middle mediastinal space. It is enclosed with a

sympathetic cardiac nerve results in tachycardia or increased heart rate.

Elephant 30-45 pulse rate/ min.

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1) CORONARY CIRCULATION- systemic circulation; it supplies blood to the heart