Anatomy and physiology 2023

Descriptive terms in the study of anatomy

• Anatomy- science that deals with the form and

structure of all organisms
– Literally means:
– Cut apart
– Used by early anatomists when speaking of
complete dissection of a cadaver.
• Physiology-study of the integrated functions of
all its parts (systems, organs, tissues, cells, and
cell components), including biophysical and
biochemical processes.
• Several branches of anatomy divided by
scientists due to the complexity if the bodies if
man and animals.
– A. Gross anatomy- study of the structures that can
be seen by the naked eye.
– B. Microscopic anatomy or histology- study of
tissues by means of a microscope,
– C. comparative anatomy- compares the body
structure of different species.
• -D. embryology- study of the developmental
anatomy, covering the period from conception
(fertilization of the egg) to birth.
• Histology- microscopic anatomy- study of
tissues ad cells that can be seen only by the
naked eye through the microscope
• Ultrastructural cytology- deals with portions of
cells and tissues as they are visualized with the
aid of an electron microscope
• Fine structure-refers to structures seen in electron
micrographs
• Systematic anatomy- study of anatomy by systems:
– Neurophysiology
– Gastrointestinal physiology
– Cardiovascular physiology
– Respiratory physiology
– Endocrine physiology
– Reproductive physiology
 Nomenclature for systematic anatomy
• System study chief
structures
• Skeletal system osteology bones
• Articular system arthrology joints
• Muscular system myology muscles
• Digestive systemsplanchnology stomach

intestines
• Respiratory system splanchnology lungs
• airways
• Urinary system splanchnology kidneys
• urinary
• bladder
• Reproductive system splanchnology
• ovaries
• testes
• uterus
• Endocrine system endocrinology
ductless
• glands
• Nervous system neurology brain,
•
 External anatomy of farm animals
• Descriptive terms:
– When giving geographic locations, we make use of
certain arbitrary frames of reference known as
meridians, of latitude and longitude
– In animals, our frames of reference must be in
relation to the animal itself and must apply
regardless of the position of direction of the
animal.
 Useful Terminologies
• Anterior rostral superficial
• Posterior median external
• Superior lateral internal
• Inferior dorsal horizontal
• Cranial ventral palmar
• Caudal proximal distal
• Plantar supine pronation
• When giving geographic locations, we make
use of certain arbitrary frames of reference
known as meridians of latitude and longitude.
• In animals, frames of reference must be in
relation to the animal itself and must apply
regardless of the position of the animal.
• Cranial- directional term meaning toward the
head.
– Shoulder is cranial to the hip; it is closer to the head
than is the hip

Caudal- means toward the tail; rump is caudal to the

loin
Rostral and caudal are directional terms used in
reference to features of the head to mean toward the
nose (rostral) or toward the tail (caudal)
• Median plane- an imaginary plane passing thru
the body so as to divide the body into equal
right and left haves
– A beef carcass is split into 2 halves on the median
plane

Sagittal plane- any plane parallel to the median plane

- Median plane is sometimes called mid sagittal plane
• Transverse plane- is at right angles to the
median plane and divides the body into
cranial and caudal segments.
– A cross section of the body would be made on a
transverse plane .
– The cinch of a saddle defines a transverse plane
through the thorax of a horse
• Horizontal plane- at right angles to both the
median plane and transverse planes.
– Divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral
(lower) segments
Medial- an adjective meaning close to or toward the
median plane.
- the heart is medial to the lungs, it is closer to
the median plane than are the lungs
• The chestnut is on the medial aspect (inside)
of horse’s limb.

• Lateral- the anatomy of medial;

– Away from median plane
– Ribs are lateral to the lungs
Dorsal- toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral
column
– Kidneys are dorsal to the intestines; they are closer to
the vertebra column
– Dorsum- a noun referring to the dorsal portion or back.

Ventral means away from the vertebral column or toward

the mid abdominal wall
- the udder is the most ventral part of the body of
the cow;
- the part of the body farthest from the vertebral
column
• Deep and internal- indicate proximity to the
center of an anatomical structure.
• - humerus (arm bone) is deep to all other
structures in the arm
• Superficial and external- refer to proximity to
the surface of the body
– - hair is superficial to all other structures of the
body
• Proximal- means relatively close to a given part,
usually the vertebral column, body or center of
gravity
• - term used in reference to an extremity or limb.
• - knee is proximal to the foot
• Distal- means farther from the vertebral column
• - also used in reference to portions of an
extremity
• - hoof is distal to the carpus or knee
• Palmar- refers to the flexor or caudal surface of the
thoracic limb (forelimb) distal to ((below) the
carpus; Dorsal is used in this region to refer to the
opposite (cranial side)
• Plantar- used in describing the caudal surface of
the pelvic limb (hind limb) distal to the hock
• Prone- refers to a position in which the dorsal
aspect of the body or any extremity is upper most
• Pronation- the act of turning toward a prone
position
• Supine – refers to the position in which the
dorsal aspect or dorsum of the body or plantar
or palmar aspect of an extremity is uppermost.
• Supination- refers to the act of turning toward
a supine position.
• The suffix = “ad” is used to form an adverb
from any of the directional terms, indicating
movement f the direction or toward, as in
caudad, dorsad, ventrad,craniad
 Animal cells and tissues
• Cells
• - all living things, plants and animals are
constructed of small units called cell.
– Ameba- the simplest animal, consist of a single cell
that is capable of performing all functions
commonly associated with life.
 Functions of a cell
• Growth-increase in size
• Metabolism-use of food
• Response to stimuli- such as moving towards
light
• Contraction-shortening in one direction
• Reproduction- development of individuals of
the same species
 Parts of a cell
• Cytoplasm-
• Nucleus
• Cell membrane
 tissues
• Group of specialized cells
– Nerve tissue- cells that specialize in conducting
impulses
– Connective tissue- cells that specialize in holding
structures together
– Organs- various tissues associated in functional
groups.
• Stomach is an organ that functions in digestion of food
• System- a group of organs that participate in a
common enterprise.
– Stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines are all part of
the digestive system
 Primary types of tissues
• Epithelial tissues- cover the surface of the
body; lie body cavities; form glands
• Connective tissues- support and bind other
tissues together ad from which , in the case of
the bone marrow, the formed elements of
blood are derived.
• Muscle tissues- specialize in contracting
• Nervous tissues- conduct impulses from one
part of the body to another.
 Epithelial tissues
• Classification according to type:
• 1. simple- composed of single layer
• 2. stratified- many layered
Classification according to shape
– a . Simple squamous epithelium: consists of thin,
plate-liked cells. Expanded in two directions but have
little thickness. Has little tensile strength; found as
covering layer for stronger tissues. Found where
smooth surface is required to reduce friction; lining of
body cavities and blood vessels
• Simple epithelium includes:
– Squamous cells- plate-like
– Cuboidal cells- cubic
– Columnar- cylindrical
– Pseudostratified columnar cells
• b. cuboidal epithelial cells-have equal dimensions.
Found in some ducts and passageways in the
kidneys . Active tissue of many glands is composed
of cuboidal cells.
• c. columnar epithelial cells – are cylindrical.
Arranged like honeycomb. Have whip-like
projections called cilia. Cilia waves in a manner as
to move foreign objects from trachea toward the
mouth where it can be coughed out or swallowed..
Found lining the trachea .
• d. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium:
- composed of columnar cells that vary in
length, giving an appearance of more than one
layer or stratum;
- found in upper respiratory tract. These
cells are ciliated
• e. Stratified epithelium- consists of more than
one layer of epithelial cells:
– Stratified squamous ; stratified columnar ;
transitional epithelia
 e. stratified squamous epithelium
• Forms outer layer of the skin
• Lines the first part of the digestive tract as far
as the stomach.
• In ruminants, lines the rumen, reticulum and
omasum
• Thickest and toughest epithelia consisting of
many layers of cells:
– Basal layer- stratum basale
– Parabasal layer- stratum spinosum
– Intermediate layer- stratum granulosum
– Superficial layer- stratum corneum

Stratum basale is the deepest layer

- actively growing and multiplying cells until
they are pushed toward the surface away from the
blood supply.
- become cornified (keratinized)dead cells
f. stratified columnar epithelium
– Composed of more than one layer of columnar
cells
– Found lining the pharynx and salivary ducts
 g. Transitional epithelium
• Lines portions of the urinary system that are
subjected to stretching, the urinary bladder
and ureters
 Glandular epithelial cells
• Specialized for secretion or excretion.
• Secretion- release from the gland cell of a
substance that has been synthesized by the
cell ,and that usually affects other cells in
other parts of the body
• Excretion- expulsion of waste products
 glands
• Maybe classified as: endocrine and exocrine
glands
• Endocrine glands- glands without ducts empty
their secretory product directly into the
bloodstream
• exocrine glands- glands that empty their
secretory products on an epithelial surface by
means of ducts
 Endocrine glands
• Glands without ducts empty their secretions
directly into the blood stream
• Important part of the control mechanisms of
the body because they produce hormones ( a
special chemical)
• Hormones carried to all parts of the body by
the blood constitute the humoral control of
the body
• Humoral control and nervous control are the
two mechanisms maintaining homeokinesis or
homeostasis
• Homeostasis- a relatively stable but constantly
changing state of the body.
• Humoral responses to stimuli from the
environment (both internal and external) are
slower and longer acting than responses
generated by way of the nervous system
• Endocrine glands constitute the endocrine
system
 Exocrine glands
• Scattered throughout the systems of the body
( digestive, urogenital, respiratory)
• Morphologic classification of glands:
– Simple gland- if duct does not branch
– Compound gland- if ducts branch

Tubular gland- secretory portion form tube like

structure
Alveolar or acinar- secretory portion resembles a
grape or hollow ball
Tubulo-alveolar gland- combination f tubular d
alveolar secretory glands
• Compound glands are subdivided into lobes and
further subdivided into lobules
• Septa-connective tissues that separate the lobes
(interlobular septa; interlobar septa)
classification of glands based on the manner in
which cells elaborate their secretions :
– Merocrine gland- pass their secretory products
through the cell wall without any appreciable loss of
cytoplasm or noticeable damage to the cell
membrane
• Holocrine gland- the cells fills with secretory
material. The entire holocrine gland cell
discharges to the lumen of the gland to constitute
the secretion
• Sebaceous gland- associated with hair follicles of
the skin.
• Apocrine glands – intermediate form of secretion
in which a small amount of cytoplasm and cell
membrane is lost with the secretion . (prostate,
sweat glands)
 Connective tissues
• Serve to connect other tissues
• Give form and strength to many organs
• Provide protection and leverage
Kinds of connective tissues:
a. elastic tissue
b. collagenous tissue – white fibrinous
c. Reticular tissue-netlike
d. adipose tissue- fat
e. cartilage
f. bone
 Elastic tissue
• Contains kinked fibers that tend to regain their
original shape after being stretched
• Found in the ligamentum nuchae
• A strong band that helps to support the head,
(horses and cattle )
• Found in the abdominal tunic, the ligament
flava of the spinal canal, elastic arteries, mixed
with other tissues where elasticity is needed
 Collagenous tissue (white fibrous)
• Found in various forms throughout the body
• Fibroblasts produce long proteinacious fibers
of collagen which have remarkable tensile
strength
• Fibers may be arranged in regular repeating
units or laid down in more random irregular
manner
 Dense regular connective tissue
• Fibers are arranged in parallel bundles,
forming cords or bands of considerable
strength (tendons)
• Tendons connect muscles to bones
• Ligaments connects bones to bones
 Dense irregular connective tissue
• Arranged in a thick mat with fibers running in
all directions.
• Dermis of the skin consists of dense irregular
connective tissue
• Forms strong covering that resist tearing yet
flexible enough to move with the surface of
the body.
 Areolar (loose) connective tissue
• Found throughout the body wherever
protective cushioning and flexibility is needed.
• Example: blood vessels are surrounded by
sheath of areolar connective tissue.

• Ties- skin over the back shows large dimples

where fat cannot fill in because the skin is
adherent to the vertebrae.
 Reticular connective tissue
• Consists of fine fibrils and cells
• Makes up part of the framework of endocrine
and lymphatic organs
 Adipose tissue (fat form)
• Adipoyctes- store fats as inclusions within the
cytoplasm of the cell
• Most fat in the animal body is white. ; yellow tinge
is due to the carotenoids in the feed
• Brown fat is found in hibernating mammals
domestic animals, rodents, humans infants
– Brown fat generates heat to protect young mammals
and hibernating mammals from extreme cold
– Found between the axillae, scapulae, mediastinum,
mesenteries of the abdomen
 Cartilage-
• special type of connective tissue that is firmer
than fibrous tissue but not as hard as bone.
• structure is due to the structure of the
intercellular material found between the
chondrocytes- (cartilage cells)
• 3 types of cartilage:
– Hyaline
– Elastic
– fibrous
 Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage)
• Mixture of cartilage and collagenous fibers
which forms a semi elastic cushion of great
strength
• Found between the intervertebral discs
 Hyaline cartilage
• Glass-like covering of bones between joints.
Forms smooth surface that reduces friction so
that bones easily glide over another.
• Consist the actively growing areas near the
ends of long bones
 Elastic cartilage
• Mixture of cartilage substance ad elastic fibers
• Gives shape and rigidity to the external ear
 bone
• Produces by osteoblasts
– Osteoblasts- bone forming cells
– Produce osteoid tissue which becomes calcified to
form bone
Bones may be arranged into spicules (small spikes)
ad flat plates, forming a sponge-like network called
the cancellous bone or spongy bone.
May be laid down in the form of laminated cylinders
(Haversian or osteonal systems) , closely packed
together to form compact bone
 blood
• Consist of a:
– fluid matrix (liquid portion)-
– Plasma
– Variety f cells
– Proteins
– Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
– Products of fat degradation
– Other circulating nutrients
– Wastes
– Electrolytes
– Chemical intermediates of cellular metabolisms
Sometimes considered as a connective tissue because of the origin of
some of its components
 Red blood cells (RBC)
• Erythrocytes
• non-nucleated biconcave disks that contain
hemoglobin in most domestic animals
• Main function of RBC
– Carry hemoglobin
– Hemoglobin carry oxygen from the lungs to all tissues.
– Oxygen is released to the cells at tissue level, while
carbon dioxide produced by the cells, diffuses into the
blood to be carried back into the lungs where it can be
eliminated during breathing
 Anemia

• Reduction in the concentration of functional

RBC in the blood
– Loss of red cells (as in hemorrhage)
– Insufficient RBC production
– Inappropriate or premature degradation of red
cells
 White cells (leukocytes)
• First lines of defense against infection
• Agranulocytes
– Monocytes- large cells that engulf and destroy foreign
particles
– Lymphocytes- associated with immune responses
– Excess of agranulocytes can be associated with certain
types of diseases

• Granulocytes
– Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
 Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear
leukocytes)
• 3 types:
– According to affinity for different stains:
– A. Neutrophils- granules stain differently
– B. basophils- dark staining granules
– C. eosinophils- red staining granules
Platelets (thrombocytes)
- Cellular fragments associated with the clotting of
the blood.
Mammalian platelets lack a nucleus
 Plasma

• Fluid part of unclotted blood

• Useful substitute for blood transfusion
because the proteins in it give the same
osmotic pressure as blood
• Will not escape from blood vessels as readily
as a salt solution
 serum
• Supernatant fluid that remains after a clot
forms and incorporates the cellular
components if the blood
• Similar to plasma but lacks most of the clotting
factors
• Sometimes administered for prevention and
treatment of diseases
• Contains antibody fractions of the blood
 Muscle tissue
• 3 types
– Skeletal
– Smooth
– Cardiac

Skeletal and cardiac muscles have striations and are

classified as striated muscle

Smooth muscle cells lack striations

• Skeletal muscle cell have its own nerve supply.
When stimulated, the whole fiber contracts .
(All- or- none law of muscle contraction) .
• Striated skeletal muscle tissue plus some
connective tissue makes up the flesh of meat
producing animals
 Smooth muscle cells
• Spindle- shaped cells that contain one
centrally located nucleus per cell.
• Found in the walls of the digestive tract, walls
of blood vessels , the walls urinary and
reproductive organs, .
• Cells contract more slowly than skeletal
muscle in response to a variety of stimuli.
• Involuntary control
 Cardiac muscle
• Involuntary striated muscle
• Not under conscious control
• Composed of a complex branched
arrangement of cardiac muscle cells.
• Modified muscle cells ( Purkinjie fibers)
conduct impulses within the heart
 Nervous tissue
• Neuron ( nerve cell)- essential cell of nervous
tissue
– Nerve cell body
– Two or more nerve processes (nerve fibers)
– Axons- nerve processes that conduct nerve
impulses away from the cell body
– Dendrites- conduct impulses toward the cell body
• Tracts- bundles of axons in the spinal cord
• Nerves- nerves in the periphery

• Nerve fiber is covered by myelin sheath, a specialized

wrapping created by Schwann cells in nerves
• Schwann cell serve as the major protective covering of the
nerves
• Oligodendrocytes nerve fiber within the brain and spinal
cord
• Neuroglia- special connective tissues of nervous tissue.
– Found only in the nervous system
 The general plan of the animal body

• All farm animals are vertebrates

• Have bilateral symmetry
• Paired structures
– Ribs, limbs, eyes, most muscles
• Unpaired structures are on or near the median
plane.
– Tongue, trachea, vertebral column ,heart
 Medial view of the body
• Dorsal cavity- contains the brain and spinal
cord
• Ventral cavity- contains most viscera and
subdivided by:
– Diaphragm into the thoracic cavity cranially
– Abdominopelvic cavity caudally
 Thoracic cavity
• contains pericardial sac- which surrounds the
heart
• 2 pleural sacs- which surrounds the 2 lungs
• The pleural sacs are formed by serous
membranes, a layer of simple squamous
epithelium lining various body cavities also
mesothelium
 Abdominal cavity
• Contains kidneys, most digestive organs and
variable amount of the internal reproductive
organs in both sexes
 Pelvic cavity
• Contains the terminal part of the digestive
system (rectum) and all the internal portions of
the urogenital system.
• The abdominal and pelvic cavity are continuous
with one another
• The brim of the pelvis marks the transition
from one to the other
• Peritoneum- serous membrane that surrounds
the abdominal pelvic viscera
Main divisions of the animal’s body
All farm animals are classified as vertebrates. All
of them have spinal column or vertebral column
3 divisions of the animal’s body:
1. Head
1. Contains most of the sense organs (eyes, ears,
nose, taste buds),
2. Brain (central Nervous System)
3. Other vital structures of animals ( hypothalamus,
pituitary glands, etc.)
• 2. trunk. Contains the body cavities.
– Medial view of the body shows 2 cavities:
– A. dorsal cavity- contains the brain and the spinal
cord (vertebral column)
– B. ventral cavity- contains most of the viscera.
Ventral cavity is further divided into ::
a. Thoracic cavity- cranially or anteriorly contains the
heart and lungs
• b. abdominal cavity- is caudally or posteriorly
contains the kidneys, most of the digestive
organs, portion of the reproductive organs in
both sexes
• C. the pelvic cavity-contains the terminal part
of the digestive system, (rectum), all internal
parts of the uro-genital system not found in
the abdominal cavity
 The neck
• Narrow elongation of the body wall or trunk.
• Consists of the :
– cervical vertebrae
– Muscles
– Nerves
– Arteries ad veins
– Large portion of the esophagus and trachea
 The appendages
• The anterior (forelimbs) and the posterior
(hind limbs) are still part of the trunk

3. The tail.
begins the caudal opening of the digestive
tract .
 External body parts
• named according to parts to facilitate
identification, administration of drugs,
slaughter of animals, and other activities
necessary in relation to the care and
management of animals.
 Integumentary system
• Common integument is the protective
covering of the body, such as:
– Skin
– Appendages
– A. hair
– B. horns
– C. wool
– D. feathers
– E. hooves
 skin
• Exterior covering of the body and is
continuous with the exterior membranes of
the respiratory , urogenital tract, and digestive
tracts.
• The content of the digestive tract are
technically considered outside the body
 Function of the skin
• Protection of sensitive tissues from physical
injury
• Prevents penetration of toxic liquid and gases
• Protects body from adverse effect of light (UV)
through pigment melanin
• Regulates body temperature
• Contains ergosterol which forms into Vit. D
• Organ of touch
• Prevents delicate tissues from drying
 Layers of the skin
• Epidermis (cuticle)- outer layer of epithelial
cells and devoid of blood vessels
• Dermis- composed of:
– Blood vessels
– Lymph vessels
– Nerves
– Hair follicles
– Muscle fibers
– glands
 Principal glands of the dermis
• Sweat glands have 2 functions:
– Eliminates waste in the form of sweat
– Cool body by evaporation of sweat (large quantity
of salt is lost during sweating
Among farm animals, the horse and cattle (Bos
indicus) have developed functional sweat glands,
hence they can stand heat better
Carabao sweat on muzzle; pig on snout; sheep
through insensible perspiration (evaporation
through the skin)
 Sebaceous glands
• Secrets oily substances (sebum) that lubricate
the hair.

• Functions of sebum:
– Protect skin from harmful substances
– Cause gloss to hair and prevent it from drying and
becoming brittle
– Lessens evaporation of water from the body
– Contains precursors of Vit. D, (ergosterol)
 cerumen
• Kind of sebum in the ear (ear wax)
• Functions of cerumen:
– Discourages insects
– Prevents passage of foreign bodies
 Color of the skin
• Due to pigment granules, melanosomes within
the cytoplasm of the pigment cells
(melanocytes)
• Melanin-pigment of the skin
• Dark colors result from the dispersion of
melanin granules into the cell cytoplasmic
process surrounding the tissues
• Light colors are result of the concentration of
granules near the nucleus
• Dispersion of pigment is under the influence
of Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH,
intermidin) which is released from the
intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland (pars
intermedia)
• In lower forms of animals such as reptiles and
amphibians, this hormone ,
Intermidin),enables them to change color
rapidly
 Color coat in horses
• 1. Black- rare . Except for the following breeds:
Percheron and Shire
• Black color is due to black skin and hair in all
points and whole body.
• 2. Bay/ brown- tan to red to reddish brown.
Points (mane, tail, lower limbs, and ear rims)
are black. Mahogany bay, blood bay, red bay,
sandy bay. Thoroughbred horses
• 3. gray- admixture of white and black hairs.
Skin is black (pink cast, rose gray or roan when
darker hairs are red).
• 4. dappling- characterized by a pattern of dark
and light circles in the coat with the centers
lighter. Usually applied to gray horses
• 5. Chestnut- shade of red or brown , varying
from diluted shades that are nearly yellow to a
deep liver chestnut.
• The points on the chestnut may be the same as
body color , lighter (flaxen), or slightly darker,
but never black
• Sorrel- light chestnut shades
• 6. palomino- light- colored body with light
mane and tail., have body of newly minted
gold.
• cremello- diluted color of horses from
palomino horses.
• 7. buckskin’s- body color is yellow or gold, pits are
black. Most carry dun markings ( dorsal stripe
from mane to base of tail);shoulder bar,;
transverse stripes on caudal aspect of the forearm
and sometimes hock. (zebra stripes) ;concentric
dark rings on the forehead (cobwebbing)
• Shades of dun:yellow, dun, red dun. Grullo-or
grulla (masculine or feminine) Grullos have black
points and body is a slate color, often with a
bluish cast
• 8. Roan- hair is composed of dark hairs mixed evenly
with white hairs ever most of the body. Do not lighten
with age. Blue roan- roan pattern in black horses; red
roan on bay; strawberry roan on sorrel
• 9. pinto-large irregular patches of white against solid
color.
• Overo or
• Tobiano-white horse splashed with darker spots. White
patches extend over the midline of the back, and the
head is solid colored,or maybe with white markings ; all
4 limbs are white
• 10.overo- colored horse splashed with white;
all 4 limbs are dark color head and face are
broadly marked with white. Markings are
irregular and splashy
• Piebald- black and white markings of pinto
coat
• Skewbald- brown and white color
combination
• 11. paint- quarter horse with pinto coloration
• 12. appaloosa- characteristic of coat pattern that is
showy spotted hair coat:
– Sclera of the eye is white
– Skin is mottled black ad white around lips, eyes, genitalia
– Hoofs are striped in black and white

Appaloosa- solid body color with white and/ or spotted

blanket over the hips and loins.
Leopard appaloosa- white horses with dark spots over the
entire body
 The sensory organs
• Sensations results from stimuli that initiate
afferent impulses which eventually reach a
conscious level in the cerebral cortex
• Sensations:
– Pain
– Cold
– heat,
– pressure
– touch
 Special senses
• sight
• Hearing
• Taste
• orientation of space

• All sensations involve receptor organs

– Simplest sensation- bare nerve ending
– Most complex- those associated with special senses
 Classification of sensory receptors
• What are the special senses?
• Are pain ,cold, touch, heat, and pressure
sensations known as special senses?
• To what group of sensory receptors do muscle
spindles and Golgi tendon organs belong?
• Differentiate between a phasic and a tonic
pressure.
• Are muscle spindles tonic or phasic receptors?
 Sensory receptors
• End organs of afferent nerves and belong to one of
two physiological groups:
– Exteroceptors- determine stimuli that arise external to the
body
• Stimuli near the outer surface of the body
• From the Skin, respond to cold, warmth ,touch , pressure,
hearing, vision
– Interoceptor- detect stimuli that originates within the body
• Detect stimuli from inside the body:
• Receptors for taste , smell, viscera that respond to pH, distention
and spasm of bowel, flow as in the urethra; equilibrium from the
inner ear
• Proprioceptors- special class of interoceptors
that signal conditions deep within the body to
the CNS
– Located in the skeletal muscles, tendons ,
ligaments, and joint capsules
– Example: muscle spindles, Golgi tendons organs,
joint receptors
• Muscle spindle and Golgi tendon are organs
sensitive to stretching and reflexively prevent
undue stretch muscles, tendons and ligaments
• Muscle spindles provide for muscle tone so that
purposeful contraction is more effective and
helps prevent collapse of standing animals as a
result of the force of gravity
• Joint receptors are sensitive to the position or
angle of joints provide for sense of body position.
• Proprioceptive fibers have the heaviest
myelination of all peripheral nerve fibers
because of the need for rapid transmission of
proprioceptive impulses
 Sensory receptor responses
• Sensory receptor- peripheral component if an
afferent axon and the centrally located nerve cell
body of that axon
• Sensory receptors convert different types of energy
into action potentials:
– Sound, light, chemical, thermal, mechanical energy
– Generally, the receptors are specific in that they respond
more readily from one form of energy than the other
• Example: Krause end bulb receptor (cold) would not generate an
action potential if pressure is applied, the Pacinian corpuscles
would respond
 Graded responses
• Sensory receptors are subject to graded responses,
depending on the intensity of the stimulus.
• Receptor can be regarded as a generator in which
the amount of voltage produced is determined by
the stimulus
• If the voltage generation reaches threshold for the
receptor, a nerve impulse (afferent) is created.
• As the intensity (amplitude) of stimulus increases,
the frequency of firing increases
 adaptation
• Receptors might not continue to fire at a rate
consistent with the intensity of the stimulus,
but they are subject to adaptation
• Receptors vary as to the degree of their
adaptation. The previous response, in which
the rate of discharge returns to zero, is
characteristic of paccinian corpuscles
(sensitive to pressure). This is an example of a
phasic receptor organ
• Phasic receptor organ- one that quickly
accommodates to prolonged stimulation

• Tonic receptor organ- muscle spindle

– response to stretch
– The application of prolonged stimulus to the muscle
spindle elicits a brief volley of action potentials at
high frequency, followed by an action potential rate
that slows to a lower level and that is maintained
throughout the duration of stimulus
• Tonic receptor organ
– Muscle tone (the result of muscle spindle
stimulation) represents a continuous state of low-
level muscle tension
 pain
• What is the name for receptors specific for pain?
• Can a receptor for cold or heat send are afferent
impulse to the cerebral cortex to be recognized as
pain?
• How is pain produced that arises from the
intestines?
• What are the most sensitive visceral structures
that produce pain?
• What is a good example of referred pain in cattle?
 pain
• A protective mechanism
• Sensation aroused by damaging or noxiuos
stimuli from almost all parts of the body
(except CNS)
• Specific pain receptor – nocereceptors
• Receptors are bare nerve ending of sensory
neurons (pain neurons) that respond to all
intense stimuli
• The nerve endings are essentially chemoreceptors
and pain stimulus ( thermal, chemical,
mechanical), produces cell injury which produces a
chemical reaction and causes nerve to fire
• Pain fibers are myelinated or unmyelinated
– Myelinated fibers have a short lag time between
stimulus and reaction and the pain has a bright quality.
– Unmyelinated have long lag time and pain is more
diffuse with an aching , throbbing quality
• Pain threshold is variable among individuals
• Diversion of attention from pained part or
painful situation reduces pain perception
– Example twitch in a horse
 Visceral pain
• Viscera- organs within the abdominal,
thoracic, and abdominal cavities
• Most sensitive parts of the viscera: peritoneal
and pleural linings of the abdominal and
thoracic cavities
• Peritonitis –inflammation of the peritoneum
• Pleuritis- inflammation of the pleura
• peritonitis and pleuritis evoke severe pain
• Heart may be a source of pain from the
thoracic viscera
• Pain from hollow viscera (intestines) within
the abdomen is evoked by severe distentions
or powerful contractions (spasms)
•
 Referred pain
• Pain that is felt at the surface of the body
• Source usually within the thoracic or abdominal
viscera.
• Caused by convergence of cutaneous and visceral
pain.
– Afferent fibers on the same neuro at some point from the
sensory pathway
– “a cutaneous pain afferent fiber and visceral pain afferent
fiber converge on a common neuron. The neuron conveys
the pain impulse from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex”
– Pain can be identified consciously as cutaneous
pain (referring to the skin) was actually seen and
perceived as being cutaneous.
– Referred pain- when pain source is of visceral
origin is mistakenly perceived as coming from the
site of the relevant cutaneous fiber because their
common neuron has the same cerebral projection
– Traumatic pericarditis- inflammation of the
pericardium caused by perforation from the
reticulum
 Referred pain
– pressure applied to the withers causes a painful
response in cattle with traumatic pericarditis
– Cutaneous stimulation is additive to that coming
from the inflamed heart sac because of the
convergence of the nerve fibers
 Taste / gustation
• Function: discrimination from healthful and
harmful substances.
• Taste reception :
– Taste bud- receptor organ for sense of taste
– Most taste buds are located in the tongue in
association with the various papillae, (fungiform
and filiform papillae)
– Some are found in the palate, pharynx and larynx,
(circumvallate papillae)
 Taste buds
• Contains gustatory cells and supporting cells
• Gustatory cells- receptors for taste of sensations
• A tiny hair arises from each and extends into the pit of
the taste bud.
• Pit communicates with the oral cavity by way of a pore
• Any substance to be tasted must get into solution and
enter the pore of the taste bud . The hair of the
gustatory cell is stimulated. The generated impulse is
transmitted to the brain by branches of cranial nerves VII
and IX. (anterior 2/3 and posterior third of the tongue
• Afferent ends of these cranial nerve branches
originate at the deep ends of the taste buds and
are in intimate contact with the gustatory cells
• Von o Ebner- glands that are embedded deep
within the underlying muscle tissue. Their
watery secretion is conveyed to the moat-like
furrow that surrounds the papilla by excretory
ducts, .and the substance to be tasted are
dissolved in it.
 Taste sensations
• in man, taste sensation is Classified as sweet,
sour, salty, bitter,
• In animals, taste is classified as pleasant,
unpleasant, indifferent
 Temperature and taste
• In fowls, acceptability of water decreases as
its temperature increases above the ambient
temperature,
• Chickens will suffer from acute thirst rather
than drink water that is above 5% above their
body temperature that is 41 C. , but they
readily accept water down below level of
freezing. Recognition of these reaction is
important in poultry production
 Depraved appetite
• When they are seen eating dirt, wood and
other materials
• pica- a condition for depraved appetite due to
dietary deficiencies
 smell
• Nerve cell bodies migrated centrally so that nerve
fibers remained in a peripheral position
• central location of nerve cell bodies provided for
greater protection from destruction
• Nerve cell bodies of cranial nerve I (olfactory nerve)
are found in the mucous membrane of the nasal
cavity.
– Located in the olfactory region
– Size is directly related to the degree of development of
the sense of smell. Size vary among species
• Individual olfactory receptor of the dog is
more sensitive than humans
• In dogs, their large olfactory region allows
them to detect odorous substances at
concentration 1:1,000 of that detectable by
humans
• Olfaction- sensation of smell
• Domestic animals with greatly developed
sense of smell are macrosmatic
• Microsmatic- animals with lesser development
of sense of smell
– Humans, monkeys, some aquatic animals
– Animals with no sense of smell: anosmatic: many
aquatic mammals
 Olfactory region
• Each olfactory receptor cell has a cell body and
nerve fiber extending from its ends, or a dendrite
and the other an axon.
• The dendritic processes of the olfactory cells
extends to the outside of the olfactory regional
membrane in crevices between the sustentacular
cells
• Sustentacular cells- provide major support to the
dendritic processes and allow for the olfactory cell
bodies to be shielded from the nasal cavity
• Olfactory cilia- several hair-like structures extend
into the nasal cavity from the olfactory vesicles
(extended part of a dendrite)
• Olfactory cilia are covered with a thin secretion
from the glands of Bowman (sub epithelial glands).
The ducts of these glands lead through the
epithelium to the surface.
• Their secretions constantly freshens the thin layer
of the fluid that continuously bathes the olfactory
hairs on this region
• Sniffing allow for the back and forth
movement of air and provide a greater chance
for the substance to be smelled to go into
solution. This becomes the stimulus for the
impulse to be transmitted to the brain.
• The axons if the olfactory cells join with
others and proceed with them as fibers and
branches of the olfactory nerves
• Basal cells divide and differentiate into either
sustentacular cells or olfactory cells
( replacement of nerve cell). This is a
safeguard against loss of smell that might
occur as a result of nasal disease.
 Odor perception
• Considering a great number of smell
possibilities, it is probable that basic smell
combine to provide the sensation for a
particular odor
• Only one odor can be perceived at ay one
time.
• Some room deodorants are effective because
they can stimulate the olfactory cells more
than the offensive odor.
• The offender odor is not eliminated, it is only
masked. The olfactory cells become adapted
to odors so the do not persist to that
particular individual. This is the why a smell of
fresh baked bread is so apparent when
someone enters the bakery , whereas the
baker might not even smell it anymore
 pheromones
• Odor that animals use to communicate with each
other.
• Black-tailed deer and Rocky mountain mule deer
have found to use the tarsal glands on the insides
of their hind legs as transmitters of odors to
identify species as friendly or alien to their own
kind.
• The scent is deposited on the skin and hair of the
tarsal glands and communication is established by
sniffing other members of their group hourly.
• Pheromones – a chemical secreted by one
animal that influences the behavior of other
animals
• Some animals have scent glands in the spaces
between their hoof pads.
• Rabbits have a scent gland on the chest ad
around the anal opening.
• Cats have on their forehead ad mark people or
objects by rubbing their head on them
• Pheromones provide for a chemical language
among animals for certain purposes such as:
– marking boundaries,
– recognizing individuals from same herd or nest
– marking location of food sources
– Emitting alarms
 Hearing and equilibrium
• Assignment:
– 1. Be able to follow the motion initiated by a
sound wave from the tympanic membrane
through the cochlear widow (round window)
– 2. What is the function of the two striated muscles
located in the middle ear?
– 3. What reflex is inherent to the function of the
middle ear muscles?
– 4. What are the respective functions of the
vestibular and cochlear portions of the inner ear?
– 5. Why is the cochlea coiled?
– 6. Differentiate between membranous labyrinth
and osseous labyrinth and their respective fluids
– 7. How are the cristae (located in the semicircular
canals) stimulated?
– 8. How are the macula receptors stimulated?
– 9. What are the divisions if the cochlea brought
about by extension of the membranous labyrinth
into the cochlea?
– 10. Which cochlear division contains the organ of
corti?
– 11. What function is served by the organ of corti?
– 12. Summarize sound reception
 Hearing and equilibrium
• Ear- has components associated with special
sense of hearing and those involved with
positional equilibrium
• Sound waves are directed to the receptors of
hearing in the inner ear via the external ear
and the middle ear.
• Inner ear have receptors for hearing and
equilibrium
 External ear
• Consist of pinna (visible outside) and the tube
(external acoustic meatus) that extends from
pinna into the substance of the skull to the
middle ear (tympanic cavity)
• Pina in most animals consists of a funnel-shaped
cartilage, lined with generous amount of hair.
• Varying degrees of muscles attachment lend
mobility to the pinna which is helpful in
localizing and picking up sounds
• The funnel-shaped cartilage concentrates
sound waves and directs them through the ear
canal toward the tympanic membrane , which
separates the middle ear from the external ear
 Middle ear
• Middle ear communicates with the pharynx by
way of the auditory tube ( Eustachian tube)
• It is separated from the inner ear by
membranes that close the vestibular (oval)
and cochlear (round) window.
• Auditory tube allows for the equalization of
pressures between the closed cavity and the
outside.
• Mechanical linkage is provided between the
tympanic membrane and the membrane
closing the vestibular window by 3 auditory
ossicles (bones):
– Malleus (hammer)
– Incus (anvil)
– Stapes (stirrup)
• Amplification of sound waves is provided by
leverage of the ossicles and by the greater
surface area of the tympanic membrane,
which transmits sound waves to the smaller
surface area of the vestibular window.
• Excessive loud noises are damped by 2 skeletal
muscles , tensor tympani and stapedius
muscle in the middle ear
• Tensor tympani muscle is attached to the
malleus and the stapedius muscle. Muscle
spindles within these muscles respond by
initiating a reflex that causes the muscle to
contract.
• Stapedius muscle, ( smallest skeletal muscle in
the body) is attached to the stapes. Its
contraction tenses the stapes to reduce its
movement .
• The degree of stretch is determined by the
intensity (loudness) of the sound wave. Loud
noises are dumped by the excessive muscle
stretch and subsequent reflex muscle
contraction which prevents excessive
movement of the ossicles.
 Inner ear
• Contained within the osseous labyrinth
• Labyrinth-an intricate combination of passages
• 2 parts according to function:
– 1. vestibular portion- sensory for position and
equilibrium
– Receives cranial nerve VIII
– 2. Cochlear portion- sensory for sound.
Cochlear portion receives the cochlear nerve
(cranial nerve VII)
 Vestibular structure and function
• Vestibular portion
– Housed in the parts of the osseous labyrinth know
as the:
• a. vestibule and
• b. 3 semicircular canals ( anterior, ,lateral, posterior)
Membranous labyrinth contains the endolymph.
Endolymph- a fluid high in potassium and low in sodium,
that is secreted by the vascular tissue on the outer wall of
the scala media.
• Perilymph- fluid within the osseous labyrinth
outside the membranous labyrinth.
– Circulates freely with cerebrospinal fluid and
shares similar composition
– The meningeal connection exposes the inner ear
infections to ascend to the meninges and produce
meningitis
– Meningitis-inflammation of the meninges
 Vestibular portion
• Within the vestibular portion , the
membranous labyrinth also includes 3
semicircular ducts and 2 ducts: the utricle and
saccule
• Ampulla contains the crista sensory receptor
for equilibrium
• The saccule has 2 major communications: -
membranous labyrinth of the cochlea
– Cochlear aqueduct
 Summary of sound reception
• 1. the sound wave is directed into the external
auditory meatus by the pinna.
• 2. the sound wave strikes the tympanic membrane
(eardrum) and sets it in motion
• 3. the motion of the eardrum is transmitted
through the middle ear by the auditory ossicles to
the vestibular (oval) window
• 4. the vestibular window is set in motion and
displaces perilymph in the vestibule of the inner ear
• 5. the perilymph (a liquid) is a compressible
and thus transmits the sound wave through
the scala vestibuli of the cochlea
• 6. an organ of corti at a distance from the base
characteristic of the approaching sound wave
is stimulated when a sound wave is
transmitted to the scala media and from there
to the scala tympani
• 7. the movement of the liquid in the scala
tympani is finally compensated for by an
outward movement of the cochlear (round)
window into the cavity of the middle ear.
• 8. the stimulation of hair cells in an organ of
Corti initiates a nerve impulse that is
transmitted by the cochlear branch of the
vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain
 vision
• 1. identify parts of the external eye.
• Identify the basic structures of the eyeball
 Gaynora planting/ tomorrow leaf
• 2parts topsoil
• 1 part husks
• alkaline water:
• Gynora leaf and pandan leaf, soak in drinking
water
 The cell
• Cell theory:
• In 1839, Matthias Schlieden, a German
botanist and
• Theodor Schwann, an animal anatomist
formulated the cell theory
• In 1772, Corti observed the jellylike material in
the cell (protoplasm)
 Cell theory
• The elementary parts of all tissues are formed
of cells in an analogous, though very
diversified, manner, so it may be asserted that
there is one universal principle of
development for the elementary parts of
organisms, however different, and that this
principle is the formation of cells
• Cell came from the word cella (latin)- small
chamber
• In animal biology-
– Cell refers to the individual units of living structure
rather than compartments that may contain them.
– There is no actual compartments but living units,
cells, found in groups in which mainly adjacent
cells restrain individual cells
 The cell
• Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
life
• Properties:
– Growth reproduction
– Absorption
– Metabolism
– Excretion and secretion
– Irritability
– Conductivity
– Contractility
 Main parts of the cells
• Plasma membrane- outer layer or cell membrane
– Bounds the cell and give its limits
• Cytoplasm- contains the organelles
– Homogenous ground substance that forms the
background n which the formed elements are
suspended
– Cytoplasm is separated
• Nucleus- innermost and centrally located
– Separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane
 Cough remedy
• SLC
• 3 glass of water
• 3 cups sampalok leaves
• 1 thumb size luya-divide half don’t peel
• Boil 15 minutes, cool add
• 12 pcs calamansi before dividing into 3 glasses of water add muscovado sugar to taste

• Olm
• oregano
• Lagundi
• Mangga
• Boil 15 minutes
• Use muscovado sugar
• Divide into 3 glasses for dose of 1 glass 3x a day until no cough
Chemical composition of the Cell

– Water
– Proteins
– Lipids
– Carbohydrates
– Inorganic substances
– Acids, bases, and pH
 Tissues

• Group of cells joined together to perform a

physiological action
 4 primary categories of tissues
• 1. epithelial tissues- over body surface and
line body activities, ducts and vessels
• 2. muscular tissues- move skeleton, pump
blood, move food through the digestive tract,
and gametes and conceptus through the
reproductive tracts
• 3. nervous tissues- form the brain , spinal cord
and nerves
• 4. connective tissues- use for support and
attachment of tissues

• Organs- two or more tissues joined together

to form more complex physiological activities.
Example: brain, heart ,lungs, stomach,
intestines, kidney, liver, skin
 The organelles
• Highly organized physical structures that consists the
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles
• They assist the cytoplasm with its metabolic activities by:
– Receiving materials into the cell
– Synthesizing new substances
– Generating energy
– Packaging materials for transport to other parts of the cell or
to the circulation
– Excretion of waste products
– reproduction
 Nucleus

• Control center of the cell, controlling its

chemical reactions and reproduction
• Contains large quantities of DNA
• Nuclear components that are all bathed in a
nuclear sap (nucleoplasm)
– Nuclear membrane
– One or more nucleoli
– chromatin
• Nuclear membrane-(nuclear envelop)
• Consist of Two membranes where in the
outer membrane is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum and the space between
the two nuclear membranes is also continuous
with the compartment inside the endoplasmic
reticulum. Both layers are penetrated by
numerous nuclear pores
 Nuclear pores
• Permit exchange between the nucleoplasm of
nucleus and the cytoplasm outside the
nucleus , including movement of RNA
synthesized in the nucleus out into the
cytoplasm
 nucleolus
• Does not have limiting membrane and is a
structure that contains large amounts of RNA
and proteins that are found in ribosomes
 chromatin
• Appears dark-staining particles throughout
the nucleoplasm
• in the non-dividing cell, the chromatin
organizes into the chromosomes
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• A network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in
the cytoplasm that all interconnect with one another.
• Ribosomes- small granular particles that are attached
to the outer surfaces of many parts of the ER.
• Ribosomes are mixture of RNA and proteins and
function in the synthesis of proteins.
• Agranular ER functions in the synthesis of lipid
substances and other enzymatic processes of the cell
 Golgi Apparatus
• Closely related to the ER
• Well develop in cells secreting enzymes and hormones.
• Packages materials made in the cell and transforms
them into units that are distributed outside the cell.
• Vesicular substances are processed in the Golgi
apparatus to form lysosomes or other secretory
vesicles; they are then released from the Golgi
apparatus for storage or use in the cell or transported
to the cell membrane , where they are released to
form a secretion.
 mitochondria
• Powerhouses of the cell.’
• They are the principal sites for energy production.
• A mitochondrion is composed of outer and inner
membrane. The inner membrane provide shelves for
the attachment of oxidative phosphorylation
enzymes
• The inner cavity consists of a matrix that contains
enzymes and co-enzymes (co factors)
• The matrix is the site of the citric acid cycle
( tricarboxylic acid cycle and Kreb’s Cycle.
 lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Their presence in the cytoplasm provides an
intracellular digestive system , allowing
digestion of damaged cellular structures, food
particles digested by cells, and also bacterial
cells
 centrioles
• 2 centrioles in a cell
• Located in an area free of ribosome and
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Involved with cell division.
• Oriented at right angles to each other. Each
consist of 9 groups of 3 microtubules arranged
in circle.
• Microtubules constitute the spindle in mitosis
 Energy production
• Energy is released from molecules by
controlled oxidation within the mitochondria.
• Aerobic stage in the catabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins begins
after the formation of acetyl-Co A from
respective glucose, fatty acids, and some
amino acids.
• The acetyl –CoA that has been formed
undergoes oxidation via the citric acid cycle
within the matrix.
• Oxidation of the acetyl groups involves the
abstraction of the electrons and their transfer
to the cofactors nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD),wherein they are reduced
to NADH and FADH2.
• the electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are
funneled to the electron transport chain, a chain
of electron acceptors that are integral part of the
inner membrane (shelf membrane) of the
mitochondrion.
• In the electron flow, (ATP) adenosine
triphosphate, (a high energy substance ) is
synthesized from ADP (ADENOSINE
DIPHOSPHATE) in the process of oxidative
phosphorylation.
• NADH and FADH2 are re-oxidized and
hydrogen ions (H-) combine with Oxygen to
form water.
• The water formed at this location is referred
to as the metabolic water
• Oxygen consumption for the body occurs in
this location
 Citric acid cycle
• Catabolism of proteins, fats, carbohydrates
resulting in the release of energy.
• Stage 3, via the electron transfer chain,
provides for the oxidative phosphorylation of
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and the
production of a high energy substance,
adenosine triphosphate ((ATP). This is the
location of oxygen consumption by the body
and production of metabolic water.
 DNA and its replication
• Chromosomes- provide for inherited and
individual characteristics of an animal
• Each chromosome is made up of a large
molecule of DNA in a form of double helix
around a core of histone proteins.
• DNA is made up of 2 long nucleotide chains:
– Purine bases adenine and guanine
– Pyrimidine bases thymine and cytosine
• A nucleotide is formed by the combination of:
– one molecule of phosphoric acid
– One molecule of deoxyribose
– And one of the 4 bases
The chains are bound together by hydrogen bonding
between the bases, with adenine bonding to
thymine and guanine to cytosine. The bonding
relationship is called complementary (not identical)
• Histones are positively charged proteins that
associate strongly with DNA by ionic
interactions with its many negatively charged
phosphate groups .
• Half of the mass of chromatin is DNA and half
is histones. This complex is called chromatin .
• Replication of DNA begins by splitting the
double helices at the junction of the
complementary bases.
• Replication is making a copy of each of the
two original strands of each chromosome to
pair to the new complementary strand.
• The newly formed chromosomes remain
temporarily attached to each other until the
time for mitosis at the point called
centromere.
• Chromatids- duplicated but attached
chromosomes
• Units of heredity are the genes on the
chromosomes, and each gene is a portion of
the DNA molecule.
 Mitosis

• Division of somatic cells in which complex

nuclear division precedes cytoplasmic fission
ad involves a sequence of four stages:
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– telophase
• Interphase-period between successive
sequences.
• Chromosomes are dispersed
• Prophase- first step of mitosis. Chromatins
condenses into chromosomes; mitotic spindle
begins to form
• Metaphase- chromatids are aligned at the
center
• Anaphase- separation of duplicated
chromatids (daughter chromosomes)
• Telophase-daughter chromosomes are
formed, and nuclear membranes forms
around each set. Two daughter cells form by
cell division.
 RNA and protein synthesis
• Genes control the formation of cell proteins by
genetic code.
• Messenger RNA enters the cytoplasm by carrying
the code for synthesis of proteins (transcription)
and establishes a position with a granular ER
ribosome where protein molecules are made.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) , is synthesized by DNA and
moves to the cytoplasm, where it picks up an
amino acid and carries to the mRNA.
• The amino acid is fitted to the code fro
production of specific protein molecule
(translation)
• Each 20 tRNAs are specific for each of the 20
amino acids.
• Ribosomal RNA( rRNA), found in ribosomes ,
physical structure where protein is formed
• Proteins are specific to each individual animal
• Introduction of proteins foreign to an animal,
results in allergies, tissue rejection, other
incompatibilities
 Natural spa body scrub
• Coconut sapal
• Body scrub for flawless skin after bath from
face to feet
• Antimicrobial property
• Mix salt to coconut sapal before body scrub
Finish with
• Coco oil plus brown sugar
 Skeletal system, joints, bones
• Skeletal system:
– Osteology- Study of bones which collectively make
up the skeleton or frame work of the body
– Includes the long bones of the legs, ribs,
vertebrae, skull and other body processes
– In farm animals and many other species , the
skeletal systems are internal (endoskeleton) and
are basically alike. A giraffe’s neck has the same
number of bones as a mouse’s neck except it I
merely bigger in length and size
 Vertebral formula of farm animals
• species cv t l s caudal
• Horse 7 18 6 5 15-20
• Ox 7 13 6 5 18-20
• Sheep 7 13 6-7 4 16-18
• Goat 7 13 7 4 12
• Hog 7 14-15 6-7 4 20-23
• Chicken 14 7 14 fused 6
• Man 7 12 5 5 4
 bones
• Living structures. They have:
– Blood vessels
– Lymphatic vessels
– Nerves
– Subject to diseases
– Repair themselves
– Adjust to change in stress
– grow
 General composition of bones
• 1. Organic matter- 1/3 of weight of bones.
Give resilience and toughness to bones
• 2. inorganic matter (salts)
– 2/3 weight of bones
– Largely calcium and phosphorus
– Deposited within the organic framework
– Give hardness and rigidity to bones
• Soaking in dilute acid will dissolve the
inorganic salts leaving only , the organic
matter that is flexible and which can be bend
or tied into a knot.
• If the bone is charred by placing it in a furnace
, the organic matter is removed and only the
inorganic salts and the bone will be very brittle
• 99% of the calcium and 80% the body
phosphorus are deposited in the bone and
teeth. Hence , Ca and P are deposited in the
bone and teeth. Hence, Ca and P are very
important in the formation and maintenance
of the skeletal system.
• Ca and P ratio of weight in the bone is about
2:1 . This ratio must be considered in feed
formulation
Stages in life when Ca and P becomes more
critical
• During early and fast growing stage
• Old age
• Lactation milk production
• Active egg laying
 Function of bones
• 1, support
- body framework
- give rigidity and form
• 2. act as lever / movement
- muscle attachment to skeleton
- Movable joints
3. Protection
-vital organs - (brain, heart, flat or irregular
bones)
• 4. mineral reservoir or storage of minerals
• storage if calcium , phosphorus, sodium and
potassium
• 5. hemopoiesis/site of bone formation
• - bone marrow produces blood cells
• 6. communicate with exterior (pneumatic
bones)
• 7. reduce friction or change the course if
tendons (sesamoid bones)
 classification of skeleton
• 1. axial skeleton
• - lie on the long axis or midline of the body.
(skull, ribs, vertebrae)
• 2. appendicular skeleton
• -bones of the front (pectoral) and the hind
limbs (pelvic limb)
– Arm and leg bones
– Shoulder and pelvic bones
• Skull comprises the neurocranium ( brain case)
and viscerocranium (bones of the face)
• Cranium- collective term for the bones of the
head.
• Brain case provides protection for the brain
and openings for the
• Bones if the face- provide location and
protection for the organs of the special senses
and openings for the digestive and respiratory
systems
• Ribs and sternum gives limit and protection
for the thoracic viscera (heart, lungs)
 Bones of thoracic limb and pelvic limb
• Thoracic girdle: pelvic girdle:
– Scapula sacrum
pelvis: ilium, ischium
– Clavicle pubis
– Coracoid

brachium: arm thigh: femur

Forearm:radius,ulna true leg: tibia, fibula
Knee (carpus) carpal bones hock/tarsus : tarsal bones
• Cannon and splint bones(metacarpus):
– Metacarpal bones

Metatarsus ( cannon and splint bones)::

- Metatarsal bones

Phalanges digit: proximal, middle, distal phalanges

proximal and distal sesamoid bones
Pelvic limb phalanges: proximal,middle, and distal
phalanges; proximal and distal phalanges bones
 Classification of bones
• 1. Long bones
– Have long axis, greater in one dimension than any
other
– Most bones of upper and lower limbs
2. Short bones
- without long axis, cuboid, equal in all
dimensions
- carpals, tarsals
• 3. flat bones
– Thin and expanded in two dimensions
– Ribs , skull and scapula
4. Irregular bones- unpaired bones located on the
median plane
5. Sesamoid bones- resembles a sesame seed and
are developed along the course of tendons to
reduce friction or change the course tendons
• 6. pneumatic bones
– Contain air spaces or sinuses that communicate
with the exterior
 Structure of long bones
• 1. epiphysis
– Either extremity of a long bone. End closest to
body is proximal epiphysis and end farthest from
the body is distal epiphysis
– Diaphysis: the cylindrical shaft of a long bone,
between two epiphysis
– Epiphyseal: diaphysial cartilage separates
diaphysis and epiphysis of immature bone. The
growing point of the bone.
– compact bone: the hard layer of bone which
covers most bones and forms almost entire shaft
of long bones
– Periosteum: the fibrous membrane (organic
matter) which covers the surface of a bone.
Responsible for increases in diameter and
functions in healing and fractures.
– Endosteum: fibrous membrane (organic matter)
that lines the marrow cavity and Haversian canals
of bones
• Spongy bone- cancellous bone, has the
appearance of sponge
 Growth of skeletal system
• Growth
– Bones increase in size and length as animal grows
– Growth occurs at the ends, in the region of the
cartilage, between the epiphysis (the ends) and
diaphysis (the shaft), known as epiphyseal-
diaphysial cartilage

Maturity- bones become mature gradually when the

cartilage (epiphysial-diaphysial) becomes calcified
the bones stop growing.
• Increase in diameter:
– Bones also increase in size as they grow and
lengthen. This is accomplished through the
production of new bony tissues at the periosteum
which surrounds the cortex of the bone. As new
bone is deposited , portion of the deeper inner
bone are removed. (endosteum) which in turn
increases the size of the marrow cavity.
Effects of testosterone on bone growth

Testosterone which increases in secretion during

puberty will increase rate of bone growth. But
increasing levels of testosterone which
encourage considerable calcium salt will result in
the calcification of the growth point (epiphysial-
diaphysial cartilage), hence causing stoppage of
growth after puberty. Calcification causes the
closure of the growth points.
• Bone cells associated with formation and
resorption:
– Osteoblasts- bone forming cells that secrete collagen ,
forming the organic matrix around themselves which
then calcifies.
– Osteocytes - term for the bone cells (formerly
osteoblasts) which are now surrounded by calcified
matrix
– Osteoclasts- are multinucleated cells that erode and
resorb previously formed bone. Also called bone
destroying cells
• Bones after reaching maturity are still
continuously being reabsorbed and replaced-
although there is no more net bone growth
occurring
• At old age, bones become brittle as the
osteoclasts cells become more active, this may
cause higher calcium dietary requirement for
older individuals
 Composition of bones
• On wet-weight basis, adult bone is
approximately: 25% water, 45%mineral, 30%
organic matter. Calcium constitute37% of
mineral content and phosphorus, 18.5%
• On dry-weight basis:
– Mineral content – 65-70 %; organic fraction- 30-
35%
– Organic fraction: 90% collagen
 joints
• Connection between any of the skeleton’s rigid
component parts
• Joints are articulations or referred to as arthrology. It
gives body movement possible. Although there is amore
structured and sophisticated or more detailed
classification of joints.,
• Arthrology- study of joints
• Kind of joints which make movement possible:
– 1. Ball and socket joints- allow movement in all directions.
– 2. hinge joints- allow certain body parts to move in two
directions
• 3. pivot joints- found in neck and allow the
head to be turned in more than one direction
• 4. gliding joints- fond in vertebrae; allow the
body to be flexible so that it can be bent
forward, back ward or in several direction.
• Ligaments- the structures of connective
tissues that joins bones at the joints outside
the joint capsule
• Synovial fluid:
– Fluid in the joint capsule which lubricates the
joints and allows them to move freely without
friction
 General features of the skeleton
• 1.The front and hind limbs and their respective
shoulder and pelvic girdles are parts of the
appendicular skeleton
• 2.Intervertebral disks between contiguous
vertebrae provide compression-resisting
cushions and permit limited movement
• 3. The axial skeleton is composed of skull,
vertebrae, ribs and sternum
• 4. Beginning cranially and extending caudally, the
vertebral groups are cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral, caudal .
• 5. The os coxae unites ventrally with its opposite
bone at the symphysis pelvis.
• 6. In cattle, a prominent protuberance known as the
hook bone is the tuber coxae.
• 7. Proceeding distally from the cannon bone in the
horse, the phalangeal articulations are referred to
as fetlock, pastern,coffin.
• 8. sesamoid bones articulate with other bones, and
thereby reduce friction by their attachment with
ligaments directed for more distal locations.
• 9. the cylindrical shaft of a long bone is known as
the diaphysis.
• 10. the principal location of hematopoiesis (blood
cell production) is the medullary cavity of the
diaphysis.
• 11. the outer surface of bones (with the exception
of joint surfaces) is covered by periosteum.
• 12. osteoblasts synthesize And secrete the
organic substance of bone.
• 13. the interstitial fluid of osteocytes is
contained within the lacunae and
canaliculae;diffuses from blood vessels within
the haversian canals;serves osteocytes in all
concentric lamellae,even the outermost.
• 14. stimulation of osteoprogenator cells leads
directly to osteoblasts.
• 15. production of osteoid and its subsequent
calcification us accomplished by osteoblasts.
• 16. bone cells that represent transformed
osteoblasts, communicate with each other by
gap junctions is canaliculae , and maintain
bone matrix are osteocytes.
• 17. osteoclasts are large bone-resorbing cells
considered to be members of diffuse
mononuclear phagocytic system.
• 18. calcium and phosphorus are the major
constituents of the mineral phase of bone and
exist in a ratio of 2:1 (calcium and phosphorus)
• 19. Haversian systems :
– are the units of structure of compact bones;
– Develop within tunnels formed in the zone of
calcified matrix
– develop when capillaries invade the tunnels
formed by the nests of dead chondrocytes
 Bone formation
• 20. The os penis , os cordis, and pathologic
bone deposits represent heteroplastic bone
formation.
• 21. most long bones are developed by
endochondral ossification.
• 22. the epiphyseal plate is a cartilage plate
between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
• 23. bone forms toward the diaphysis, with a
lifting effect on the epiphyseal plate.
• 24. Remodeling of bone occurs during growth
and in response to stress placed on the bone .
•
 Bone repair
• 25. a prerequisite for fracture repair is
reestablishment of a blood supply.
• 26. Callus formation after bone fracture is the
most common type of bone repair.
•
 Joints and Synovial fluid
• 27. The synovial membrane is the lining inner
surface of a joint capsule that contains
synoviocytes, which secrete synovial fluid
• 28. The chief function of synovial fluid is to
provide for joint lubrication and nourishment
of the articular cartilage.
• 29. synovial fluid viscosity is almost entirely
attributable to hyaluronic acid.
• 30. adult articular cartilage is resilient and elastic
tissue that becomes thinner when compressed and
regains original thickness when pressure is
released.
• 31. nutrition of adult articular cartilage is provided
by synovial fluid and fluid that diffuses from
capillaries in the joint capsule
• 32. hyaluronic acid and lubricin, which are
secreted by the synovial membrane lubricates the
synovial joints.
• 33. nerve fibers for pain are located in the
joint capsule.
 Muscular system
• Types of muscle cells:
– Smooth – no visible striations; regulated by the
autonomic nervous system and are located in the
visceral structures that require movements of an
automatic nature.
– Cardiac- found only in the heart; regulated by the
autonomic nervous system; composed of
elongated, branching cells, with irregular contours
at their junctions with other cells
– skeletal muscles
• Skeletal muscles:
– 3 types: red or dark; white or pale, intermediate
– Red muscle cells have more hemoglobin
– Red muscle fibers are characterized by having more
myoglobin and more mitochondria than white fibers.
– Red muscle fibers contract more slowly and fatigue less
readily than white muscle fibers.
– The red pigmentation in the pectoralis muscle in birds
can be correlated with the ability to sustain flight.
(geese, pigeons, ducks)
• Skeletal muscle makes up the major portion of
muscle mass of the animal body.

• Function of muscle::
– Contract
– Shorten
– Move body parts or body contents
– They provide resistance to some movement
• Sphincters- muscles are arranged circularly to
constrict body openings
• Lack of adduction occasionally occurs in the hind
limbs of cows after parturition or calving.
• The adductor muscles are supplied by the obturator
nerves (one from each leg) , each of which passes
through an opening (obturator foramen) in the birth
canal. Its injury during the calving process can be
followed by the inability to adduct one or both of
the hind legs. (obturator paralysis)
• Skeletal muscles are described according to the type of
movement performed.
• Flexors- if they are located on the side of the limb toward
which the joint bends when decreasing the joint angle
• Extensors- if they are located on the side of the limb
toward which the joint bends when increasing the joint
angle
• Adductors- muscles that pull a limb toward the median
plane
• Abductors- pull limb away from the median plane
 Skeletal muscle harnessing
• The harness of the skeletal muscle fiber is
composed of connective tissue elements:
– Epimysium
– Perimysium
– Endomysium
These are continuous from the individual muscle
fibers to the connective tissue of the structure to
which the muscle attaches and on which it exerts its
pull when it contracts.
• Tendon- the connective tissue of the structure
to which muscle is attached .
• Aponeurosis- a broad connective tissue sheet
that have similar function of the tendon
 Connective tissue elements of the skeletal
muscle
• 1. muscle fibers that compose a muscle bundle (fascicles-
muscle bundle) are attached by their cell covering
(sarcolemma) to a connective tissue division, the
endomysium
• 2. endomysium is continuous with connective tissue that
envelops muscle bundles, the perimysium
• 3. the perimysium is continuous with connective tissue that
envelops the muscle (collection of muscle bundles), the
epimysium
• 4.epimysium is continuous with the tendon or aponeurosis,
which can travel some distance for its attachment
 Muscle fiber division
• Muscle fibers are divided into smaller parts,
the myofibrils
• Each myofibril has striations or banding
• Sarcomere- further division of myofibrils into
repetitive units
• Sarcomere contain the protein myofilaments:
actin and myosin. Their arrangement give rise
to striations.
• Actin filaments project from the Z line into the
sarcomeres that it separate.
• Z line is located at each end of a sarcomere
• Actin filaments compose the I band
• The myosin filament are centrally located
within a sarcomere, provide for the dark
banding (A band)of the characteristic
striations.
• Actin and myosin filaments have regular
spatial arrangement and a ratio of 2:1.
 Sacrotubular system
• Sacrotubular system - a network of tubules of
the skeletal muscle fibers
• Function:
– Provide a means for conduction of an impulse
from the surface of the muscle fiber to its
innermost aspects.
 Physiological properties of muscle tissue

• excitability/ irritability- capacity to receive

and respond to stimulus
• Extensibility- ability to be stretched
• Elasticity- ability to return to the original
shape after contraction .
• All these properties produce muscle
movement.
• Rigor mortis- contracture that occurs after death. Lack of
ATP for relaxation.
• Relaxation occurs as a result of post mortem autolysis,
12-24 hours after death.
• Tetany- caused by prolonged contraction of maximum
strength
• Tetanus- a bacterial disease caused by potent neurotoxin
elaborated by the organism Clostridium tetani
– Lock jaw- masseter muscles that close the mouth are stronger
than muscles that open the mouth
• Atrophy-decrease in size of a muscle
• Disuse atrophy- when a body part has been
immobilized for a period of time.
• Denervation atrophy- loss of nerve supply to a
muscle
• Sweeny-/ shoulder slip- denervation due to
presence of collar that presses on the scapular
nerve that supplies two major muscle mass of
the shoulder blade.
 Sliding filament theory
• A muscle contracts when myosin filaments pull
actin filaments closer together and thus
shorten sarcomeres within a fiber. When all the
sarcomeres in a muscle shorten, the fiber
contracts.
• The sliding filament theory explains how myosin
and actin interact to cause muscle contraction.
These are 5 stages: resting, excitement,
contraction, recharge, and relaxation
 rigor mortis
• meaning: stiffening of the joints and muscles of a
body a few hours after death, usually lasting from
one to four days.

- A post mortem change resulting in the stiffening

of the body muscles due to chemical changes in
their myofibrils.
- Helps in estimating the time of death as well as to
ascertain if the body had been moved after death
• How long does rigor mortis takes after death?
• - 0-8 hours after death: body begins to harden but
it is still movable
• - 8-12 hours : muscles become fully stiff
• 12-24 hours: muscle stay solid and stiff
STAGES OF RIGOR MORTIS:
-stage 1- autolysis
- Stage 2- bloat
- Stage 3- decay
• rigor mortis generally disappears 36 hours
after death followed by a phase known as
secondary flaccidity.
• The last post mortem phase is when the body
tissue starts disintegrating and is primarily
describable as decomposition or putrefaction,
adipocere formation, mummification, or
skeletonization
• Why body turns black after death:
-due to putrifaction
- Bloating
- Green discoloration of the abdomen
- Marbling along blood vessels- a brown black
discoloration in blood vessels caused by
hydrogen sulfide gas.
 Evaluation/review
• Classification:
• 1.muscle fibers that contract more slowly and
fatigue readily are red fibers.
• 2. cardiac muscle cells have separations
between adjacent cells known as intercalated
disks. Their function is to provide low
electrical resistance and thus facilitate
depolarization from one cell to the next.
• 3. The autonomic nervous system regulates
activity of both cardiac and smooth muscle.
• 4. a pelvic delivery of an unusually large calf
has caused a cow to be down and unable to
bring her hind legs together. Obturator nerve
paralysis is suspected, and the affected
muscles are classified as adductors.
• 5. muscles that pull a limb toward the median
plane are adductors.
• 6. the skeletal muscle harness component
most intimately associated with the
sarcolemma is the endomysium.
• 7. the part of the skeletal muscle harness that
is continuous with a tendon or an aponeurosis
is the epimysium.
• 8. In skeletal muscle fibers, the sarcomeres of
a myofibril are in alignment of all the other
myofibrils.
• 9. myosin is the smallest component of a
skeletal muscle.
• 10. the sacrotubular system is located within
muscle fibers but outside of the myofibrils.
• 11.. conduction of depolarization from the
surface of a muscle fiber to its inner aspects is
accomplished by the sacrotubular system.
• 12. the myofilament of the skeletal muscle that
is attached to the second line is the actin
• 13. for the skeletal muscle, the neuromuscular
junction is:
– Located on the surface at the mid-point of the
muscle fiber (one for each muscle)
– Releases acetylcholine when the nerve is
stimulated
– Release of chemical is facilitated by extracellular
calcium ions
 Skeletal muscle contraction
• 14. the sarcoplasmic reticulum is the tubule set
of the sarcotubular system releases calcium ions
when depolarized for their diffusion to the
myofibrils.
• 15. acetylcholine is the chemical substance that is
released from the vesicles at the neuromuscular
junction on the arrival of the nerve impulse
• 16. rigor mortis occurs when there is insufficient
ATP available for relaxation
• 17. the function of the calcium ion at the level of
the myofilament is to uncover active sites on actin
so that the “cocked” projections of myosin may
make an attachment.
• 18. acetylcholine is the chemical that begins the
depolarization of skeletal muscle fibers after a
nerve impulse initiates its release.
• 19. calcium ion is the chemical that initiates the
contraction process after depolarization of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• 20. increased muscle strength associated with
tetany is an example of wave summation.
• 21. myosin cross- bridge heads detach from actin
active sites when the cross-bridge head bind ATP.
• 22. rigor mortis is an example of
relaxation ;Calcium ion attach; which result from
a depletion of ATP and a failure of cross-bridge
heads to contracture; ATP detach t /from actin
23. the calcium ion released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum begins the contraction
process by exposing actin filament cross-bridge
binding sites
24. Dense bodies (corresponding to Z lines) and
intermediate filament bundles are associated
with shortening of the longitudinal axis of
smooth muscle cells.
• 25. the slower attachment – detachment of
cross-bridge heads that extend from myosin to
actin is advantageous for smooth muscle.
• 26. muscles showing an increase in the size of
their individual muscle fibers are said to have
undergone hypertrophy.
• 27. An increase in the number of muscle fiber
is called hyperplasia.
 Nervous system
• Normal animals have the ability to adjust
internal and external environments.
• Their ability to do this depends basically upon
their nervous system.
• The nervous system coordinates all physical
activities of the body and provides the basic
pathways for action of all senses (hearing,
sight, smell, taste, touch)
 4 major parts of the nervous system
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nerves
• Automatic nervous system
 Basic structure and physical unit of the NS
is the neuron (or nerve cell)
• 1. neuron- have a single long fiber called, axon
and several branched threads called dendrites.
• Dendrites- receive stimuli from other nerves or
from a receptor organ, such as sense organ .
The impulse passes from the dendrite through
the cell body to the axon.
• Axon- conducts impulses to the dendrite of
another neuron or an effector organ, such as
muscle cell.
• Synapse- the place where axons and dendrites
come together.
• For an impulse to pass from a receptor organ
to the brain or from the brain to an effector
organ, it must travel over several neurons,
crossing several synapses by chemical means.
Some impulses however, do not pass through
the brain.
• A nerve may be either a :
– Single neuron axon or a bundle of several neurons
(axons)
– Several nerve fibers bound together are called a
nerve trunk.
– Some axons or nerve fibers, are covered by a fat-
containing myelin or medullary sheath.
– A small bundle of cell bodies gathered together
outside the brain and spinal cord is called
ganglion.
• When nerve cell bodies within the brain and spinal
cord grouped together, these are called nuclei.
• Nerve cells that receive stimuli are called sensory
or afferent or effector neurons. These neurons
carry impulses from the sense organs to the brain.
• Nerve cells that carry impulses from the brain or
other nerve centers to muscles are called motor, or
efferent, or effector neurons.
 Division of the nervous system
• Central nervous system (CNS) :brain and spinal
cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
– Cranial nerve
– Spinal nerve
– Autonomic nervous system
 The central nervous system
• The brain consists of cerebrum, cerebellum ,
pons, and medulla oblongata
• 1. cerebrum:
– Is the largest component of the brain
– Its surface area contains numerous folds and is
wrinkled in appearance.
– Serves as the decision-making center of the brain
and controls such mental activities as voluntary
muscle control and interpretations of various
sensations, example, hearing, seeing, and tasting.
• It is also involved in reasoning
• Usually larger, relative to body size in animals
of higher intelligence.
• Destruction of the cerebrum does not cause a
complete cessation of the body functions.
• 2. Cerebellum-
• -coordinator of the brains other centers and is
a mediator between them and the body
 Cerebellum…
• Coordinator of the brains other centers and is a
mediator between them and the body.
• Acts as a collecting house for all information
regarding physical status of the body.
• Coordinator of muscular activity in eating,
talking, running and walking
• Damage of the cerebellum results in
incoordination, which interferes with voluntary
muscular action , but it does not cause paralysis
 Cerebellum…
• Farm animals have a large cerebellum,
although elephants and whales probably have
the largest relative to body size.
 Brain stem
• Consist of interbrain cranially and midbrain,
pons and medulla oblongata.
• Interbrain consist of hypothalamus, thalamus
and epithalamus
– Hypothalamus- (ventral to the thalamus) contains
the pituitary gland; associated with complex
sensing and neurosecretory function. ; assumes a
major role in the integration of functions carried
out by the ANS
• THALAMUS
– Relay center by virtue of many nuclei it contains
– Impulses from all areas of the body are transmitted to the
thalamus for the transfer to cerebral cortex
EPITHALAMUS- (dorsal to the thalamus)
- Includes a number of structures: pineal gland
Pineal gland is an endocrine gland in mammals
Its primary secretion is melatonin which is important in
circadian (daily ) rhythms and sleep induction.
Epithalamus as a neurosecretory organ regulates gonadal
hormones-
 midbrain
• Contains the auditory ad visual reflex centers, the nuclei of two
cranial nerves and several descending tracts

• Pons and medulla oblongata contains many ascending ad

descending pathways, the sensory and motor nuclei for all
nerves originating in the brain stem, and a large part of the
central mechanisms of the postural reflexes (ex. Hopping)
• There are also several reflex centers associated with the
regulation of important visceral functions such as heart rate,
blood vessel and muscle tone, respiration, and motor ad
sensory activation of the digestive
 The spinal cord
• The caudal continuation of the medulla
oblongata
• Receive the message from afferent sensory
fibers by way of the dorsal roots to the
efferent motor fibers.
 The peripheral nervous system
• Provide a means of communication from the
environment (both external and internal)
• The cranial nerves:
– 1 pairs (right and left) that emerge through the
various foramina of the skull ( cranial foramina)
– Provides innervations to structures in the heart ad
neck
• Spinal nerves (paired) arise from the spinal cord and
emerge from the intervertebral foramina.
• Divides into dorsal branch and ventral branch
• Dorsal branches supply structures that are dorsal to
the transverse processes of the vertebrae
• Ventral branches supply structures ventral to the
transverse processes and most structures of the
forelimbs and hind limbs
• The appendages are supplied by sensory and motor
fibers known as plexuses
 Automatic nervous system
• Innervates smooth muscles, cardiac muscles
and glands
• 2 divisions:
– Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
– Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
SNS:
-(also called thoraco-lumbar portion) its outflow is
mainly from the thoracic ad lumbar spinal nerves
• PNS – also called cranio-sacral portion because its
outflow is mainly from cranial as sacral portion.
• PNS – those associated to those actions such as
restful or tranquil situations
• Most organs receive both sympathetic and
parasympathetic innervations but antagonistic to
each other
• SNS comes to play on those actions favorable to
fighting, frightening, or retracting stimulus
 The meninges
• Covering of the brain and spinal cord.
• Have 3 layers:
– 1. dura matter- outer layer and blends with
periosteum of the skull, contains channels filled
with blood called sinuses of dura matter.
– The dura matter that surrounds the spinal cord is
separated from the periosteum of vertebral canal
by flat-filled space- the epidural space.
• 2. arachnoidea- middle layer and assumed to
resemble like spider web
– The space between arachnoidea and pia matter is
filled with fluid called cerebro-spinal fluid
– Cerebro-spinal fluid forms the ventricles of the
brain and acts as protective cushion for the brain
and spinal cord
3. Pia matter- inner part or deepest layer that
invests the brain and spinal cord
 Physiology of nerve impulse
• The polarized (resting) nerve cell has a voltage
difference (membrane potential) of about -85
millivolts. This is the state of equilibrium of a
resting membrane potential.
 Endocrine system
• endocrinology- a branch of physiology dealing
with the coordination of various body tissues
by chemical mediators (hormone) produced
by restricted areas of the body (endocrine
glands) and transported through the
circulatory system to the organ or tissue on
which they exert their effect.
• Endocrine system- a system of glands, each of
which secretes a type of hormone directly into the
blood stream to regulate the different activities of
the body. The endocrine system works in harmony
with the nervous system to control and coordinate
all the activities of the body.
• Hormone- substance or chemical mediators
produced by the endocrine glands and carried by
the blood to some distant part of the body where it
exerts its effect.
 Major functions of hormones
• 1. integrative- hormones reach all the body
cells and permit different tissues or organs to
act together in response to a stimulus
• 2. homeostatic- maintenance of internal
environment
• 3. growth- control the rate and the type of
growth of an organism.
 Classification of hormones according to
structure:
• 1. Polypeptides – strings of amino acids held
together by peptide bonds;
– Target cells have membrane receptors

2. Steroids
3. Fatty acids
4. amines
 Types of polypeptide hormones
• 1. peptides- short strands amino acids (50 or less)
– Ex. Oxytocin and hypothalamic hormones
2. proteins- long strands of amino acids which exhibit
secondary and tertiary structure
Ex. Growth hormone, prolactin and insulin
3. glycoproteins- long strands of amino acids covered
with carbohydrates
Ex. Pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) and
Leutinizing hormone
• 2. steroids
– Small lipophilic molecules which circulate the blood
stream largely bound to protein
– Includes cholesterol, androgens and estrogens
– Target cells have cytosolic or nuclear receptors
3. Fatty acids
- Chemical derivatives of long chain fatty acids that
are rapidly degraded in the blood stream and are
considered as disruptive hormones,
- target cells have plasma membrane receptors
• 4. amines
– Biochemical modifications of single amino acid
tyrosine that are rapidly degraded in the blood
stream
– target cells have membrane receptors
• Hormones may be classified differently but they have
common characteristics and functions:
• 1. hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate
reactions
• 2. hormones are effective in biocatalytic amounts
• 3. hormones are not secreted in uniform rates
• 4. hormones are inactivated rapidly either at the site
where it exerts its effect or some other glands or organs
• 5. hormones are transported through the circulatory
system or the blood stream
Negative and positive feedback regulation

• Release of hormones are controlled by feedback

mechanisms
• 1. negative feedback controls the levels of most
hormones; the rising level of hormone bring about
a biologic response that inhibits further release of
that hormone
• 2. positive feedback only exist in a few cases; the
release of a hormone brings about a biologic
response that results in further release of the
hormone
 Major endocrine glands of the body
• hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Adrenal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid gland
• Pancreas ( pancreatic islets)
 Hypothalamopituitary axis
• The hypothalamus lies at the base of the brain
and is ventral to the thalamus
• It is attached to the pituitary gland
(hypophysis) by a stalk of a neural tissue called
the infundibulum
• The pituitary gland is embedded in a bony
cavity called sella turcica
 Pituitary gland has three lobes
• Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
• Intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
• Posterior lobe ( neurohypophysis)
Connection between hypothalamus and the
anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
- part of the infundibulum is a unique
vascular system called
hypothalamohypophyseal portal (HHP)
 HHP…
• A true portal system in that blood from the
capillary network of the hypothalamus flows
through these portal vessels and then through
a second set of capillaries in the anterior
pituitary. It is through this portal system that
the neurohormones secreted by the axons
from the hypothalamic nuclei make its way to
the anterior pituitary lobe. (adenohypophysis)
 Neurohormones include:
• 1. corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH)
stimulates adrinocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH) ,secretion from the anterior pituitary lobe
• 2. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GNRH)-
stimulates follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Leutinizing hormone (LH) , secretion from the
anterior pituitary lobe.
• 3. Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)-
stimulates release of growth hormones from the
anterior Pituitary lobe
 Neurohormones…
• 4. Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone
(GHIH)- inhibits growth hormone secretion
from the anterior pituitary lobe
• 5. Thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH)-
stimulates thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
from the anterior pituitary lobe
• 6. Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)- inhibits
prolactin (PRL) release from the anterior
pituitary lobe.
 Connections between the hypothalamus and
the posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

• As the posterior pituitary lobe is derived from

an outgrowth of a neurons of the
hypothalamus, in other words a direct
extension of the hypothalamus , axons from
the paraventricular nuclei (PVN) and
supraoptic nuclei (SON) of the hypothalamus
terminate near the capillaries in the posterior
pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
• 2. oxytocin is produced in the PVN and
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is produced in the
SON and transported to the posterior pituitary
lobe for storage.
• 3. oxytocin functions in milk letdown and in
the parturient processes;
– Antidiuretic hormone is released in response to an
increase in osmolality or severe reductions in
blood pressure
 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
• Located at the base of the brain in a cavity of
the sphenoid bone called sella turcica which
protects it from the outside pressure. It is
divided into 3 lobes:
• A. anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
• B. intermediate pituitary lobe (pars
intermedia)
• C. posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)

• Hormones secreted:
– Growth hormone (GH)- (somatotrophic hormone
(STH)- promotes the growth of long bones before
the epiphyseal- diaphyseal plates fuse together in
adulthood.
– Over secretion of GH results to the ff abnormalities:
– 1.gigantism when this happens before adulthood
– 2. acromegaly- when this happens after adulthood.
– Deficiency of GH during development controversy to
dwarfism
 Hormones secreted…
• 2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- stimulate
the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids such
as cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone
• 3. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates
the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones T4
and T3
• 4. prolactin or leutotropic hormone (LTH)-
stimulates milk secretion in lactating mammary
gland
• 5. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH-
stimulates the ovary to produce graaffian
follicle
– In the male, it maintains the integrity of the
seminiferous tubules of the testis
6. leutinizing hormone (LH) - stimulates ovulation in
maturing graafian follicles and the formation of
corpus luteum in ovulated follicle as well as the
production of progesterone by the corpus luteum
• In males, LH stimulates the cells of Leydig or
interstitial cells to produce testosterone, a male
sex hormone

• All anterior pituitary hormones are polypeptide

hormones: 3 are proteins: (ACTH.GH, PRL) and
3 glycoproteins : LH, FSH, TSH
 INTERMEDIATE PITUITARY LOBE
• Secretes:
– MSH- melanophore stimulating hormone is
essential for some reptiles and amphibians to
enable them to change skin color by dispensing
melanin granules in the melanophore of the skin
 Posterior pituitary lobe
• Secretes the following
• 1. oxytocin- stimulates milk ejection in
lactating females
• 2. antidiuretic hormone or vassopresin-
important in conserving body water ,
constricts blood vessels and reducing urine
formation.
 Adrenal medulla
• Inner most part of the adrenal gland.
• Contains secretory granules containing
epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Cells of adrenal medulla are thought to be
modified post ganglionic sympathetic nerve
cell bodies called chromaffin cells. Nerve
supply comes by way of preganglionic
sympathetic neurons.
 Adrenal medulla…
• Fight or flight response catecholamines
( epinephrine and norepinephrine)
• Have pronounced metabolic effects:
– Increased breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis)
in the liver and skeletal muscles
– Increased breakdown of fats (lipolysis)
– Increased fatty acid mobilization
– Increased oxidation of lactic acid to pyruvate and
then later to glucose in the liver (calorigenesis)
 Thyroid gland
• Located on the trachea caudal to the larynx in
most mammals
• Possess 2 distinct lobes.
• The thyroid stimulating hormone from the
anterior pituitary gland does not have to travel far
to stimulate its target cells in the thyroid gland.
• Thyroid gland is composed of numerous follicles
lined with epithelial cells and are filled with a gel-
like substance ,called colloid.
 Thyroid gland..

• This colloid is composed of a protein- iodine

complex called thyroglobulin
• T3 and T4 are stored in the thyroglobulin as
iodinated tyrosine form to protect it from
rapid degradation from proteolytic enzyme in
the blood.
• Two types of cells found in the thyroid gland:
• Follicular cells- responsible for the activation of
the thyroglobulin into the functional T3 and T4
hormones. The process starts with the
phagocytosis of the thyroglobulin by the
follicular cell. Then, the endocytic vesicle
containing the thyroglobulin fuses with
lysosome which contains the enzyme necessary
for the break down of thyroglobulin and release
the biologically active T3 and T4 hormones.
• The levels of T4 and T3 in the blood exert direct
negative feedback on the cells of the anterior
pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
• C-cells also known as parafollicular cells are the
ones that secrete the hormone calcitonin
• Calcitonin is a hormone that lowers the blood
calcium levels by inhibiting the actions of the
osteoclasts- a bone cell that disintegrates the
organic bone structure to contribute to the calcium
in the blood.
 Parathyroid gland
• small aggregates of endocrine tissue near or
within the thyroid gland.
• Two pairs :
– One pair outside the thyroid gland (external
parathyroids)
– One pair within the thyroid gland ( internal
parathyroid)
• 2 types of cells making up the parathyroid
glands:
– Oxyphil cells-
– Chief cells- responsible for the production and
secretion of parathyroid hormones (PTH)
Functions of parathyroid hormones
• 1. stimulates the release of calcium phosphate
from the bone
• A. rapid phase- where calcium and phosphorus
are transported from bone fluid
• B. prolonged phase- osteoclasts dissolved bone
• 2. decrease excretion of calcium and increases the
excretion of phosphate by the kidney (maintaining
the calcium phosphorus ratio in the blood)
• 3. promotes formation of vitamin D by the
kidneys whose functions are:
– A. increase the rate of calcium absorption from
the gastro-intestinal tract by the formation of the
calcium binding proteins by the intestinal
epithelium
– B. reduce the loss of calcium in the urine
 Over all function of the parathyroid
hormone
• Increase blood calcium concentration and
decrease blood Phosphorus concentration by
increasing its urinary excretion.
• Overall function of vitamin D is to retain
calcium in the body
 pancreas
• In domestic animals, it is bilobed gland located
adjacent at the proximal part of the small
intestine.
• Has both exocrine and endocrine function
– Exocrine function: associated with digestion;
includes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
secretions
– Endocrine function: mediated by insulin and
glucagon
• Scattered throughout the substance of the
pancreas are small masses of pancreatic islets
( islets of Langerhans)
– the 2 best characterized cells in the pancreatic
islets are:
a. alpha cells- produce the hormone insulin
b. Beta cells.- produce the hormone glucagon
 Alpha cells
• Stimulates breakdown of liver glycogen (stored
energy) to increase blood glucose (rapid response)
• Increase gluconeogenesis, metabolic rate and
lipolysis
• Stimulates the secretion of insulin
• Release of glucagon is inhibited by the increased
blood glucose (negative feed back)
• Insulin also exerts a negative feedback on
glucagon secretion
 Beta cells
• allows transport of glucose across the
membrane (facilitated transport )
• Stimulates skeletal muscles and liver cells to
synthesize glycogen and to increase protein
synthesis
• Stimulates deposition of lipids in adipose tissues
• Increase in blood glucose causes a negative
feedback to the insulin production from the Beta
cells of the pancreas
 Blood and its functions
• Blood:
– Thick suspension of cellular elements. By centrifugation, blood is
separated into:
– A. plasma- the fluid portion of the blood containing : a number of ions
, inorganic molecules and organic molecules.:
– a. It is composed of water,
– B. gasses (02 , C02, N),
– C. proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)
– D. glucose, lipids, (fats, lecithin, cholesterol)
– E. non-protein nitrogen substances (uric acids, creatinine, salts, etc.)
– F. Inorganic salts and minerals
– G. enzymes , hormones, vitamins, immune substances
• 2. blood cells (formed elements)- made up of
WBC (leukocytes), the RBC (erythrocytes) and
the platelets (thrombocytes), and all
suspended In the plasma.
• Plasma- liquid component of the blood, within
which the cells and colloids are suspended
and other transported substances are
dissolved
• Hematocrit- means to centrifuge; by centrifugation,
a column of blood can be divided into its
component parts according to their relative specific
gravity.
• PCV- packed cell volume- the erythrocytes occupies
the lower portion; leukocytes and platelets occupy
the middle portion (buffy coat); plasma occupies
the top portion
• PCV- useful for helping to distinguish abnormal
conditions
• Blood color is imparted by the hemoglobin contained in
the erythrocytes.
• Plasma color results from the presence of bilirubin
• Bilirubin- a degradation product of hemoglobin
• Blood volume( BV) a function of the lean body weight
and is generally 8 to 10% of the body weight
• Blood pH- 7.4
• Venous blood is more acidic than arterial blood. The
acidity is related to the transport of carbon dioxide
• Venous blood- 7.36; arterial blood- 7.4
 The RBC
• Biconcave disk to provide large surface area
for 02 exchange across the cell membrane
through the presence of hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin is responsible for the red color of
the blood.
– Contains 4 red porphyrin pigments (heme)
– Each pigment contains an atom of iron plus
globular protein
• Chemically, hemoglobin is an organic compound,
consists of Heme (an iron porphyrin complex) and
Globulin (the protein component, a globulin)
• Hemoglobin readily absorbs oxygen from air in
lungs to form oxyhemoglobin- 02 is held closely
by hemoglobin and is readily released to tissue
cells.
• One hemoglobin can carry 4 molecules of oxygen
 RBC
• Formed in the bone marrow but becomes
non-nucleated when they reach the blood
stream of in mammals.
• In poultry, the nucleus remains throughout
the cell’s life.
 WBC
• Defense mechanism against bacterial, viral, parasitic
infection and proteins foreign to the body
• Nucleated and are capable of independent movement.
• Classification:
– Granulocytes- neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
– Agranulocytes- monocytes, lymphocytes

Neutrophils:
-first line of defense against infection by migrating to any area
invaded by bacteria, passing the vessel walls, and engulfing the
bacteria to destroy them
• Involved in acute infection
• Degrade dead (necrotic) tissue in the area, resulting to
semiliquid material known as pus. Localized
accumulation of pus is called abscess

Eosinophils (acidophils):
- have ameboid and sometimes phagocytic action
- function of detoxification of either foreign proteins
introduced into the body via lungs and GI tract ; or
toxins produced by bacteria and parasites
Basophils :
- contain heparin (anticoagulant).
- contains histamines involved in inflammatory reactions and
process of allergic reactions

Monocytes:
- largest WBC
- phagocytic and develop into larger phagocytes called
macrophages
- involved in less acute conditions unlike neutrophils
- enzyme systems of monocytes are designed to degrade
engulfed tissue debris from chronic inflammatory reactions.
• Monocyte numbers increase in chronic
infections
• They are valuable in defense against long term
inflammation because of their larger size and
longer life span
• Lymphocytes::
– function in response to antigens (foreign
substances) by forming antibodies that circulate in
the blood or in the development of cellular
immunity
– Involved in immune responses.
– Classified as T cells or B cells
 The platelets
• Important during blood clotting
• Reduce loss of blood loss from injured vessels
• Carries serotonin that helps cause local
constriction on injured blood vessel.
 Functions of blood
• 1. carries nutrients made available by the
digestive tract to the body tissues
• 2. carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues
• 3. carries carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs
• 4. carries waste products to the kidneys for
excretion
• 5. carries hormones from endocrine glands to
other organs of the body
• 6. plays an important part in temperature control by
transporting heat from deeper structures to the
surface of the body
• 7. water balance is maintained partly by the blood
• 8. buffers such as bicarbonate in the blood help
maintain a constant PH of tissues and body fluids
• 9. clotting ability of blood prevents excess loss of blood
from injuries
• 10. contains important factors for defense of the body
against disease
• Phagocytosis- ingestion of particulate matter
• Pinocytosis ingestion of extracellular fluid
• Endocytosis- ingestion of particulate matter
and extracellular fluid
• Lactoferrin-an iron binding protein. Have very
high affinity to ferric iron and can deprive
phagocytized bacteria of the iron they need
for further growth
 Contraction of the heart
• Controlled by the sino-atrial node (SA node),
called pacemaker, located at the right atrium .
If defective (in man), can now be replaced by
an electronic gadget called (electronic
pacemaker)
• The arrangement of the heart muscle in
syncytium (electrically continuous) also helps
in the contraction of the heart
The cardiac cycle (contraction process)
• 1. initiated or triggered by the sino-atrial node
• 2. begins at the right atrium,and
• 3. quickly spread to left atrium, forcing blood
from right and left atria to the ventricles by
opening the R & L atrio-ventricular valves
• 4. subsequently, the R&L ventricles contract,
closing the atrio-ventricular valves thus forcing
the blood to the aorta and pulmonary
semilunar valves
• Refers to the sequence of events that occur
during one complete heart beat.
• The un oxygenated blood from the right
ventricle is forced to the pulmonary arteries
towards the lungs.
Diastole : refers to the relaxation of a chamber
of the heart just prior to and filling of that
chamber. It may be R or L atria diastole or R or L
ventricular systole
• Systole : refers to the contraction of a
chamber of the heart in the process of
emptying that chamber. It could be R or L
atrial systole or R or L ventricular systole.
– The wave of the systolic pressure which starts at
the heart and spreads throughout the arterial
network is called the pulse wave
 The lymphatic system
• both lymphoid tissue of the body and the lymphatic
vessels associated with lymphoid tissue
• Serves as a system for draining tissue fluid that
parallels and augment the venous circulation and
therefore assists in the control of interstitial fluid
pressure.
• Forms antibodies and each acts as a defense
mechanism against noxious materials by filtering
them out of tissue fluid and phagocytizing them,
thereby assisting in the control of infection
• Lymphoid tissue consists of accumulation of
lymphocytes trapped in the spaces between
fibers of reticular connective tissue
• Lymphoid tissue may be scattered diffusely in
some organs, as in the interstitial submucosa,
or aggregations of lymphoid tissue may
appear as nodules or be encapsulated to form
specific organs, including lymph nodes, the
tonsils, thymus and spleen
 lacteals
• Special group of lymphatic vessels that drain
the intestinal wall
• These vessels absorb lipids from the small
intestines, which then appear as milky fluid
called chyle
 Body water
• Water- most abundant constituent of body fluids, about
60% of total body weight
– Solvent for the many chemicals of the body, and the
solutions formed provide the diffusion media for the body
cells
– the physical properties of water make it ideal for transport
function
– Have relatively high specific heat, where by heat from the
cells are absorbed with a minimum temperature increase.
– Provides the lubrication necessary to minimize friction
associated with fluid flow, cell movement and movement of
body parts
• Osmosis- a process by which 2 aqueous
solutions that differ in their concentration of
water and are separated by a membrane that
is permeable (permits passage) to water, but
not to its solutes (semi permeable
membrane), allow a net diffusion of water
from the side having the highest water
concentration to the side having the lowest
water concentration
• Osmotic pressure- quantitative measure of the
tendency for water to osmose.
– The pressure that would have to be applied to the
compartment with the lowest water concentration
to prevent net diffusion of water from the
compartment with the highest water concentration
– Total body water is the sum of the water that is
contained in arbitrary division of its distribution
between the intracellular and extracellular
compartments
• Lean animal might have water equivalent 70%
of its body weight
• Obese animal- 4%
• About 2/3 of body water is found within the
cells. (intracellular fluid)
• Extracellular fluid- all water that is not in cells:
– Interstitial fluids
– Intravascular fluid
– Transcellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid- fluids outside of capillaries
that immediately surrounds the cells. It is the
environment of the cells. It occupies the
interstitial space along with a number of
intercellular substances : ( collagen, elastic
fibers, fibroblasts, plasma cells and mast cells);
hyaluronic acid is also present.
• Hyaluronic acid- a highly hydrated gel that
holds tissue fluid in the interstices
• Intravascular fluid- liquid part of blood known
as plasma. 92 % of the plasma volume is
water. 8% is protein, ions and molecules
• Transcellular fluid- fluid found in the body
cavities. Includes intra ocular fluid and
cerebrospinal fluid . Most plentiful TCF is in
the digestive tract. Greatest in ruminants, in
which stomach compartments for
fermentation are found
Daily water balance of holstein cows eating
legume hay (liters)
Balance non lactating lactating
• Intake
• Drinking water 26 51
• Food water 1 2
• Metabolic water 2 3
• Total 29 56
• Output
• Feces 12 19
• Urine 7 11
• Vaporized 10 14
• Milk 0 12
• Total 29 56
• Water turnover- is that amount of water
gained by an animal to balance that which is
lost.
• Water gain by ingestion of water in food, drink and metabolic
water
• Water loss- vapor loss thru perspiration, exhalation
• Dehydration- when water losses exceed water gain. In animals,
a loss of 10% of the body weight is considered to be severe.
• Thirst- conscious desire for water. Thirst center is located at the
hypothalamus represented by thirst cells .
– Thirst cells are stimulated by an increase in their osmo-concentration
(loss of water and increased salt concentration). Osmo-concentration
of the thirst cell is a consequence of dehydration
• Angiotensin H- a hormone that stimulate
thirst.
• Thirst stimulation causes an animal to drink
water, which is subsequently absorbed, and
blood volume and blood pressure are restored
toward normal.
• camels
– Ability to endure a degree of dehydration equal to about 30%
of its body weight, compared with 10%-12%%for most other
animals. This permits it to survive longer when water is not
available.
– Ability to store body heat (resulting to a body temperature
increase) during the day rather than dissipate it.
– Body temperature- 34.2 -40.7 degrees Centigrade
– Awaits cool dessert night to dissipate stored heat
– Has summer fur that is effective in reducing solar heat gain
– Rapidly ingest water up to 25% of its body weight after
dehydration
 Sheep
• Can endure dehydration up to 30% of their
body weight
• Able to drink 25% of its body weight without
harmful effects.
• Sheep is protected from solar heat gain by its
wool covering. Excretes dry feces and
concentrate its urine
• Evaporative heat loss is by way of panting.
 donkey
• Dissipate heat by sweating more than the
camel and sheep
 evaluation
Distribution of body water
• 1. which one of the following body
compartments would represent about 40% of
body weight?
• a. transcellular
• b. intravascular
• c. intracellular *
• d. extracellular
• 2. interstitial fluid is a component of the extracellular fluid
compartment
• 3. interstitial fluid (ISF) is found between cells but outside the
blood
• 4. hyaluronic acid (a component of intercellular substance) is
highly hydrated gel that holds ISF in its interstices
• 5. the water requirement of a 1000-lb cow is about 30L each
per day. If a calf weighs 100lbs and has about 1/5 of the body
surface of a cow, what would be its approximate water
requirement each day? 6L
• 5. the basal body need for water are directly related to caloric
expenditure and body surface area
• 7. more metabolic water is obtained from the metabolism of
100g of fat than from 100g of either protein or carbohydrate
because more cofactors are reduced ( and therefore need to
be oxidized) when these foodstuffs are metabolized
• 8. the animal would seek water if the effective osmotic
pressure in the plasma becomes greater than the effective
osmotic pressure within the thirst cells in the hypothalamus.
• 9. thirst can be stimulated by osmoconcentration of the
extracellular fluid and low blood pressure associated with
blood loss
• 10. with continuing dehydration, both water and
electrolytes are depleted.
• 11. which one of the following solutions would
cause a dog to begin drinking water (becomes
thirsty) if it were infused into the dog’s blood?
– A. hypertonic NaCl*
– B. isotonic NaCl
– C. hypotonic NaCl
12. Sheep have better tolerance in relation to dehydration
than cattle and pigs.
• 13. during the heat of the day, which one of
the following is most productive in conserving
body water?
– A. storing body heat during the day while it is
being produced and eliminating the heat when
ambient temperature is cooler*
– B. retention of urine
 Body temperature
• Regulated by the hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus acts as thermostat to maintain
temperature as close as possible to a normal set-
point.
• Hypothalamus receives input from the internal
and external thermoreceptors, and it activates
physiologic and behavioral activities that influence
heat production, heat loss, and heat gain.
•
• Hyperthermia refers to any increase in body temperature
above the normal range.
• Fever is a particular form of hyperthermia in which the
heat loss and the heat gain mechanisms are adjusted to
maintain body temperature at a higher hypothalamic set-
point
• Fever is essentially a regulated hyperthermia
• Heat stroke; exercise induced hyperthermia, malignant
hyperthermia, seizure: body temperature is elevated by
abnormal and unregulated heat loss, heat gain, or heat
production, and the hypothalamic set-point is not altered
• Elevation of the hypothalamic set-point may
be initiated by exogenous pyrogens, bacterial
and or viral products (endotoxin). These
pyrogenic stimuli lead to the release of
cytokines, termed endogenous pyrogens, from
inflammatory cells.
• Synthesized prostaglandin E2 in the
hypothalamus is responsible for elevating the
set-point, resulting in fever
• Heat is produced constantly in the body as a result of
metabolism.
• 2 principal means of losing heat:
– Radiation, conduction, convection
– Evaporation of water from the skin and respiratory
passageways
– Excretion of feces and urine that leave the animal at body
temperature
– 75% of heat lost in the body is dissipated by radiation,
conduction and convection and is mostly controlled by
vasomotor activity
• Evaporation of water results in cooling.
• Loss of water by evaporation is insensible water
loss; includes water lost from the skin surfaces
and water lost in the heated exhaled air.
• 25% water is lost thru insensible means
• Evaporative heat loss thru sweating and panting
varies in different species
• Function of sweat glands as dissipaters of body
heat is less effective in domestic animals and man
 2 types of sweat glands
• Apocrine- is disseminated all over the body in horses,
dogs, cats cattle, sheep,

• Eccrine-found in humans ; sparse in domestic animals;

found in foot pads in dogs and cats because it provides
for a moist surface and improved traction.
• Characteristic animal odors arise from bacterial flora
action on apocrine secretions
• thermoregulatory function (sweating) is greatest in
horses, cattle, sheep,, dogs, cats, swine
• Panting mechanism is effective in dissipating the
heat load because greater amounts of air are made
to go over moist surfaces
• Panting is most effective In dogs
• Cattle- panting is accompanied by increased
salivation, salivary secretion promotes cooling by
evaporation. However salivary secretion loss by
evaporation and drooling can result in metabolic
acidosis because of loss of bicarbonate and
phosphate buffers contained in ruminant saliva.
• Increase in sweating and panting are brought
about by increased blood temperature,
subsequent adjustments by the
hypothalamus, and reflexes produced by local
heating of the skin
 Responses to extremes of heat
• Cattle and sheep –most able to withstand extremes of
heat (43 C and humidity above 65%)
• Panting and sweating
• Pigs- do not sweat copiously. Their small mouths make
them ineffective at panting. Pigs have substantial
subcutaneous fat
• Cat cannot withstand prolonged exposure to 40 C or
higher. Cools its body by spreading saliva all over the body
• dogs- effective at panting. Collapses when rectal
temperature is 41 C
• Birds, air sacs are extensions of lungs which
extend to body cavities. Temperature of birds
is 41 C
• Pulmonary ventilation cools the body of birds.
• Rectal temp of 45 C is the upper limit of safety
in chicken.
• Prolonged exposure of hen at 38 C air
temperature is unsafe if relative humidity is
above75%
• Shivering- one means by which heat is
generated for withstanding cold.
• Shivering is a generalized rhythmic contraction
of muscles (30-50% heat is converted to heat)
• Other methods to generate heat: epinephrine
and norepinephrine is released in increased
amounts in the cold
• Brown fat- important source of thermogenesis
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine are the stimuli
for increased metabolism of brown fat.
• Brown fat is present in hibernating mammals,
newborn mammals.
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine have calorigenic
effect with other cells as well, and the calorigenic
effect is potentiated by the thyroid hormone
• Thyroid hormone is secreted in increased
amounts during periods of cold.
 hibernation
• The act of resting in a dormant state in a protected burrow
• Hibernating animals awake from their dormant state
periodically
• Characteristic of hibernation
– 1.hibernation is a process of warm-blooded animals
– The process is autonomous- the animal induces and reverses it
by some self contained mechanism
– The process is radical- changes involved not only overt
physiologic functioning but also cellular and subcellular changes
– All physiologic functions continue but at a reduced rate
– 5. during the process, the body temp is lowered significantly to a
level compatible with survival for the species
 hypothermia
• Reduction of the deep body temperature below normal
nonhibernating homeotherms

• Fever- an elevation of deep boy temperature that is

brought on by microorganism-caused disease
• Fever is usually beneficial because immunologic
mechanisms are accelerated and the high temperature
induced is detrimental to the microorganisms; but it can
be damaging if allowed to go too high.
• Fever is usually self-limiting; maximum temperatures of
41C can be approached
 Heat stroke and impaired evaporation
• Hyperthermia exclusive of fever can be associated with
heat stroke
• Heat production exceeds the evaporative capacity of the
environment and occurs when the humidity is high
• Develops when the evaporative mechanism become
impaired as a result of loss of body fluid or reduced
blood volume.
• Antipyretic drugs are ineffective in reducing the body
temperature in heat stroke and impaired evaporative
conditions, and relief is obtained only by whole- body
cooling
 evaluation
• The average rectal temperature in a healthy animal should
be:
– Dairy cow
– Beef cattle
– Horse
– Pig
– Goat
– Sheep
– Dog
– Cat
– Rabbit
– chicken
• variations in temperature related to the time of the
day are known as diurnal temperatures
• Nocturnal animals have body temperatures that are
lower In the morning than in the afternoon. True or
false*?
• What part of the brain has a temperature regulating
center? (Cerebral cortex*; hypothalamus, thalamus,
medulla)
• Which sweat gland type predominates among
domestic animals ? (eccrine, apocrine*)
• Which one of the following animals has the
greatest heat loss from heating? ((sheep, cats,
dogs, horses*, pigs)
• Increased blood flow to the skin would increase
heat loss (true*, false)
• Which domestic animals can best withstand
extremes heat? (horse ,dog ,pig , cattle and sheep*)
• The counter current flow of blood into the limbs of
animals assist in warming the limbs (true, false*)
• Which domestic animal is best able to withstand cold?
( horse; dog; pig; cattle and sheep *)
• Piloerection is a response to (heat; cold *; watching
television)
• A true hibernant abandons homeothermy in the cold
weather but will awaken if body temperature approaches
freezing or some other higher set-point (true*; false)
• Heat stroke is characterized by greater heat than the
capacity for heat dissipation. (true*; false)
• Fever has no beneficial effects (true; false*)
 Average rectal temp in C
• Stallion 37.6 37.2-38.1
• Mare 37.8 37.3-38.2
• Donkey 37.4 36.4-38.4
• Camel 37.5 34.2-40.7
• Beef cow 38.3 36.7-39.1
• Dairy cow 38.6 38.0-39.3
• Sheep 39.1 38.3-39.9
• Goat 39.1 38.5-39.7
• Pig 39.2 38.7-39.8
• Dog 38.9 37.9-39.9
• Cat 38.6 38.1-39.2
• Rabbit 39.5 38.6-40.1
• Chicken 41.7 40.6-43.0
 Cardiovascular system
• Functions
– 1. convey nutrients absorbed from the digestive
tract to the tissues
– 2. carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs
– 3. remove waste products and take them to
excretory organs for disposal
– 4. transport hormones from one part of the body
to another
• 5. help in maintaining equilibrium of the body
• 6. assist in maintaining the normal
temperature of the body
• 7. regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in
the body
• 8. assist in overcoming diseases by the
antibodies contained in the blood
 Component of the cardiovascular system

• 1. heart- 4 chambered
• 2. blood vessels- composed of:
• a. arteries –carry blood away from the heart
• b. veins- carry blood towards the heart
• c. capillaries- tiny blood vessels with selective
membrane
• 3. lymph vessels- carry tissue fluid lymph from lymph
• 4. lymph glands- filtration of lymph fluid and
production of lymphocytes (WBC)
 The heart
• Pumps or circulates blood to all parts of the
body. Failure to perform heart function
terminates life
• Mans heart pumps blood to an estimated
60,000 of blood vessels daily (enough to fill a
4,000 gallon tank)
• Located at the thoracic cavity between the
lobes of the lungs
• Enclosed with a pericardium or pericardial sac
• Composed of 4 chambers, 2 upper chamber
are atria and 2 lower chambers are ventricles
• Have complete septum separating the left side
and the right side
• The atrio-ventricular (AV) valve prevents
backflow of the blood from ventricle to
atrium. The valve on the right side is tricuspid
and the valve on the left side is bicuspid or
mitral valve
• Valves also prevent the backflow of blood from
vessels to the ventricles during diastole, the
Aortic semi-lunar valve at the aortic orifice and
the pulmonary valve at the pulmonary orifice
• The sino-atrial node is the pacemaker of the heart
• To heart sounds are normally heard
• A low slightly “lub “ first sound caused by the
closure of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves
• The short pitch “dub” (second sound) caused
by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary
valves.
•
 Heart rate is measured by pulse rate per
minute (PRPM)
• Elephant 30-45
• Horse 38
• Carabao & cattle 54
• Goat 78
• Chicken 200-400
• Mouse 600
 Pulse rate- taken by feeling the artery
on following animals
• Horse- external maxillary or about the middle
of the jaw
• Cattle & carabao- slightly outer than location
in the horse
• Sheep, goat, dog- femoral artery
• Pigs and others- by auscultation
 arteries
• Carry oxygen rich blood from heart to various
body tissues except in the pulmonary
circulation where the arteries carry un
oxygenated blood to the lungs
• Arterial wall are thick and contain heavy
muscle layers which can withstand the blood
pressure resulting from the heart’s beating or
pumping
 The veins
• Blood vessels that return blood from throughout the body
to the heart
• Carry unoxygenated blood except in the pulmonary
circulation where the veins carry oxygenated blood from
the lungs to the heart
• Thin-walled compared to arteries which are collapsible
• In places, veins contain valves that aid flow of blood to the
heart
• Venous blood coming from different parts of the body is
returned back to the heart via the vena cava to the right
atrium, then to the right ventricle
 The capillaries
• Tiny blood vessels that lie between the terminal arteries
and the beginning of the veins
• Very thin-walled and widely distributed in all body tissues
• Transfer of nutrients including oxygen from blood to
tissues and waste products from tissues to blood occurs
in the capillaries
• Every pound of excess fat contains an estimated 200
miles of capillaries.
• Overweight can overwork the heart and contribute to
heart failure
 Lymph vessels
• Accessories to the body’s circulatory system
• Originate in tissue spaces and converge to
form larger ducts as they pass through the
lymph glands
• Large lymph ducts empties into large blood
veins of the circulatory system
 Lymph glands
• Act to filter foreign substances from the
lymph, preventing their passage into the
blood stream
• Also produce lymphocytes, one of the WBC of
the body
• Also produce plasma cells that produce
antibodies
 Systemic circulation
• Includes:
– Coronary circulation- supplies blood to the heart
itself
– Hepatic circulation- supplies blood to the liver
– Cerebral circulation- supplies blood to the brain
– Renal circulation- supplies blood to the kidney
– Splanchnic circulation-supplies blood to the
digestive tract
 Respiratory system
• Respiratory and circulatory systems work
together to achieve this function
• The respiratory system of animals include the
lungs and passageways through which air is
brought into and is exhaled from the lungs
• The passageways include:
– Nostrils nasal cavity pharynx
– Larynx trachea
• Nostrils- two in number and are the external openings of
the respiratory tract. Each nostril leads to a nasal cavity
which is separated from the mouth by the hard and soft
palates.
• Pharynx- passage of both air and food. Its structure is such
that air cannot be inspired at the same time food is being
swallowed. the passage of food and air through the pharynx
is controlled by a valve-like structure called epiglottis
• Larynx- the voice box. It controls the inspiration and
expiration of air. Prevents the inhalation of foreign objects
into the lungs
• Trachea- a continuation of the larynx. Consist of
adjacent rings of cartilage, resembling a vacuum hose
seen on electric sweepers . These rings are rigid and
prevent collapse of trachea, so that it always remains
open.
• Trachea continues as a single tube to the base of the
lungs, where it divides into two tubes, called the
primary bronchi. One bronchus passes into each of the
lungs. The primary bronchi branch into still smaller
bronchi and finally into very small tubes, the
bronchioles in the lungs
• The ends, or terminal branches of the bronchioles are
called alveoli, the final and smallest portions of respiratory
passageways.
• Birds differ from mammals. They have accessory cavities in
the abdominal cavity and in the major long bones.
• The accessory air cavities decrease body density and aid in
making birds air- mobile.
• Poultry have 9 air sacs (4 paired,m1 single);and a foramen
(small cavities or perforations in bones) through which
some respiratory action occurs; these air sacs also increase
bouyancy (ability to float in water or air)
 lungs
• Each lobe consists of elastic and spongy materials
that are greatly expanded when filled with air.
When in full capacity, the lungs completely fill the
space available in the thoracic cavity
• The primary function of the respiratory system is
an exchange of gases with the atmosphere.
Oxygen is the gas absorbed by the lungs from
inhaled air. Carbon dioxide replaces oxygen in the
air exhaled from the lungs
• Carbon monoxide and certain other gases may poison an
animal and even cause its death by uniting with hemoglobin
to form a stable compound known as carboxyl hemoglobin.,
which cannot carry oxygen . As a result, the animal dies of
suffocation or die from lack of oxygen
• Nitrates,nitrites, chlorates, cyanide and prussic acid are also
poisons to animals because they interfere with internal
respiration or with normal utilization of oxygen by tissues.
• Application of acetylcholine or nicotine to the chemoreceptor
areas stimulates respiration whereas application of the
cyanide and procaine reduces or abolishes respiration
• Irritation of the walls of trachea or bronchi
produces coughing, the glottis suddenly
opened, producing an explosive outflow of air.
• Air is brought into the lungs (inspired) by
contraction of the diaphragm, which enlarges
the thoracic cavity, creating a partial vacuum.
This action causes the lungs to enlarge, drawing
air into them. A partial vacuum exists within the
thoracic cavity under the normal conditions.
• If this vacuum is destroyed by a puncture, the
lung collapses:
– 1. air is forced out of the lungs (expired) by a
decrease in size of the thoracic cavity due
relaxation of the diaphragm, retraction of elastic
fibers within the alveoli, and contraction of
muscles that decrease rib-cage volume by pulling
the ribs caudally
– 2. the rate of breathing is controlled by a group of
nerve cells in the medulla of the brain
• 3. The region known as respiratory center
regulates inspiration and expiration of air by the
lungs. It is influenced by the carbon dioxide
content of blood
• 4. oxygen passes from the alveoli in the lungs to
the red blood cells of the circulatory system by
means of simple diffusion. A reverse diffusion
occurs , resulting in the discharge of carbon
dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide in body
tissues are exchanged in a similar manner.
 Types of respiration/breathing
• 1. apnea-absence or cessation of breathing
• 2. eupnea- normal quiet respiration
• 3, dyspnea- difficult respiration
• 4. hyperpnea- increased depth or rate of respiration
• 5. polypnea- rapid shallow breathing
• 6. costal (thoracic) involves considerable movement of the
ribs; occurs when more air is needed than movement of the
diaphragm produces
• 7. abdominal (diaphragmatic) diaphragm contraction
produces visible movement of the abdomen; occurs during
ordinary quiet breathing
 Factors affecting respiratory rate
• 1. body size
• 2. exercise
• 3. excitement
• 4. environmental temperature
• 5. pregnancy
• 6. fill of stomach
• 7. pathological condition
 Air volumes and capacitation
• Conventional description of air volume
– 1. tidal volume (TV)- the volume of air inspired or expired
during normal respiration. It increases during excitement
and activity
– 2. inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)- the amount of air that
can be inspired above and beyond that which is inspired
during a normal quiet inspiration
– 3. expiratory reserve volume (ERV)- the maximal amount of
air that can be expired following a normal quiet expiration
– 4. residual volume(RV)-the amount of air remaining in the
lungs after a maximal expiratory effort
Conventional description of lung capacity

• 1. total lung capacity (TLC)- the amount of air

contained in the lung at the end of maximal
inspiration (TLC = IRV+TV+ERV+RV)
• 2. vital capacity- (VC)- the maximal amount of air
that can be expired after a maximal inspiration.
VC=IRC+TV+EV
• 3. functional residue capacity (FRC)-the amount of
air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration
(FRC+ERV+RV)
• 4. inspiratory capacity (IC = IRV + TV)
 Regulation of ventilation
• Pulmonary ventilation is regulated closely to
maintain the concentration of hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and oxygen at a relatively constant levels
while meeting the needs of body water under
varying conditions .
• The regulatory mechanism is controlled by
changes in the tidal volume, frequency of
respiratory cycles. The central mediator of these
changes is the respiratory center in the brain stem,
which have four specific regions:
 Regions of respiratory center
• Pneumotaxic center – modulate respiratory center sensitivity
to inputs that activate termination of inspiration and facilitate
expiration
• Apneustic center- associated with deep inspiration ,(e.g. sigh)
• Dorsal respiratory group – group of neurons predominantly
associated with inspiratory activity , particularly involved in
lung inflation-induced termination of inspiration
• Ventral regulatory group- group of neurons containing
inspiratory and expiratory neurons( assist in inspiration begun
by those in the dorsal group and also provide for assisted
expiration
 Digestive system
• Alimentary canal is a tube extending from the
mouth down to the anus. It is through which
that food passes, is digested, absorbed and
solid waste secreted. The gastro-intestinal
tract on the other hand is only a part of the
alimentary canal which includes the stomach
and the intestines.
 Physical factors of digestion
• There are many types of gastro-intestinal
tract:
• 1. simple – monogastric
• 2. compound-ruminant
• 3. gastric complex- avian
• Non-ruminant/monogastric (simple) include the pig,
horse, rabbit, dog and cat
• Humans also have a non ruminant type of digestive
tract.
• Ruminants ( cattle, goat, and sheep) only have one
true gastric stomach but are divided into
compartments necessary for fiber digestion
• The avian GI Tract has to be distinguished from the
simple and the ruminants because it has features
that are very different from the last two mentioned.
 Physical factors of digestion
• Mouth- :
– lips, tongue, teeth, salivary glands
– Mechanical digestion-a. prehension (gathering of food)
b. mastication (chewing)
– Saliva-
– produced by 2-3 sets of salivary glands (parotid,
mandibular, sublingual)
– 99% water while the remaining 1% is mucus, enzymes,
minerals
– Functions as lubricant , emulsifying agent, and
carbohydrate digestion
 pharynx
• Component of both digestive and respiratory
tract
• Funnel-shaped that connects mouth to the
esophagus/trachea
•
 esophagus
• Muscular tube designed such that movement
of food is facilitated
• Connects the pharynx to the stomach
• Part where peristaltic terms such as
deglutition (swallowing) and
regurgitation(controlled vomiting) are
applicable
 stomach
• Monogastric: (simple stomach)- pigs, horses,
humans,dog, cat
• varies in size and shape
• Have 4 regions:
– 1. mucus producing region: a. esophageal and b. cardiac
region
– 2. glandular region: c. fundic and d. pyloric
– Fundic region cell types: chief cells (enzyme precursors)
and parietal cells (HCl)
– Control of food passage: cardiac sphincter (end of the
esophagus) ad pyloric sphincter (end of the stomach)
 Compound stomach
• Ruminants: cattle, goat, sheep
• Pseudoruminants: llama, hamster, hippopotamus,
sloth
• 4 compartments, one stomach: rumen, reticulum,
omasum, abomasum
Rumen: largest compartment 80% of total volume
– Fermentation vat/ site of microbial digestion ( more than
60 species of bacteria; 10 M bacteria/ml rumen fluid)
– Anaerobic environment
– Digestion thru microbial enzymes
 Rumen….
• Permits digestion of fiber
• Organ of absorption ; (volatile fatty acids- VFA= end
product of fermentation)
• Acetic acid (acetate), propionic acid (propionate), lactic
acid (lactate), butyric acid (butyrate), isobutyrate, valerate
and isovalerate.
• Lined with specialized structures known as papilla, have
tongue-like fat projections
• Helps increase surface area of absorption
• Mechanical digestion-continuous cycle of mixing
contractions
 rumination
Regurgitation of rumen contents for further
mastication and addition of saliva ( not a process
of fermentation); reverse peristalsis which is
important for forage utilization
Eructation- expulsion of fermentation gases
from the rumen (methane and carbon dioxide)
 Reticulum
• Reticulum:
– smallest compartment (5% of total volume)
– Honeycomb (hexagonal pattern)
– Collects heavy materials from the food consumed
– Liquid reservoir
– Softening of course materials
– Important in rumination process
– Hardware disease (ingestion of metals: nails,
wires,etc.)
 omasum
• also small- 7% of total volume
• Made up of hundreds of broad folds (many
plies) lined with small claw-like papilla
• Main function: grinding of food; regulation of
particle size; reabsorption of excess fluid
• Not essential structure because this
compartment is not found in
pseudoruminants
 abomasum
• approximately 8% of the total volume
• True glandular stomach (equivalent to that of
monogastric animals)
• Has the same regions and cell types as that of
the simple stomach (produces gastric acids
and enzymes)
 Esophageal groove/ reticular groove
• Not part of the 4 compartments
• Tube-like fold of tissue that forms channel, thru reflex
contraction, to by pass the rumen and the reticulum
• At birth, both the reticulum and rumen are under developed
while the abomasum is highly developed
• Important for suckling ruminants because it prevents the
degradation of milk
• Contraction to form the shortcut channel is stimulated by
suckling
• The ability to close diminishes with consumption of solid food
timely for the utilization of the ow functional rumen and
reticulum
 Gastric complex (avian)
• Have several separate organs:
– Diverticulum(crop)- pear-shaped pouch joined to
esophagus; reservoir/ storage of food; not found in all
birds (geese- through crop; dilatable esophagus)
– Proventriculus ( true stomach)- just like monogastric
stomach; secretes HCl, enzymes and mucus
– Ventriculus-(gizzard)-muscular grinding structure; site of
mastication fir chicken; often contains grits / stones; to
increase grain digestibility by up to 10%; kaolin yellowish
brown leathery lining the inner portion of the gizzard
– Serves as grinding pad to protect against abrasions
 Small intestine
• Duodenum: approximately first 5% of the total
length of the small intestine; attached to the
stomach and forms S-shaped; receives secretions
from the liver and pancreas
• Jejunum- approx. 90% in the idle of the total
length next to duodenum. Primary site of
absorption
• Ileum- approximately 5% of the total length; joins
the cecum, large intestine; limited absorption
 Some features of the small intestine
• Villi
– Specialized folds lining the small intestines
– Finger-like structures that appears like shag
carpet
– Increases surface area for absorption
– Covered with several types of cells:
• enterocytes (epithelial cells) ; covered with microvilli to
further increase the surface area for absorption
• Goblet cells: produce mucus
• Crypts of Lieberkuhn
– Basal pockets surrounding the villi
– Secretes water and bicarbonates
a. solubilization of food;
b. neutralize gastric acid
– Digestive hormone secretion
a. secretin- tells the pancreas to control its secretions
b. Cholecystokinin- tells the pancreas to secrete
enzymes
• Paneth cells:
• 1. Base of the crypts of Lieberkuhn
• 2. Secretes lysozymes ( antibacterial function)
Brunner’s gland
1. Secrete alkaline mucus (high pH)
2. Protects the surface against gastric acids

Peyer’s patches
3. Clusters of white blood cells facing the lumen of the intestine
4. Exposed to gut bacteria; synthesize antibodies to fight these
bacteria
5. Comprise approx.70% of the total immune system
 Accessory organs
• liver
– A. Secretes bile to the duodenum via the common bile
duct
B. The bile consists of:
– 1. bile acids : glycocholic acid
– 2. taurocholic acid
Function: emulsification of fats (formation of micelles)
C. Bile pigments: bilirubin (yellowish- orange) and
Biliverdin ( green )
D. mucus
 Gall bladder
• Storage organ of bile
• Attached to underside of the liver
• Contraction causes secretion into the common
bile duct
• Found in all livestock except horses
 pancreas
• Secretes pancreatic juice via pancreatic duct
• Responds to digestive hormones ( secretin and
cholecystokinin)
• Secretes primary digestive enzymes (for
carbohydrates, lipids, and protein digestion
 cecum
• Comma-shaped blind pouch which is
important in hind gut fermenters
– 4 ft long in a medium sized horse (4gallons)
– Fermentation of fiber (similar to rumen)
Human cecum: appendix-
- terminal end of a cecum
- Vestigial (lost of all or most of its original function
thru evolution)
- Avian cecum: paired in most birds
 Large intestines
Small in ruminants ( ileum is combined to cecum leading to the
rectum)
Different from the cecum
Have 2 main sections;;
1.large colon- large diameter and sacculated
(bumpy)
ascending, transverse, descending
2. small colon- smaller in diameter and is generally
smooth
vary in size and shape with species
spiral in ruminants; extremely short on birds.
• Limited digestion (except microbial)
• No enzyme production(minute enzyme activity
from small intestine)
• Active microbial population
• Limited absorptive capacity (no villi or papilla)
– Absorption is limited to small molecules (reabsorption of
water in small colon)
– Absorption of VFA’s especially for hindgut fermenters
– Drying of digesta to form feces
– Pellets vs patties
 Rectum/anus
• Terminal end of the alimentary canal (not part of
the intestine)
• Located within the pelvic cavity
• Sphincter muscles
• Accumulation and expulsion of feces happens
• Avian species (birds)
– Has cloaca instead of rectum
– Common to the alimentary canal and the avian
reproductive tract
– Has vent instead of anus
 Digestion process
• Digestion includes mechanical and chemical
processes. Mechanical forces include chewing
(mastication) and muscular contractions of the
gastro-intestinal tract. Chemical processes
include the actions of acids produced in the GI
tract, enzymes produced by microorganisms
located in the various parts of the GI tract.
• Digestion is simply the preparation of food
absorption. For absorption to occur, nutrients
must be broken down into very small
molecules. The basic unit of a nutrient is the
form-which is readily absorbed. The following
is a list of nutrients and their basic units:
Nutrient basic unit
Proteins amino acid
• Carbohydrates glucose(starch)
• VFA( cellulose)
• glucose and fructose
• (sucrose)
• glucose & galactose
• (lactose)
• Lipids fatty acids & glycerols
• Minerals any soluble form
• Vitamins any soluble form
• Following mechanical breakdown, the action
of enzymes is required to break nutrients
down to their basic units. Enzymes are organic
catalyst which produce changes in the
structure of nutrients which result in the
reduction to basic units. The following
summarizes the site of production and end
products of the key enzymes
• 1. saliva- salivary amylase- starch to maltose
• 2. rumen-
– Microbial cellulose-cellulose to volatile fatty acids
– Microbial amylase- starch to volatile fatty acids and lactic acids
– Microbial proteases- protein to amino acids and ammonia
– Microbial urease- urea to C02 and NH3
3. stomach, abomasum, proventriculus
- pepsin- protein polypeptides
4. pancreas- secreted into duodenum
- trypsin-protein peptides and amino acids
- chymotrypsin- protein to peptides and amino acids
- carboxypeptides-protein peptides and amino acids
 Absorption and metabolism (general)
• Absorption occurs primarily in the small intestine and
large intestines. The villi (small projections that line the
small intestine) are essential in increasing the surface area
for absorption. For ruminants, a large amount of fatty acid
is absorbed in the rumen and depends greatly on many
healthy papillae ( projections that line the rumen) .
• Absorption occurs as a result of diffusion or active
transport.
• Diffusion involves the movement of the basic units from
areas of high concentration (GI Tract) to an area of lower
concentration (the blood)
• Metabolism can occur only after the basic units
have been absorbed into the blood. Metabolism
involved all the chemical reactions performed
by the cells to use the basic units of the
nutrients for their specific functions,: glucose
for energy or amino acids for protein synthesis.
• The reactions, functions in a series described as
pathways or cycles. Ex. Embden –myer of
pathway or the Kreb’s cycle.
 Accessory digestive organs
• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• Liver
Supply secretions to the digestive tract and
provide digestion within the lumen
Additional secretions from other glands of
stomach and intestines:
- electrolytes, water, digestive enzymes, bile salts
• Combination of secretions causes dietary substances to be
degraded within the lumen , so that new substances can interact
with the epithelial enzymes.

• Salivary glands:
– 3 pairs of well defined glands:
– a. parotid
– b. mandibular
– c. sublingual
Salivary glands are serous, mucus, mixed, depending on their secretion.
- Serous secretion: is watery, clear fluid
- Mucus secretion: viscid, tenacious material that act as a protective
covering throughout the digestive tract.
• - mixed gland secretes both serous and mucous fluid
• Pancreatic gland- has both endocrine and exocrine
functions:
• Functions:
– produces hormones (endocrine) and digestive secretions
(exocrine)
Pancreas is located near the first part of duodenum.
The main pancreatic duct enters the first part of the
duodenum close to the common bile duct, which comes
from the liver.
• Sheep and goat,-a single pancreatic duct
empties directly into the common bile duct , so
that a mixture of bile and pancreatic juice
enters the duodenum ,
• Pancreatic islets (endocrine portions) are group
of cells scattered throughout the gland that
secretions are made directly into the blood:
– Beta cells produce insulin
– Alpha cells produce glucagon
 liver
• Multipurpose organ:
– produce bile and bile salts
– Its epithelial cells are metabolically active in
synthesis, storage and metabolic conversions
– Largest part of the macrophage system is present
in the liver. It is represented by fixed
macrophages, the Kupfler cells. Kupfler cells are
highly phagocytic and remove foreign materials
entering the blood from the stomach and
intestines. Also remove old and fragile RBCs
 Composition of foodstuffs
• 6 basic foodstuffs: found in varying amounts in
foods that are ingested:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– water
– Lipids
– Inorganic salts
– Vitamins
• Herbivorous animals can have a diet
consisting of roughages and concentrates
• Roughage- food that contain high percentage
of cellulose and generally low digestibility
• Concentrates- composed of seeds from plants,
mostly by products and more digestible than
roughages
 carbohydrates
• Classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or
polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides- include ribose (a five carbon sugar) :
glucose, fructose, galactose
• Disaccharides-combination of molecules of
monosaccharides: sucrose, maltose, lactose
• Disaccharides are degraded to monosaccharides through
the process of hydrolysis
• Hydrolysis-involves the cleavage of a compound by the
addition of water, the hydroxyl group being incorporated in
one fragment and the hydrogen atom in the other.
• Polysaccharides- molecules that contain
multiple number of simple sugars.
– Important to animals are starch, glycogen and
cellulose
– Starch:
• food reserve from most plants.
• serve as an excellent source of energy.
• Degraded through hydrolysis to maltose,and then to
glucose,
• Glycogen: principal carbohydrate reserve in
animals.
– Stored in liver and muscles
– Degraded to glucose as needed to provide energy

Cellulose: can be digested only by enzymes of

cellulose-splitting microorganisms that function
mainly in herbivorous animals (forestomach of
ruminants, cecum and colon of simple herbivores.
Cellulose is hydrolyzed to glucose
 proteins
• Complex, high-molecular- weight, large
colloidal molecules that contain a high
percentage of amino acids.
• Contains: Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen
• Hydrolysis of proteins yields amino acids, the
building blocks of protein.
• Essential amino acids are those that cannot be
synthesized and must be provided in the diet.
• Non essential amino acids- those that can be
synthesized by the animals in sufficient
quantity to ensure oral growth
• Essential amino acids
– Lysine
– Tryptophan
– Histidine
– Phenylalanine
– Leucine
– Isoleucine
– Methionine
– Valine
– Arginine
– threonine
 Lipids

• Fats and related substances

• Neutral fats ( triglyceides) are esters (formed) by the
reaction between acid and alcohol) produced by 3
molecules of fatty acids combining with one molecule of
glycerol.
• Phospholipid- complex lipids that contain phosphate.
They also contain glycerol, fatty acids, and a nitrogenous
base. Phospholipids are important structural elements
of cell membranes and of sphingomyelin, which occurs
in myelin sheaths of nerves.
• Thromboplastin , a lipid, is involved in blood coagulation
• Cholesterol-
– a fatty substance derived from triglycerides.
– High-molecular-weight alcohol
– Its sterol nucleus is synthesized from degradation
products if fatty acid molecules.
– Approximately 80%of all cholesterol formed in the
body is conjugated in the liver to form bile salts,
which are then transported to the intestine for use in
digestion.
– Important structural component of cell membranes
 Accessory foods
• Minerals, vitamins, water are considered to be
accessory foods and carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins are called proper foods.
• Proper foods supply energy
• Accessory foods are essential for life but do
not supply energy.
• Minerals- inorganic foodstuffs
• Ash- burned minerals
 minerals
• Essential for normal growth and reproduction of
animals.
• Macromineral groups: calcium, phosphorus,
sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, sulfur
– Important structural components of the bones and
other tissues
– Serve as important constituent of body fluids play
an important role in acid-base balance, osmotic
pressure, membrane electrical potential and nerve
transmission
• Trace minerals : elements required in smaller
amounts: cobalt, copper, iodine, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc,
chromium, flourine
• Minerals acts as catalysts for chemical
reactions
 vitamins
• Group of chemically unrelated organic
compounds essential for life.
• Function as metabolic catalysts or regulators
• Can be classified as basis of the solubility as fat-
soluble vitamins (A D E K) or water soluble
vitamins (B , C )
• All vitamins are required for normal function in
all animals, and for most diet must supply them
if the animal is to function normally.
• Some animals are capable to synthesize
vitamins needed for their body:
– Ruminants- microbes are capable of producing
many water soluble B vitamins
 Pre-Gastric mechanical function
• Stomach- first major organ for digestion
• 1. prehension: first mechanical function
necessary for the digestive process.
– seize and convey food into the mouth
– Prehensile structures in domestic animals: lips, teeth
tongue
– Highly mobile upper lip is useful prehensile organ in
horse
– In the pasture, the horse uses its incisor teeth to
sever grass
• Cattle uses its tongue as prehensile organ.
• in cattle-because of its use as prehensile organ,the tongue
is vulnerable to injury
• Wooden tongue is a chronic inflammation caused by an
organism introduced through an eating-associated injury.
• In sheep- tongue is an active prehensile organ. Cleft, upper
lip facilitate grazing close to the ground
• Pigs- heavy snout and pointed lower jaw are adapted for
rooting
• Dogs and cats-convey water to their mouth whereby the tip
of tongue is contracted to form a laddle
• Other domestic animals including pigeon drink by
suction
• Most birds drink by dipping their beak to fill with
water then lift their head to allow water to enter
esophagus by gravity
• Mastication (chewing)-mechanical breakdown of
food in the mouth; bolus of food is formed during
mastication process
• Deglutition-act of swallowing or conveying of food
from mouth into the stomach
• 3 stages of swallowing reflexes:
– Voluntary- through the mouth
– Reflex- through the pharynx
– Reflex- through the esophagus

Unconscious animal can inhale vomitus because of lack of

the voluntary state and because the reflex centers are
depressed and do not respond to receptor stimulation in
the mouth and pharynx. The reflexes move the food and
close the glottis and nasal cavity, thereby preventing the
food from entering these parts
 Function of the stomach
• Mechanical function: storage of ingested food,
mixing the food with secretions, control of the
emptying of contents.
• Parts of the stomach: fundus, carpus, antrum
– Fundus-receives and stores contents by adapting to its
volume so that excessive pressure does not develop
– Corpus- mixing vat of saliva, food, and gastric secretions
– Antrum- serve as pump by regulating the propulsion of
food past the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum
 Delay of gastric emptying
• Inhibition of gastric emptying is produced through a
neural mechanism (enterogastric reflex) and an
endocrine mechanism ( enterogastrone reflex)
• Osmoreceptor- important receptor present in the
duodenum, monitors he osmotic pressure of the
material entering the duodenum.
• The osmoreceptors detect the hypertonicity and
inhibit gastric emptying via a neural mechanism so
that slow emptying occurs and rapid loss of water
from the blood is prevented
 Neural mechanism mediation
• Excess protein and carbohydrate is effective in
inhibiting gastric emptying.
• Other receptors respond to high hydrogen ion
concentrations and cause delays in gastric
emptying until gastric contents previously
emptied into the duodenum has been
neutralized by the secretions from the
pancreas and the liver.
 Hormonal mechanism mediation
• Response to lipids entering the duodenum.
• Cholecystokinin is released in response to the
presence of lipids, and delayed emptying
provides sufficient time for fat digestion.
• GIP (gastric inhibitory polypeptide)- hormone
secreted by the jejunal mucosa in response to
the presence of lipids and carbohydrate and
also cause delay in gastric emptying
Factors that delay gastric emptying
• 1. enterogastric reflexes ( neural mechanisms)
• a. osmoreceptors in the duodenum respond to hypertonic
content ( hypertonicity can be caused by the presence of
products of protein and carbohydrate digestion as well as
electrolytes)
• b. hydrogen ion receptors in the duodenum respond to high
hydrogen ion concentration
• 2. enterogastrone reflexes (endocrine mechanisms)
• a. cholecystokinin released from the duodenal mucosa in
response to lipids
• b. GIP released from jejunal mucosa in response to lipids and
carbohydrates
 Emesis (vomiting)
• Emptying of the cranial part of the duodenum and
stomach in an orad direction.
• A protective mechanism that helps prevent absorption
of noxious substances
• In ruminants, occurs as an ejection of abomasal
content into the fore stomachs. Ejection does not occur
• Horses: vomiting is rare because of difficulty in opening
the cardia.
• Vomiting reflex is controlled by a vomiting center in the
brain
 Small intestines
• Provide movements that mix and propel contents as
digestion proceeds.
• Flow of contents must be controlled by:
• 1. provide proper mixing of luminal contents with
pancreatic enzymes and bile,
• 2. provide time for luminal digestion of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins for maximum exposure of digested
nutrients to the mucosa of small intestine
• Delay transport time in ileum occur because of the greater
number of segmental contractions and fewer peristaltic
contractions.
• Hormones that control rate of passage of
intestinal contents:
• Secretin,- inhibits intestinal motility
• cholecystokinin and gastrin stimulate small
intestine motility.
 Large intestines
• Provides microbial activity
 Stress management
• Always keep a healthy lifestyle
• Diet, patience, schedule time to leave not to
be caught in traffic, resilient, exercise
• Prayer and music
• Think positive, change mood
• Take your maintenance medicine
 pastillas
• Condense milk, vanilla, skim milk, food
coloring, form
 evaluation
• The reactions and conversions necessary to provide
energy, build tissues, and synthesize secretions are
collectively known as intermediary metabolism.
• For the sheep, the dental formula 2(0/4-0/0-3/3-3/3)
would indicate that the sheep has eight incisors in the
lower jaw of its mouth.
• A “smooth mouth” in a horse is seen when the inner
enamel ring disappears in all of the lower incisors and is
replaced by the dental star (occurs at 11 to 13 year of age)
• Mobility of the tongue of domestic animals is facilitated by
three-directional muscle fibers.
 Urinary system
• Consist of the major parts:
– Kidneys
– Ureters
– Bladders
– Urethra
 kidneys
• Paired; located ventral to the lumbar
vertebrae in the abdominal cavity.
• Closely attached to the abdominal wall by
fascia, vessels, and the peritoneum
• Cow and hen- their kidneys are lobulated
• Horse- right is heart –shaped and left is bean-
shaped
• Swine and sheep- bean shaped
 Gross structure of kidney
Outer tissue layer is called renal cortex
• Inner portion is renal medulla
• Medulla connects with the expanded beginning of the
ureter.
• microscopically, the cortex of the kidney is composed of
thousands of tiny tubules that begin in a blind sac, called
Bowman’s capsule, which is intimately associated with
blood capillaries. These tubules join together in the
medulla, forming larger and larger tubes, which
eventually empty into the central cavity (pelvis of the
kidney), continuous with the ureter
• Blood is conveyed to the kidney through the
renal artery and distributed to glomeruli,
which consist of a group of capillaries
surrounded by Bowman’s capsule.

• The urinary system is responsible for

maintaining the relatively constant internal
environment of the body fluids.
• This is accomplished by the formation and
excretion of urine of an appropriate volume
and composition. Urine formation occurs in
the kidneys, and by adjusting the volume and
composition of urine in response to changes in
dietary intake or metabolism, the kidneys
regulate the body balance of water, various
electrolytes, acids and bases
• Kidneys play a prominent role in regulating:
– The concentration of metabolic wastes
– The osmotic pressure
– The fluid volume
– The ionic composition of our internal environment
The kidneys are commonly described as excretory
organs but actually, they are primary organs which
regulate volume and composition of the internal fluid
environment . Their excretory function is incidental to
their regulatory function
• The kidney aids in keeping the composition of the
blood plasma by:
– The excretion of urea and other nitrogenous waste
products of metabolism
– The elimination of excess inorganic salts
– Elimination of excess water
– Elimination of non-volatile, soluble foreign substances that
may have gained entrance to the blood
– Excrete metabolic waste products in the urine, including
nitrogenous wastes, urea ad a by-product of skeletal
muscle- metabolism, creatinine
 Function of the kidneys
1. - one function of the kidneys is to filter waste products from
blood. Waste products are voided from the kidneys in urine that
flows steadily into ureters and then into the bladder. The neck of
the bladder is continuous with the urethra caudally.
- Urine normally contains various mineral salts; urea from
protein metabolism;,uric acid from metabolism of a modified
protein-called nucleo-protein and muscle; ad other materials…
2. Kidneys also function to regulate the blood composition and to
maintain the internal normal conditions for maintenance of life.
If both kidneys cease functioning, life ceases.
 kidneys
• Composite organ that consists of thousands of millions
of similar microscopic units, the nephrons ( the
functional unit of the kidneys)
• NEPHRON
– Consists of a spherical structure, (Bow man’s capsule that
contains a capillary tuft (glomerulus) and a single long tubule
connected to Bowman’s capsule
– Bowman’s capsule : consists of 2 layers of cells:
– - 1. visceral layer (inner), surrounds the glomerular capillaries
– 2. parietal layer (outer), continues with the first segment of
the tubule
• The single tubule is divided into segments based on
the differences in histological appearance, location
in the kidney, and function. They are named as:
– A. proximal tubule (convoluted)-longest and make up
the most renal cortex
– B. loop of Henle- descending limb of loop of Henle
– - ascending limb of loop of Henle (impermeable to
water)
– C. distal tubule (convoluted)
– D. other segments of loop of Henle
 Distal tubules
• Made of numerous nephrons, connect to another
tubular structure found in the kidney, the collecting
duct (tubule). Collecting ducts begin in the renal
cortex ,where they connect with distal tubules and
extend into and through the renal medulla.

• 3 processes involved in urine formation:

– A. glomerular filtration
– B. selective tubular reabsorption
– C. selective tubular secretion
 Urine formation
• As blood flows through glomeruli, a large quantity
of filtrate is –formed , enters the urinary space of
Bowman’s capsule. From here the filtrate flows
through the tubules and collecting ducts where
tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion alter its
volume and composition.
• Tubular reabsorption is the removal of substance
from the tubular fluid by the tubular cells; these
substances are usually returned to the blood in the
peritubular capillaries
• Tubular secretion is the addition of substances to
the tubular fluid by tubule cells. The secreted
substances are produced in the tubule cell (e.g.
hydrogen ion and ammonia) or take up by the
tubule cells from the blood in the peritubular
capillaries (e.g. pharmaceuticals )
• Afferent arterioles lead into the glomeruli
• Efferent arterioles leave the glomeruli
• Micturition- term used for expulsion of urine from
the bladder
 Reproductive system
• 2 forms if reproduction:
– 1. Asexual – does not require sex organ to facilitate the
perpetuation of the species.
– -common in unicellular organisms as well as in some
plants. Unicellular organisms may multiply by fission
wherein the individual organism may divide into two
individual cells.
– 2. sexual reproduction – male and female sex organs are
involved in the process of propagation . The union of sex
cells, ovum and sperm cell are involved to form a new
individual. ( form of reproduction in man, and animals)
 Male reproductive system
• Main sex organ is the testis
• In birds, the two testes are located within the body cavity in
the dorso- lumbar region
• In farm animals, the testes are located outside the body
cavity within the scrotum
• Scrotum- the cutaneous sac that serves as the external
covering of the testes
– Function of scrotum:
– A. protects the testes from direct mechanical injuries
– B. provide an environment which is a few degrees (6-9 F) cooler
than the body temperature required for normal spermatogenesis
• Thermoregulatory muscles of testes are the
cremaster muscle and dartos muscle
• During fetal development, the initial development
of the testes starts inside the body cavity.
• As the fetus grows, the testes start to descent to
the scrotum through the inguinal canal. In certain
instances, when both testes fail to descend to the
scrotal sac, the individual is said to be a bilateral
cryptorchid, hence sterile
• Unilateral cryptorchid- when only one testes
descend to the scrotal sac. Capable of
fertilization. This condition is heritable, hence
must be culled.

• 2 main function of testes:

– 1. production of sperm cells
– 2. production of sex hormone, testosterone
 testosterone
• Male sex hormone responsible for the
development of the secondary sex characters.
• Male characteristics:
– Muscular development at the rear quarters and
shoulders
– Aggressiveness and libido when confronted with
an in heat female animal of the same species are
governed or influenced by the hormone
testosterone
• The seat of spermatozoa production in a testis is
the seminiferous tubules:
– the seminiferous tubules join together to form the
rete testis and come out of the testis as vasa
efferentia. The vasa efferentia converged to form the
head of the epididymis, then the body and tail of the
epididymis
– The convoluted epididymis straightens up to form the
vas deferens which then enters the inguinal canal and
enlarges to form the ampulla . The ampulla then joins
with the urethra of the penis
• Penis- male organ of copulation and serves to
introduce the spermatozoa into the female
reproductive tract.
• 3 accessory glands which contribute to the
bulk of the semen ejaculate:
– a. seminal vesicles
– b. prostate gland
– c. Cowper’s gland or bulbo-urethral gland
 semen
• Consists of sperm cells plus secretion of the 3
accessory glands. In vasectomized animals, the vas
deferens are severed, thus the ejaculate consists only
of the secretions of the accessory glands – making the
vasectomized male is sterile without losing its libido.
• Castrated animals of both testes are removed thus
rendering the male sterile with loss of libido
• Secretion of accessory glands serve as the vehicle for
the transport of the spermatozoa from the vagina to
the oviduct
• Secretion of the glands also stimulates spermatozoa
activity and serve as the lubricating substance during
copulation particularly the secretions of the bulbo-
urethral gland.
• The seat of spermatogenesis is the seminiferous tubules.
– FSH stimulates the germinal epithelium lining the
seminiferous tubules to initiate spermatogenesis up to the
secondary spermatocytes stage
– LH stimulates the interstitial cells or the cells of Leydig to
secrete testosterone; testosterone is required for the final
maturation of the spermatozoa
• FSH and LH are required for normal
spermatogenesis. FSH has a direct influence on
spermatogenesis. LH stimulates testosterone
secretion for the final maturation of the
spermatogenesis.
• The level of testosterone in circulation also serve as
the negative feedback in controlling LH production by
the sertoli cells in the seminiferous inhibin, produced
by the sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules, has a
negative feedback effort on FSH secretion.
• Testicular and epididymal sperm cells are non-
motile. They become motile only when they
are suspended in a fluid and this occurs when
they come in contact with the secretion of the
accessory glands.
 spermatozoa
• Normal spermatozoa consists of:
– Head: covered by protoplasmic cap (galea capitis)
and the shape is flattened ovoid in a bull. Ram,
boar, rabbit,; rounded in man; varies in rat,
rooster, salamander
– Neck or mid-piece of tail : composed of several
strands or fibrils which are covered by a sheath.
– Tip of tail-the fibrils flare out into a naked brush.
 Common abnormalities encountered in a
semen sample
• Sperm cells are protoplasmic droplets at mid-piece
• Headless or tailless
• Giant and miniature heads
• Bent
• Coiled
• Shoe-hooked tailed sperm cells
When sperm abnormalities in a semen ejaculate are
about 50% of the total sperm cell counts, the male is
considered sterile
• Abnormal sperms are often seen in males
suffering from :
– fever,
– Males used too frequently
– Too young
When the number of dead sperms in a semen
ejaculate is 50% in a dead-alive staining technique,
the male have impaired fertility if not sterile
 Female reproductive system
• Female reproductive system includes the pair
of ovaries and the accessory reproductive
organ
• Ovaries- principal sex organs in female

• 2 functions:
– Production of ovum or sex cell
– Production of female sex hormone- estrogen
 ovaries
• Ovaries are almond –shaped bodies attached
by the broad ligament to the dorsal wall in the
sub- lumbar region of the body cavity.
• The outer layer (cortex) of the ovary is made
up of germinal epithelium with a very large
number of primary follicles each of which
contains blood vessels, nerves, ganglion cells,
stroma and embryonic vestiges
 Accessory reproductive tract includes:
• Infundibulum
• Oviducts
• Uterus (horn and body)
• Cervix
• Vagina
• vulva
• Infundibulum- funnel shaped structure which picks up
the egg when released by the ovary. The picking up of
the egg is believed to evolve the active participation of
the cilia-like structures at the rim of the infundibular
funnel which attract the eggs into the infundibulum.
• Oviduct- a tubular structure connecting the
infundibulum to the horn of the uterus. It serves as the
passage way of the egg on its way to the uterus. It is
the site of fertilization and the beginning of embryonic
development after fertilization
• Horn of the uterus- is the organ which serves as the
site of implantation for the fertilized egg. This is
where the fetus would develop during the stage of
pregnancy in gestating animals. The body of the
uterus unites the two horns of the uterus and
connects them to the cervix
• Cervix- is sometimes considered as the neck of the
uterus. Its opening, os uteri, closes when the animal
gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents.it
serves as the receptacle in certain animals.
• Vagina- the primary organ of copulation. It
serves as the receptacle of the sperm cells in
many species. It comprises a part of the birth
canal of the animal at parturition.
• Vulva-common passage way for the products of
reproduction and for urine. Vulva of mammals is
comparable to the ventral. It is also homologous
with the scrotum of the male , since both are
derived from the same embryological structure.
• Clitoris- a rudimentary organ located in the ventral
commissure of the vulva in mammals. It is
homologous to the glans penis of the male
• Broad ligament- suspends the female genital system
from the dorsolateral wall of the pelvic canal
– Specialized region of the broad ligament:
a. Mesometrium- that portion of the broad ligament
which suspends the anterior portion of the vagina, the
cervix and the uterus and comprises the major portion of
the broad ligament
• b. mesosalpinx- a lateral fold on the anterior
portion of the broad ligament which suspends the
oviduct (salpinx)
• c. mesovarium- specialized portion of the anterior
edge of the broad ligament which suspend the
ovary proper. In some species a pocket-like
structure called Bursa is formed by fusion of two
or more of the mesovarium , mesosalpinx and the
infundibulum. It encloses, more or less completely
the ovary.
• A blind pouch opening into the floor of the genital
tract at the external urethral opening of the
junction between the vagina and the vulva is the
sub – urethral diverticulum. The neck of the
bladder opens through the roof of the sub urethral
diverticulum. The relationship of the neck of the
bladder to the blind pouch and hence to the
external urethral opening would appear to be
safety feature to prevent entrance of foreign
objects into the urinary bladder proper
 Ovary and estrus cycle
• Ovaries:
– Paired glands that provide for the development of
oocytes and production of hormones.
– Located caudal to its respective right or left kidney and is
suspended from the dorsal wall of the abdomen as a
reflection of the peritoneum, and the mesovarium
– The pendulous suspension of the ovaries provides for
easy manipulation by rectal palpation of the cow and
horse
– Sow ovary resembles a cluster of grapes (berry shape)
because of the larger number of protruding follicles.
• Ovulation- release of mature oocytes occurs
throughout the entire surface of the ovary in most
species but is confined to an ovarian fossa in the
mare. This gives the bean -shaped ovary of the mare
• Structure of ovary:
– Has a superficial layer of epithelium that is underlain by
the tunica albuginea. Beneath is the cortex which
contains a large mass of follicles in various stages of
development. The medulla is centrally located and
contains loose connective tissue, blood vessels,
lymphatics and nerves
 Ovarian follicles
• Primary-(primordial) follicles contain a single
oocyte that is surrounded by a single layer of
granulosa cells.
• Oocytes are derived from mitosis of oogonia
in the embryonic genital ridge that then
migrate to the ovary.
• Oogenesis- the process by which oocytes are
formed
• Tubular genital tract- location for transport of
spermatozoa to the oocyte. If fertilization
occurs, the tract becomes the site for
development of fetus
• Uterine tubes- / oviducts/ fallopian tubes-
paired convoluted tubules,
Hormones of female reproduction
• Hormones associated with ovarian cycling,
pregnancy, and parturition:
– Estrogens
– Progesterone
– gonadotropins
 estrogens
• Important estrogens in mammals are steroids
produced by the ovary (granulosa cells of
follicles),placenta, and adrenal cortex.
• Diethylstilbestrol- a synthetic estrogen, not a
steroid, but with estrogenic properties.
• Estradiol 17Beta and estrone are estrogens
that predominate in domestic nonpregnant
and pregnant animals
• principal function of estrogens
– Cause cellular proliferation
– Growth of tissues related to reproduction

Tissue responses caused by estrogens:

1. Stimulation of endometrial gland growth
2. Stimulation of duct growth in the mammary gland
3. Increase in secretory activity of uterine ducts
4. Initiation of sexual receptivity
• 5. regulation of secretion of luteinizing
hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary gland
• 6. possible regulation of prostaglandin release
from the nongravid and gravid uterus
• 7. early union f the epiphysis with the shafts of
long bones, whereby growth of long bones,
ceases
• 8. protein metabolism
• 9. epitheliotropic activity
• Protein anabolic effect of estrogens is less
pronounced than that of the testosterone.
• Epitheliotropic function manifests at estrus
when the epithelium in the vagina proliferates
and cornification is more prevalent
 progesterone
• steroid sex hormone produced by the corpus luteum
(CL) of the ovary; placenta, and adrenal cortex
• Progestins- synthetic and natural progestational
agents

• Functions of progesterone:
– 1. Promotion of endometrial gland growth
– 2. Stimulation of secretory activity of the oviduct and
endometrial glands to provide nutrients for the
developing embryo before implantation
 Function of progesterone…..
• 3. promotion of lobualveolar growth in the
mammary gland
• 4. prevention of contractility of the uterus
during pregnancy
• 5. regulation of secretion of gonadotropins
 gonadotropins
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• FSH and LH are hormones secreted by the
anterior pituitary gland. These are chemically
classified as glycoproteins
• Glycoproteins- a conjugated protein in which a
nonprotein group is a carbohydrate.
• Main function of FSH in female is promotion of the growth of
follicles
• LH is important for the ovulatory processes and the
luteinization of the granulosa, the essential aspect of CL
formation
• Release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary is
controlled by the releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.
• Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) – a secretion from
the sensing cells in the hypothalamus
• GnRH is secreted in response to low levels of LH or FSH and is
then followed by secretion of LH and FSH
• When reproductive cycling begins, select
follicles within the ovary are influenced by the
hormones and proceed thru growth and
maturity, followed by ovulation, corpus
luteum development and its regression. These
changes reoccur for other follicles at intervals
characteristic for a species
 FOLLICULAR GROWTH
• Puberty- beginning of reproductive life.in
female, beginning of ovarian activity.
• Formation of graafian follicles from growing
follicles is hormone dependent, and begins at
puberty when tonic levels of LH and FSH begin
to rise and fall with each estrus cycle.
• LH receptors form on the cells of theca interna
• FSH receptors form on the granulosa cells
• Androgens are produced from the theca
interna during the hormone dependent stage ,
under the influence of LH
• Granulosa cells convert androgens to
estrogens under the influence of FSH
 ovulation
• When oocyte is released into the abdomen from its
protruding follicle
• At ovulation, the oocyte together with its surrounding
cells and gelatinous mass is swept into the uterine tubes
by the motility of the fimbriae
• Ovulation is spontaneous (no stimulation needed) in all
domestic species except the cat
• Non spontaneous ovulators : cat, mink, rabbit, ferret, are
reflex ovulators ; coitus is required for ovulation to occur
• Coital contact brings forth LH surge
 Persistent corpus luteum
• Prolonged luteal phase beyond 14 days
• Presence of persistent corpus luteum prevents a
return of follicular phase and its next ovulation.
• Reason for presence of persistent corpus luteum
– Failure of the endometrium to synthesize
prostaglandin
– Failure is caused by an acute or chronic endometrial
inflammation
Summary of ovarian cycle of events
• 1. after regression of CL, (luteolysis ), FSH and LH secretion
increases (because of a decrease in the concentration of
progesterone)
• 2. LH stimulates secretion of androgens by the theca interna
cells, which diffuse into the granulosa cells
• 3. FSH stimulates conversion of androgen to estrogen by the
granulosa cell , and the estrogen concentration gradually
increases
• 4. FSH stimulates the formation of LH receptors on the
granulosa cells
• 5. antrum is formed by granulosa cells from estrogen-rich fluid
• 6. the gradually increasing estrogen concentration causes
preovulatory surge of LH release
• 7. LH surge promotes the maturation of oocytes by resuming
meiosis through the first polar body stage
• 8. LH surge promotes the intrafollicular production of
prostaglandins A (PGA) and E (PGE),associated with rupture of
the follicle
• 9. production of PGA and PGE form multivesicular bodies
(MVB),and forms the out pocket of the exposed theca externa
• 10. LH surge causes reduction in the number of FSH receptors
on the granulosa cells, so rate of conversion of androgen to
estrogen diminishes
 Factors related to female reproduction
• Mare
– Onset of puberty (OP)- 18day mos ((10-24mos)
– Age at first service (AFS)- 2-3yrs
– Length of estrus cycle (LEC)- 21(10-21) days
– Length of estrus (LE)- 5 days
– Gestation period- (days)- 336 (323-341)
Cow
- OP – 4- 24mos
- AFS- 14-22 mos
- EC- 21- days (18-24) days
- LE- 18hrs (12-28 hrs)
- Gestation period- 280 (274-291)days

-
• Animal onset puberty age first service
• Ewe 4-12 mos 16 mos (14-20mos)
• sow - 7 mos 8-10mos
• Bitch 6-24mos 12-18mos
• Animal estrus cycl estrus gestation pd
• Ewe 16 (14-20) ; 24-48hr 150 days(140-
160)
• Sow 21(18-24)mos 2days 114 days(110-
116)
• Bitch 6-12mos 9days (5-19) 63days(60-65)
Ovulation time (ot); optimum breeding time
(obt) ; time to breed after parturition (tbp)
• Animal ot obt tbp
• Mare1-2 D 3-4 d 25-35d
– Before end estrus b4 end estrus second
estrus
Cow 10-15H middle estrus 60-90dafter end estrus
Ewe 12-24H b4 end 18-24H next fall
of estrus after estrus
sow 30-36H after 12-30Hafter 3-9d
estrus onset estrus onset after wean
Bitch 1-2dafter onset 10-14d after onset 2-3 mos>wean
of true estrus proestrus bleeding pups
• What hormone is required for the initiation of
sexual receptivity in all animals?
– Estrogen derived from the antral follicle
– Bitch, ewe, sow, cow-, progesterone acts
synergistically with estrogen for manifestation of
receptivity
• Estrus cycle- the rhythmic phenomenon
observed in all mammals involving regular but
limited periods of sexual receptivity (estrus)
that occur at intervals characteristic of each
species
• One cycle interval / ovulatory interval- the
time from the onset of 1 period of sexual
receptivity to the next.
• Monoestrus animals- characterized by
experiencing estrus once each year. Ex. Most
wild carnivorous animals, bitch
• Polyestrous animals- one that has repeated
estrus cycles; more than one estrus cycles
• Seasonally polyestrus animals- one that has
repeated estrus cycles within a physiologic
breeding season
 Stages of estrus cycle
• According to behavioral changes or ovarian
changes:
• 1. estrus : time of sexual receptivity; referred to as
heat; ovulation usually occurs at the end of estrus
• 2. metestrus- early post ovulatory period. CL
begins to develop
• 3. diestrus- the period of mature luteal activity
which begins about 4 days after ovulation and
ends with regression of the CL.
• 4. proestrus- the period beginning after CL
regression and ending at the onset of estrus.
Rapid follicle development leads to ovulation
and to the onset of sexual receptivity
• Follicular periods are characterized by estrogen
dominance.
• Estrus- sexually receptive
• Diestrus, metestrus, proestrus - sexually
nonreceptive
 photoperiod
• Relative lengths of alternating periods of
lightness and darkness
• Among domestic animals, the seasonal
breeders are queen, doe, ewe, mare. These
are sexually inactive during certain times of
the year. The resumption of sexual activity is
correlated with conception, so that birth
occurs when the environmental conditions are
conducive to the survival of the young.
 Species characteristics
• A. cow:
• Smaller breeds of cows reach puberty earlier than the
larger breeds like the jersey- 8mos,; holstein-11 mos ;
• Signs of estrus:
– restlessness;
– mounting activity;
– standing to be mounted;
– being more alert to other animals decreased appetite;
decreased milk production;
– mucus discharge from the vulva; redness and relaxation of
the vulva
• Cow…
• Estrus detection is very important to determine the
correct time of artificial insemination
• Ovulate 12-24 hours after estrus
• Artificial insemination must be done 1 hour after the
beginning of estrus.
• Insemination precedes ovulation and optimum
fertilization is coupled with expected spermatozoon
and oocyte life and with capacitation
• Capacitation refers to a modification of
ejaculated or inseminated spermatozoa within
the female reproductive tract, enabling
spermatozoa to fertilize oocytes.
• Fertile life for bovine spermatozoa (time in
female genitalia) is 30-48 hrs and for bovine
oocytes (after ovulation is 20-24 hours)
• Mare:
• Onset of puberty-12 to 18 months
• Duration of estrus-5-6 days
• Ovulation- -6 hrs before end of estrus
• Signs of estrus:
– Elevation of tail; standing with hind legs apart;
– Squatting and urinating
– Rhythmically erecting the clitoris
 ewe
• Puberty- 8-9 mos
• Estrus cycle is shorter than other domestic species
because the antral phase of follicle growth is 3 -4
days shorter.
• Physiologic breeding last 6-7 mos causing repeated
estrus cycle in the absence of pregnancy
• signs of estrus:
– Fluttering of tail
– Females separated from the males by a barrier often
assume a close proximity to the barrier
 sow
• Puberty- 7 mos,
• Ovulation rate pronounced on third estrus
• signs :
• Swelling of the vulva
• Restlessness
• Decreased appetite
• Rigidity reflex when pressure is applied on sow’s back
• Ovulation comes from both ovaries 14-16 oocytes can
be released.
 doe
• Puberty- 8-9 mos
• Signs of estrus: fluttering of tail
• Pseudopregnancy is a condition in which a
female has most signs of pregnancy but is not
pregnant
 Pregnancy and parturition
• Terminologies:
– Pregnancy- the condition of a female animal while
young are developing within the uterus
– Gestation period- the interval between pregnancy
that extends from fertilization of the ovum to the
birth of the offspring.
– Fertilization-the union of the ovum ad the sperm
– Placentation- the development of fetal membranes
• Full term pregnancy- young is carried
throughout a normal gestation period
• premature birth- is delivery of a viable fetus
before fetal development is complete
• Abortion- termination of pregnancy with
delivery of nonviable fetus
 Stages of gestation/pregnancy
• Fertilization
• Early embryonic development in the lumen of
the female reproductive tract
• Implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall
• Placentation- the development of fetal
membranes
• Continued growth of the fetus
 fertilization
• Major factor in the transport of spermatozoa
to the site of fertilization is the muscular
activity of the tubular genitalia following
insemination.
• Cow- time required for spermatozoa to travel
to the site of fertilization is 2.5 minutes.
Calculated speed of bull spermatozoa would
take 1.5 hours to swim and reach the site of
fertilization
• Oxytocin- a peptide hormone from the
neurohypophysis, promotes muscular activity of the
female genitalia to assist with spermatozoa
transport. It is released in the cow during natural
mating and during artificial insemination as a result
of neural reflex initiated by physical stimulation of
the female tract.
• Spermatozoa must remain in the female
reproductive tract for some period after ejaculation
before they are capable of fertilization.
• Capacitation- the process to convert non
fertile spermatozoa to fertile. It include
changes or removal of components of the
outer acrosome and plasma membranes so
that acrosomal enzymes can later be released
and activated. Part of the natural capacitation
process requires exposure of spermatozoa to
female reproductive tract secretions
• Length of fertility in the female reproductive tract
is :
– Ewe: 30-48 hours
– Cow— 28- 50 hours
– Mare: 144 hours
Motility may last somewhat longer than fertility.
Spermatozoa has limited viability. Insemination must
occur within hours of ovulation so that viable
spermatozoa are present when ova arrive for fertilization.
Sexual receptivity begins hours prior to ovulation
 Early embryonic development
• 1. At ovulation, zona pellucida surrounds the
vitilline membrane of the ovum.
• a. Zona pellucida- thick structure consisting of
crosslinked glycoproteins
• b. Vitilline membrane- cell membrane or
plasma membrane
• c. cumulus oophorus- variable number of
granulosa cells that surrounds the zona
• 2. cumulus oophorus- variable number of granular cells that
surrounds the zona. Microvilli from the vitelline membrane of
the ovum penetrate the zona. The first polar body is results
from he first meiotic division, also accompanies the ovulated
ovum within the zona.
• Zona pellucida, a semipermeable membrane, helps protect
the ovum and has a receptor site for the attachment of
spermatozoa during fertilization.
• ZP3- a specific protein in the zona serve as the binding site for
spermatozoa. Every species have specific protein, the reason
why spermatozoa from one species cannot bind to and
fertilize ova from other species
• 3. just after binding and attachment to the zona, , the
spermatozoa undergoes series of acrosome reactions. Locally
released acrosome enzymes digest passage through the zona to
permit spermatozoa to swim their way to the vitelline
membrane of the ovum. (accomplished in a matter of minutes).
• 3. after penetration of the zona, the spermatozoon attaches to
and fuses with the vitelline membrane of the ovum. This initiate
the second meiotic division by the ovum which result to the
formation of the second polar body. Fusion stimulates release
of cytoplasmic granules by the ovum that will bring about
changes in the chemical nature of the zona pellucida. The
changes prevents penetration by other spermatozoa
• Polyspermy- entry of more than one spermatozoon
into the ovum. When polyspermy is accomplished,
it will cause early embryonic death
• 4. maternal pronucleus – formed in the ovum by
enclosure of the maternal chromosomes in a
nuclear membrane. Head of the sperm enlarges,
becoming the male pronucleus. The 2 pronuclei
fuse to form the genetic material of both parents.
The new cell is ready for cleavage and formation
of the morula.
• 5. during early development, the embryo is
not attached to the uterine wall. Embryos
obtain nourishment from the fluids and
nutrients secreted by glands in the walls of
the reproductive organs.
• 6. progesterone stimulates secretion by
endometrial glands in the walls of the uterus.
Blood levels of progesterone is high and Is
secreted from the ovarian corpura lutea.
• 7. maternal recognition of pregnancy- detection of
a developing embryo which prevents regression
of the progesterone- secreting corpora lutea.
• Mechanisms involved Secretory products from
the developing embryo:
– Proteins or steroids act locally within the reproductive
tract.
– Embryonic secretory products inhibit the uterine
secretion of prostaglandin F2a (PGF2a). Secretion of
PGF2a is the key hormonal signal that causes leutolysis
• 8. embryos develop the blastula stage while
still enclosed in a zona pellucida.
• Zona is shed (hatching) prior to attachment of
the embryo to the uterine wall for
placentation.
• Trophoblast- the outermost layer of cells of
the blastula. Origin of fetal membranes
• Early embryonic death is responsible for a
significant number of reproductive failures in
domestic animals
• Possible cause of early embryonic death:
– Inherited lethal factors
– Infection
– Nutritional deficiencies
– Inappropriate level of maternal hormones
– Defects in ovum r spermatozoon before fertilization
 Implantation/placentations
• Implantation- attachment of a blastula to the uterine epithelium
and penetration of the epithelium by the embryonic tissue.
• Sow- attachment occurs after 11 days
• Cow- 35 days
• Mare – 55 days
• Developing embryo migrate within the lumen of the uterus
before implantation. In Litter –bearing animals, migration
permits spacing of embryos to allow adequate room for
development.
• Placentation- development of extra embryonic membranes or
placenta.
• Placenta is the site for exchanges between
maternal and fetal circulations, so that nutrition
from the dam reach the fetus and waste products
from the fetus can be transferred to the dam.
• Maternal placenta or decidua is a portion of the
endometrium of the dam and is shed at
parturition
• Fetal placenta: include the chorion , allantois,
amnion, vestigial yolk sac.
• Chorion- outermost membrane, is in contact
with the maternal endometrium.
• Allantois- encloses the sac. Chorion ad outer
layer of the allantois fuse to form the chorio-
allantois
• Allantoic cavity – first water bag
• Amnion- innermost membrane, closest to fetus.
Fluid filled cavity that contains the fetus.
• Fluid filled amniotic cavity – second water bag
• Amniotic fluid- derived from fetal urine from
the urethra, from secretions from the
respiratory tract and oral cavity and from the
maternal circulation.
– Protects fetus from external shock, prevent
adhesion of fetal skin with amniotic membrane,
and assists in dilating the cervix and lubricating
the birth passage at parturition
• Umbilical arteries and veins run through the
connective tissues between the chorion and
the allantois. Umbilical arteries carry
unoxygenated blood from fetus to the
placenta. Umbilical vein carry oxygenated
blood from the placenta to the fetus.
• Blood from fetus never mixes with blood from
the dam.
 Classification of placenta
• Epitheliochorial- chorion of fetus is in direct contact with the
epithelium of the uterus of the dam. Ex. Cow, ewe, mare, sow
• Hemochorial- fetal vessels and chorion are invaginated into
pools of maternal blood. (humans and rodents)
• Endotheliochorial- chorion is in direct contact with the
endothelium of blood vessels of the dam. (carnivores,
• diffused placenta- (Chorionic villi- in mares and sow-
extensions of the chorion project into crypts scattered over the
entire endometrium
• Cotyledonary (ruminants-) exchange takes place at structures
termed placentomeres
• Placentomeres are formed by invagination of a specific
region of fetal chorionic tissue. (cotyledon) , into a
mushroom like projection from the surface of the
endometrium (caruncles), project out from the surface of
the uterus. The size increases as pregnancy progresses
• Hemochorial (discoidal) placenta- attached to the uterus
in a disk-shaped area only. (carnivores)
– Attached in a girdle -like band.
– Zonary attachment
– Deciduate. A portion of the maternal endometrium or
maternal placenta is shed at the time of parturition
• Most domestic animals have an indiciduate
placenta, in which little or no maternal tissue
is lost at parturition.
 Hormones of pregnancy
• progesterone- has several actions essential
for maintaining a normal pregnancy:
– 1. providing negative feedback to the
hypothalamus to inhibit any further estrous cycles
– 2. inhibiting the smooth muscles of the uterus to
permit the attachment ad development of the
fetus
– 3. assisting with maintenance of the contractility
of the cervix to protect the uterine environment
 (ECG/pregnant mare serum)
• In domestic animals, initial source of progesterone
is the corpus luteum.
• In cow and sow, the corpus luteum remains the
primary source throughout pregnancy
• In mare and ewe-, the initial corpus luteum can be
removed after secondary sources are producing
enough progesterone to maintain pregnancy .
Sources include : secondary or accessory corpura
lutea and the placenta in the mare; ewe, placenta is
the secondary source of progesterone
 ECG/ equine chorionic gonadotrophin
• In mare, placenta is the source of a protein
hormone that acts similar to the pituitary
hormone- leutenizing hormone.
• Secretion of ECG (pregnant mare serum) begins
after about a month of gestation and
continuous until about 4 mos, of gestation.
During this period, follicular development
occurs on the ovary of the pregnant mare, and
ECG promotes the luteinization of these follicles
• The accessory corpura lutea, provide
secondary sources of progesterone
• Trophoblastic cells of fetal origin found in
specialized structures termed endometrial
cups are the source the ECG
 hormones
• Progesterone- maintains pregnancy. Produced
by the placenta and CL
• Mare- pregnant mare serum is produced from
endometrial cups formed at 35 days of
gestation and continuous up to 130 days of
gestation.
• Pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG)-
helps to form new follicles which ovulate ad
provide for additional corpora lutea
 relaxin
• Protein hormone secrete the corpus luteum in cow and
sow
• Placenta (bitch and mares)
• Primary function of relaxin:
– Preparation for parturition
– Preparation for lactation
relaxin contribute to the opening of the cervix and relaxation
of muscles and ligaments associated with the birth canal into
facilitate passage of the fetus.
-facilitate mammary gland development to prepare for
lactation.
 Pregnancy diagnosis
• Accurate records of estrus period and breeding
dates are available
• Earliest indication of pregnancy in most animals is
failure to have another estrus cycle at the expected
time.
• A non pregnant animal may miss estrus cycle
because of:
– failure of the corpus luteum to regress normally ;
– or some other reproductive abnormality;
– inability to sustain pregnancy
 Pregnancy diagnosis
• 1.palpation of reproductive tract via rectum in
mare and cow
• 2. estimation of stage of pregnancy- rectal
palpation
• 3. in cow, presence if corpus luteum in an ovary
and slight enlargement of one uterine horn
– at about 3 mos, fetal membranes become
palpable; uterine artery on the side with the fetus is
slightly larger than the vessel on the side.
• 4. ultrasonography- (cattle, sheep, goat, mare,
sow, llama.
• Mares- 2 weeks; cow- 5 weeks; probe inserted
intra rectal
 parturition
• Parturition- labor- act of giving birth to young.; marks
termination of pregnancy
• 3 stages:
• a. first stage- consist of uterine contractions that
gradually force fetus and fetal membrane to the cervix,
( 2-6hrs in cow , ewe; 1-4hrs- mare; 2-12 hrs in sow)
• b. second stage- actual delivery of fetus; passage of
parts of fetus through the cervix into the vagina along
with rupture of both water bags; initiate actual
straining of abdominal muscles; forces fetus out of birth
canal
• c. third stage- delivery of placenta follows fetus

• Late gestation:
• Muscles and ligaments of birth canal relax shortly before
parturition.
• Vulva swells; mucus discharge may be present
• Mammary glands enlarge and may secrete a milky material few
days prior to parturition;
• Restless
• Seek seclusion
• Increase frequency of attempt to urinate
• Sow, bitch try to build nest
 3 stages of parturition
• 1. uterine contractions ( contribute to
dilatation of cervix and presentation f fetus)

• 2. contractions associated with expulsion of

fetus (involve abdominal muscle contraction)
• 3. expulsion of fetus and fetal membranes
 stage 1

• Maternal restlessness

• Elevated pulse rate and respiratory rates

• Changes in fetal position and posture

 Stage 2
• Maternal recumbency and straining
• Rupture of allantochorion and escape of fluid
from the vulva
• Appearance of amnion (water bag) at vulva
• Rupture of amnion and delivery of fetus
 Stage 3
• Maternal straining ceases
• loosening of chorionic villi from maternal
crypts
• Inversion of chorio-allantois
• Straining ad expulsion of fetal membranes
• Involution- process by which the uterus
returns to non pregnant size after parturition.
• Mares- rapid involution , 6-9 days after
parturition.
• Foal heat- occurs 6-9 days after birth.
Pregnancy rate is low in mare
• Ewe and sow-24-28 days –uterine involution
– Breeding is best, 3-5days after weaning when
signs of estrus is present
• Endocrine change during late gestation:
– Progesterone is high relative to estrogen during
most gestation.
– Estrogen increases relative to progesterone in late
gestation
– Estrogen promote the development of contractile
proteins in the smooth muscle cells of the uterus
and gap junction cells between the cells.
 Initiation of parturition
• Endocrine signal appears to initiate parturition.
• Plasma levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol)increase shortly prior
to parturition
• Fetal Adrenal cortex is the source of glucocorticoids and the
adrenal cortical secretion is in response to ACTH from the fetal
adenohypophysis
• Increases in prostaglandin (PGF2a) have multiple effects that
can contribute to parturition.
– Bring about leutolysis and remove source of progesterone
– Stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle cells to move
fetuses into the birth canal.
– promotes dilation of the cervix
 oxytocin
• Entrance of fetus into the birth canal bring
about reflex increase in oxytocin secretion
from the neurohypophysis
• Acts directly on uterine smooth muscles to
enhance uterine contractions if the fatigued
uterus during prolonged labor.
 Fetal presentations
• Anterior- cranial front feet and head first
• Caudal-posterior- hind feet first
• Straining- a reflex response to stimuli from
presence of parts within the vagina
• Afterbirth- placenta- delivered soon after
birth.
• Cow-placenta must be delivered in 24hours;
mare- 2-3 hours.
 Retained placenta
• Significant problem in dairy cows
• Manual removal with antibiotics
 dystocia
• Difficult birth
• Birthing is not possible without assistance
• Cows should calve within 8 hours
• Sow-1 offspring per hour
• Improper fetal presentation
• Caesarean section- surgical removal of fetus
• embryotomy- surgical dismemberment of fetus to
permit passage through the birth canal to save
life of dam
 Avian female reproduction
• Oocytes
• Infundibulum envelops oocyte
• Magnum secretes albumen
• Isthmus- secretes shell membrane
• Uterus secretes hard shell; adds cuticle
• Vagina- nothing is added
• Cloaca- digestive and urinary waste pass
• Vent- external opening
• Oviduct anatomic term used to describe the
complete tubular genitalia of the avian female
• Length- 70-80 cm
• 5 functional regions of oviduct
– 1. infudibulum
– 2. magnum
– 3.isthmus
– 4. uterus- shell gland
– 5. vagina
• Infundibulum
– envelopes ovulated oocyte with its yolk;
– fertilization occur
Magnum-
-secretion of albumen;
- longest segment;
- 2/3 of egg weight
Isthmus-
- secretes fibrous inner and outer shell membranes
-provides support for deposition of hard shell
• Uterus
– Adds fluid to the developing egg,
– secretes hard shell
– Cuticle blocks the entrance of bacteria and reduce
water loss
– Location where pigment is added

Vagina- sperm host glands in chickens are located in the

infundibulum ; sperm storage will be prolonged and
possible for 7-14days in chicken; 40-50 days in turkeys
• The immature avian follicle consists of an
oocyte surrounded by granulosa cells, then
proceeds as mature follicle.
• Majority of yolk material is deposited 7-
11days before ovulation. Yolk protein and lipid
formation occur in the liver and transported to
the blood to the ovary. Deposition of maturing
follicle terminates 24 hrs before ovulation.
• Yellow yolk is a mixture of water ; lipid; protein, small
amounts of vitamins and minerals
• Yellow color of yolk is caused by xanthophyll pigments
in the diet.
• Yolk- nutritional source of developing embryo
• “Egg bound” refers to eggs stuck in either the lower
shell gland or the cloaca
• Oviposition refers to act of laying the egg
• Calcium ions has the greatest plasma cat ion turnover
during egg production
 Physiology of mammary glands
• Mammary glands- modified sudoriferous sweat glands
that produce milk for the nourishment of the offspring
• In cows, it has an inguinal location with distinct right
and left halves, and each half has a front and hind
quarter
• Parenchyma of the mammary gland- refers to the
epithelial or glandular tissues , the connective tissue
framework of the mammary gland.
• Alveolus- milk secreting unit of the mammary gland
are divided into lobules and lobes
• The teat- from which milk is extracted and suckled
by the young.
• The ease with which milk can be withdrawn from the
teat is often determined by the tightness of the
sphincter that keeps the teat canal closed. A
sphincter that is not tight enough can allow milk to
leak from the teat in the interval between milkings.
A loose sphincter also predisposes to mastitis
• Mastitis- inflammation of the mammary gland
usually resulting from infection by microorganisms
• Mammogenesis- refers to the growth and
development of the mammary gland
• Lactogenesis - the process by which mammary
alveolar cells acquire the ability to secrete milk.
– Stage1. increase in mammary enzymatic activity and
differentiation of cellular organelles that coincide with
limited secretion of milk before parturition
– Stage 2- associated with copious secretion of all milk
components shortly before parturition up to several
days after parturition
 Hormones and their interactions
• Hormones involved in the second stage of
lactogenesis, ( onset of copious milk secretion
at parturition), include increased secretion of:
1. prolactin,
• 2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• 3. estrogen
• 4. decrease secretion of progesterone
• ACTH stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids
• Prolactin concentration increases 48 to 24
hours before parturition
• Glucocorticoids;
• growth hormone
• Prostaglandins
• Estradiol
• progesterone
 Hormone interactions
• 1. prolactin induces gene expression in
mammary tissue for casein synthesis and
glucocorticoids are required for this process
• 2. in cattle, the concentration of estrogens begins
to increase about 1 month before parturition
and reaches a maximum about 2 days before
parturition.. Lactogenesis is enhanced because
estrogens stimulate the secretion of prolactin
and other hormones from the anterior pituitary
 Hormonal maintenance of lactation
• Milk yield in cattle peaks in 2-8 weeks and
gradually decreases thereafter.
• Hormones required for milk synthesis include
prolactin, growth hormone, insulin,
parathyroid hormone, ACTH, thyroid
stimulating hormone.
• ACTH and thyroid stimulating hormone are
required for stimulation of glucocorticoid and
thyroid hormone production
• Prolactin-
– In cows and goats, increase in prolactin secretion
during milking is brought about by stimulation of
the udder and teats.
Growth hormone- is important in the maintenance
of ruminant lactation. It is galactopoietic (increase
in milk yield) in cattle and essential for the
maintenance of lactation in the goat. It directs
nutrients from body tissues toward milk synthesis.
• Thyroid hormone- essential for lactation in cattle
• Insulin- glucose is required for lactose synthesis.
• Corticosterods- intact adrenal glands are essential
for maintenance of lactation in ruminants
• Parathyroid hormones stimulates bone resorption
of calcium and the conversion of Vit D to its active
form which is necessary for the absorption of
calcium from the intestines
 Composition of milk
• Water- determined by loss of milk when dried
• Fat-determined by extraction with defined
methods
• Carbohydrates- expressed as lactose
equivalent
• Proteins –all proteins and enzymes
• Minerals- expressed as ash
• Proteins: casein (curd); alpha-lactalbumin;
beta lactoglobulin; blood serum albumin;
immunoglobulin; proteose-peptone fraction;
whey proteins are present in the colostrum
• Carbohydrates: lactose ;
• Lipids: triglycerides;
phospholipids;cholesterol; free fatty acids;
monoglycerides; fat soluble vitamins.
• Minerals: calcium- 0.1%; phosphorus – 0.10%;
sodium- 0.05%; potassium- 0.15%; chlorine-
0,11%; trace amounts of magnesium,sulfur,
copper, cobalt, iron, iodine, zinc
• Vitamins: B vitamins, and Vit k are synthesized
by ruminants. Vit K is also synthesized by the
intestine; Vit A, D, E., depends on the diet
thus supplemented .; Vit C does not depend
on diet
 Other substances present in milk
• Many drugs pass readily into the milk from the
blood. Milk must be withdrawn from the
market for a certain period when cows have
been treated with specific drugs ,particularly
antibiotics
• Off flavors in milk: smoke, food eaten (lantana
shrubs)
 Milk let down
• Secretion of oxytocin for milk let down is
associated with tranquil situations.
• Inhibited by stressful situations, frightened,
tormented animals
 Regression of mammary glands
• Animals are dried off
• In the lactating cow that is pregnant is dried
off 2 months before parturition , little
regression occurs in the lobule and alveolar
tissue. Drying off is important for renewal or
regeneration of alveolar cells
 review
• The milk well is the location where the
subcutaneous abdominal vein disappears and
joins the internal thoracic vein.
• The function of the mammary gland
suspensory apparatus is to provide upward
support; to absorb shock when a cow runs or
walk when the udder is full; allow movement
and stretch from the elastic element when the
cow is lying down
• The milk secreting unit of the mammary gland is
the alveolus.
• Tissue with potential for assisting retention of milk
within the udder between milkings coupled with
their secretion of bacteriostatic agent is known as
the rossete of Furstenburg.
• Growth and development of the mammary gland is
known as mammogenesis.
• Most mammary gland growth occurs during
pregnancy.
 colostrum
• Initial mammary secretion after parturition up
to 6 days after parturition
• Contents: high in whey; immunoglobulins;
high conentrations of Vit A, E, carotene,
riboflavin,more protein, ash, fat, less lactose
• Colostrum absorption :
– in pigs, cow, horse, dog- 2days after birth.
– Sheep and goat- 4 days
• Prolactin is an anterior pituitary hormone essential for the
initiation of milk secretion (lactogenesis).
• Progesterone is the hormone that must be withdrawn at
the time of parturition in the cow for the mammary gland
alveolar cells to begin milk secretion.
• Estrogen, prolactin, prostaglandins are hormones
necessary at the time of parturition in the cow for the
mammary gland alveolar cells to begin milk secretion
Estrogen increase towards the end of gestation is significant
to lactogenesis to stimulate the secretion of prolactin and
some other hormones from the anterior pituitary
• Growth hormone is the most important
hormone for the maintenance of lactation in
cows.
• The parathyroid hormone increases plasma
concentration of calcium and is important to
maintain lactation.
• Colostrum is the first milk drawn after birth of
the young, which is high in Vit. A and high in
immunoglobulins
• The major part of milk proteins are the
caseins.
• Oxytocin is the hormone that causes
contraction of the alveolar myoepithelial cells
of the udder resulting in milk letdown.
• With continued milk secretion, alveolar
pressure increases. When the alveolar cell,
duct, and sinus accommodation is exceeded,
milk secretion ceases.
• Sertoli cells line the periphery of the seminiferous
tubules and provides a “nurse” function for
developing spermatozoa.
• The ductus deferens (vas deferens) is a continuation
of the duct system from the tail of the epididymis to
the pelvic urethra.
• The scrotum is lined with the parietal layer of the
vaginal tunic
• A scrotal hernia exist when a loop of intestine
descends to the scrotum in the vaginal cavity.
• The gubernaculum testis plays a role in descent
of testicles during fetal development.
• Prostaglandins are hormones found in the
seminal plasma are thought to assist fertilization
by making cervical mucus more receptive to
sperm and to facilitate sperm transport by
contracting uterine smooth muscle.
• Seminal plasma is a collective name for the
accessory sex glands secretions.
Prostate gland is the accessory sex gland that
would obstruct urine flow when it becomes
enlarged.
A preputial diverticulum is present in boar.
The maturation phase, whereby spermatids
undergo nuclear cytoplasmic changes and
develop a tail is known as spermiogenesis.
Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells in
response to stimulation by LH.
• Testosterone is the principal androgen in male.
• Spermiogenic wave ensures a continuous
supply of spermatozoa.
• Maturation and storage of spermatozoa
occurs in the epididymis.
• The function of LH in the male is to stimulate
production of testosterone by the interstitial
cells ( Leydig cells)
• Cooling of avian testes below body
temperature is not necessary for their
functional integrity.
• When avian semen is inseminated, the
spermatozoa have a prolonged life in sperm
storage glands of the female and persist at this
location for the fertile period of the female.
 lactation
• An important component of the reproductive
process.
• Begins after parturition because of the
hormonal changes that occur.
• Physiology of lactation is similar in all animals
however anatomic differences exist related to
outward appearance, location, number of
glands, teats and teat openings
 Mammary gland (udder) of cows
Has inguinal location with distinct right and left
halves, front and hind quarters. Each half is
independent in regard to its blood and nerve supply,
lymphatic drainage, and suspensory apparatus.
All milk from one teat is produced by the glandular
tissue, the connective tissue framework of the
mammary gland
Alveolus- the milk secreting unit of the mammary
gland.
• Alveolus is surrounded by blood vessels and
myoepithelial (contractile cells). Several alveoli
in group form a lobule. Each alveolus
converges into an alveolar duct
• a number of alveoli converge on ducts that
convey milk into a cistern within the gland then
to the cistern within the teat, to the teat canal
where milk is expelled.
• Lobule – a number of alveoli grouped together
and surrounded by a layer of connective
tissues.
• Lobes- secreting unit of the mammary gland
•
• Lactiferous sinus- where various lobular ducts
converge, is composed of gland cisterns that
store milk
• Teat- where milk is extracted and suckled by
the young .
• teat canal mucosa lining is marked by vertical
ridges forming the rossete of Furstenberg,
the folds of the mucosa, assist in milk
retention within the udder.
• External pressure and downward pull on the
teat at milking causes the overlapping folds to
be withdrawn so that milk can escape through
the teat orifice.
• Inflammation or injury to the rosette can
result to restriction or blockage of the teat
canal.
• Epithelial cells associated with the rosette
secrete a bacteriostatic agent.
• Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland
usually result from infection by
microorganisms due to loose teat sphincter
muscles,thus a continuous drip of milk
 Milk letdown
• Myoepithelial cells, (basket cells) are
contractile cells that surround the alveoli and
ducts. When contracted , they provide
compression n the alveoli and ducts. Milk then
is directed toward the lactiferous sinus. They
contract when the hormone oxytocin
circulates and brings about milk letdown.
Mammary glands of other animals
• sows,- have 7 pairs of mammary glands
• Sows have 2 teat canals, continuous with its
respective teat cisterns associated with ducts
• Bitch, queen, have 5 pairs of mammary glands;
each nipples have numerous fine openings (7-
16)
• Sheep, goat : each half have one teat canal
• Horse- each half has 2 teat canals, and 2 teat
cisterns
 mammogenesis
• Growth and development of the mammary gland.
• During embryonic development, milk line
appears on each side of the abdominal wall,
parallel to the midline.
• Cattle- at birth, female calf has teat and gland
cisterns that are already mature in form. Stroma is
well organized.
• Mammary gland is a skin gland that response to
female sex hormones
• At the beginning of puberty, FSH and LH, are
released from the anterior pituitary gland at
cycle intervals that characterize estrous cycles.
• FSH, LH activities cause the ovary to secrete
female sex steroids hormones, estrogens
(estradiol) and progesterone
• Estradiol is secreted mostly during follicular
phase of the estrous cycle
• Progesterone is secreted during luteal phase
• During first several cycles, growth effected by
the synergism of estradiol,
progesterone,somatotroin and prolactin,
consists of the duct lengthening, thickening ,
branching. At the age of 18 months, heifers
have a system of ducts in the mammary
glands.
• When pregnancy begins, the concentrations of
estrogen, progesterone, STH, and prolactin
increases to cause changes in the uterus that are
essential for the survival of the fertilized oocyte.
• in cattle, the placenta is a source of estrogen only.
• Corpus luteum, - major source of progesterone
• Placental lactogen,(hormone) that contributes to
mammogenesis is directed from placenta to
maternal blood.
 lactogenesis
• Process by which mammary alveoli cells acquire
the ability to secrete milk. The first stage includes
increases in mammary enzymatic activity and
differentiation of cellular organelles that coincide
with limited secretion of milk before parturition.
The second stage is associated with copious
secretion of all milk components shortly before
parturition in most species, continuing for several
days after parturition
 Hormones and their interactions
• Prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH), estrogen.
• ACTH- stimulates the secretion of
glucocorticoids
• Prolactin concentration in cattle increase
within 48-24 hours before parturition
• Other hormones : glucocorticoids, GH,
prostaglandins and estradiol increase and
progesterone level declines
Hormones interact in various ways:
• 1. prolactin induces gene expression in
mammary tissue for casein synthesis, and glucocorticoids
are required for this processes.
2. Presence of progesterone prevents formation of prolactin
binding sites. Withdrawal of progesterone is a prerequisite
for lactogenesis
3. Prostaglandin increase just before parturition causes lysis
of corpus luteum and decline of progesterone
4. In cattle, increased estrogen concentration 1 month
before parturition and maximum within 2 days before
parturition, stimulates the secretion of prolactin
 Hormonal maintenance of lactation
• Increase in milk yield in cattle after parturition peaks
in 2-8 weeks and gradually decrease.
• Prolactin- increase in secretion during milk
production is brought about by stimulation of the
udder and teats.
• Growth hormone- is important in the maintenance
of ruminant lactation
• GH is galactopoietic (increases milk yield) in cattle
• GH- direct nutrients from body tissues toward milk
synthesis
• Thyroid hormone- essential in maintenance of
lactation . Increases metabolism at the expense of
body fat and protein
• Insulin- glucose is important for lactose synthesis,
maintains lactation
• Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid components
are needed
• Parathyroid hormone- stimulates bone resorption
of calcium and conversion of Vit D to its active form
 Composition of milk
• Water- determined by loss of weight of milk
when dried
• Fat- determined by extraction with defined
methods
• Carbohydrate- lactose equivalent
• Protein- all proteins and enzymes
• Minerals are expressed as ash ; residue after
incineration
• Proteins: casein, whey proteins,
• Carbohydrates: lactose