Introduction to Human

Anatomy
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Human Anatomy
• Anatomy - The study of the structure of body parts
and their relationships to one another.
• It is also called morphology, the science of form
Branches of Human Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy
• The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
• Regional Anatomy
• The study of all structures (blood vessels, nerves, muscles) located in a particular region of the
body
• Systemic Anatomy
• The gross anatomy of the body studied system by system
• Surface Anatomy
• The study of internal body structures as they relate to the overlying skin
Branches of Human Anatomy
• Microscopic Anatomy
• The study of structures too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope
• Cellular Anatomy
• The study of cells of the body
• Histology
• The study of the microscopic structure of tissues
• Developmental Anatomy
• The study of changes in an individual from conception to old age
Specialized Branches of Anatomy
• Pathological anatomy
• The study structural changes in cells, tissues, and organs
caused by disease
• Radiographic anatomy
• The study of internal body structures by means of x-rays and
imaging techniques
• Functional morphology
• The study of functional properties of body structures and
efficiency of design
Hierarchy of Structural Organization
• Chemical
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ System
• Organism
Structural Organization
Chemical Level
• At the chemical level
atoms combine to
form small molecules
(CO2 and H2O) and
larger macro
molecules
Structural Organization
• Chemical level
• Macromolecules of four
classes are found in the
body
• These macro molecules
include carbohydrates
(sugars), lipids (fats),
proteins and nucleic acids
(DNA, RNA)
Structural Organization
• Cellular Level
• The smallest units of
living tissue
• Cells and their functional
subunits called cellular
organelles
Structural Organization
• Tissue Level
• Consists of groups of
similar cells that have a
characteristic function
• Epithelium
• Muscle
• Connective
• Nervous
Structural Organization
• Organ Level
• A structure composed of at least
two tissue types (with four the
most common) that performs a
specific physiological process or
function
Structural Organization
• Organ System Level
• Organs that cooperate with one
another to perform a common
function
• For example:- Cardiovascular
system
Structural Organization
• The 11 human organ systems
• Integumentary, skeletal, muscular,
nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular*, lymphatic*,
immune, respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive
• The cardiovascular and lymphatic
are collectively known as the
circulatory system because of their
interrelated roles in circulating
fluids
Structural Organization
• Organism Level
• The highest level of
organization, the living
organism
• At this level life is
sustained by the
sustain efforts of the
simpler levels
Anatomical Position
• Is the reference position used to
describe the location of anatomical
parts and to describe and explain
human movement.
The subject is:
Standing upright with feet flat on
the floor
Arms at the side of the body
Facing the observer
Palms are facing forward (supinated)
Directional terms
• Directional terms are used to
precisely locate one part of the
body relative to another and to
reduce length of explanations
Superior/Cephalic/Cranial
Inferior/Caudal
Anterior/Ventral/Rostral
Posterior/Dorsal
Superficial: toward surface
Deep: away from surface
Directional terms

Note: the midline is an imaginary vertical

line that divides the body into equal left
and right sides

Superior: nearer the head

e.g. the heart is superior to the liver

Inferior: farther away from the head

e.g. the stomach is inferior to the lungs

Directional terms

Anterior (ventral): nearer to or in front of the

body

• e.g. the sternum is anterior to the heart

Posterior (dorsal): nearer to or at the back of

the body

• e.g. the esophagus is posterior to the trachea

Directional terms
Medial: toward midline
Lateral: away from midline
Intermediate: between 2
points
Ipsilateral: same side
Contralateral: opposite side
Proximal: near origin
Distal: away from origin
Directional terms

Medial: closer to the midline of the body

• e.g. the ulna is on the medial side of the forearm

Lateral: farther away from the midline of the body

• e.g. the ear is lateral to the nose in all individuals

 Directional terms

Proximal: nearer to the attachment of an extremity (limb) to

• The trunk; nearer to the point of origin

• e.g. the humerus is proximal to the radius

Distal: farther from the attachment of an extremity (limb) to the trunk; farther away from the

point of origin (root)

• e.g. the phalanges are distal to the carpals (wrist bones)

 Directional terms

Superficial: on or near the surface of the body

• e.g. the skin is the most superficial organ of the body

Deep: farther away from the surface of the body

• e.g. the ribs are deep to the skin of the chest

 Terminology
• Reclining Position
• If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position.
• If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position.
Planes

•Are imaginary flat surfaces that are

used to divide the body or organs into

definite areas & include:

Midsagittal (medial) and parasagittal,

frontal (coronal), transverse (cross-

sectional or horizontal) and oblique

 Sections

• Sections are flat surfaces resulting from cuts through body

structures. They are named according to the plane on which
the cut is made and include transverse, longitudinal, frontal,
and midsagittal
 Planes & Movements
Movements in the sagittal plane around a horizontal axis
Flexion
• Flexion at a joint results in a decrease of the angle between the two
segments that meet at that joint
Extension
• Extension at a joint results in an increase of the angle between the
two segments that meet at that joint
• If the movement occurs beyond the extended position, the action is
called hyperextension
 Planes & Movements
Movements in the frontal plane around a anteroposterior axis
Abduction
• occurs when a body part is moved away from the midline of the body
• e.g. shoulder, hip, fingers
Adduction
• occurs when a body part is moved toward the midline of the body
• e.g. shoulder, hip, fingers
• remember “add to your midline”
• e.g. shoulder, hip, fingers
 Movements & Planes
Inversion
• Turning the sole of the foot inward at the ankle (so the sole of the foot faces toward the
midline)
Eversion
• turning the sole of the foot outward at the ankle (so the sole of the foot faces away from the
midline)
Elevation
• raising a part to a superior position
• e.g. raising your shoulders toward your ears; closing your jaw
Depression
• lowering a part to an inferior position
• e.g. lowering your shoulders to normal or lower than normal position; lowering your jaw to
an open position
 Movements & Planes
Protraction
• Sticking jaw out (pouting)
Retraction
• Bringing jaw back to anatomical position
• Lateral bending
• bending of the spinal column in the frontal plane to the left or right
• e.g. bending side to side at the waist
 Movements & Planes
Movements in the transverse plane around a longitudinal axis
Rotation
• the movement of a bone around its own axis; this is also known as a pivot
• e.g. the head, neck, and trunk can pivot around the longitudinal axis
Internal (medial) rotation
• Rotation towards the midline
• E.g. turning forearm in towards body
External (lateral) rotation
• Rotation away from midline
• E.g. turning forearm away from body
 Movements & Planes
Pronation
• rotation of the forearm and hand to the palms down position
Supination
• rotation of the forearm and hand to the palms up position (remember there is
"UP” in supination)
Protraction
• Shoulder rounding (hunching shoulders)
Retraction
• Bringing shoulders back to anatomical position, or squeezing shoulder blades
together at back
 Special movements
Circumduction
• A combination of abduction, adduction, flexion and extension
• this action describes a circle
• e.g. moving the shoulder in a circle (swimming, windmill throw in
baseball); can also be done at the hip joint
Opposition
• Bringing thumb towards fingers
Reposition
• Returning thumb back to anatomical position