The Human Body

An Orientation
 An Overview of Anatomy

• Anatomy - The study of the structure of the

organism’s body
• Physiology - The study of body function
An Overview • Anatomical terminology
of Anatomy – Based on ancient Greek or
Latin
– Provides standard
nomenclature worldwide
• Branches of anatomy
– Gross anatomy
– Microscopic anatomy
(histology)
– Surface anatomy
The Hierarchy • Chemical level – atoms form
molecules
of Structural • Cellular level – cells and their
Organization functional subunits
• Tissue level – a group of cells
performing a common function
• Organ level – a discrete structure
made up of more than one tissue
• Organ system – organs working
together for a common purpose
• Organismal level – the result of
all simpler levels working in
unison
 Maintaining Life
I-Necessary Life Functions :   All living organisms
carry out certain vital functional activities necessary
for life, including :

Maintenance of boundaries:
Every living organism must maintain its inside distinct from outside.
-All the cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane.
-The body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the
integumentary system, or skin, which protects our internal organs
from drying out, bacteria, heat, sunlight, and chemicals .
 Movement
It includes the activities promoted by the muscular
system , the skeletal system provides the bony
framework that the muscles pull on as they work.
Movement also occurs when substances such as
blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through
internal organs .
On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to
move by shortening is more precisely called
contractility.
Responsiveness   or irritability, is the ability to sense
changes (stimuli) in the environment and then respond to
them.
•you involuntarily pull your hand away from the painful
stimulus .
•When carbon dioxide in your blood rises to dangerously
high levels, your breathing rate speeds up.
•Because nerve cells are highly irritable and communicate
rapidly with each other via electrical impulses, the nervous
system is most involved with responsiveness.
•However, all body cells are irritable to some extent.
Digestion :is the breaking down of ingested
foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood.
•The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to
all body cells by the cardiovascular system.
•In a simple, one-celled organism such as an
amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion
factory,” but in the multicellular human body,
the digestive system performs this function
for the entire body.
• Metabolism is a broad term that includes all chemical
reactions that occur within body cells.
• It includes breaking down substances into their simpler
building blocks (catabolism), synthesizing more
complex cellular structures from simpler substances
(anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to
produce (via cellular respiration) ATP, that power
cellular activities.
• Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory
systems to make nutrients and oxygen available to be
distributed throughout the body.
• Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones secreted
by endocrine system glands.
Excretion is the process of removing excreta (ek-
skre′tah), or wastes, from the body. – The
digestive system rids the body of indigestible food
residues in feces.
•The urinary system disposes of nitrogen-
containing metabolic wastes, such as urea, in
urine.
•Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular
respiration, is carried in the blood to the lungs,
where it leaves the body in exhaled air.
Reproduction is making a whole new person which is the
major task of the reproductive system.
•When a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized egg forms,
which then develops into a baby within the mother’s body.
•The reproductive system is regulated by hormones of the
endocrine system.
•Because males produce sperm and females produce eggs
(ova), there is a division of labor in the reproductive process,
and the reproductive organs of males and females are different
.
•The female’s reproductive structures provide the site for
fertilization of eggs by sperm, then protect and nurture the
developing fetus until birth.
Growth is an increase in size of a body part or
the organism.
•It is usually accomplished by increasing the
number of cells.
•However, individual cells also increase in
size when not dividing.
•For true growth to occur, constructive
activities must occur at a faster rate than
destructive ones
• Homeostatic control mechanisms
• Negative feedback mechanisms – the net effect of
the response to the stimulus is the shut off of the
original stimulus or to reduce its intensity
• E.g. – body temp, blood chemical levels
– Positive feedback mechanisms – tend to increase
the original disturbance (stimulus) and push the
variable farther from its original value
• E.g. – ovulation, blood clotting, birth
Systemic vs. • Systemic – study of
Regional anatomy by system
Anatomy • Regional – study of
anatomy by region
• Most students use a
combination of regional and
systemic study
 The
Integumentary
System
– Forms external body covering
– Protects deeper tissues from injury
– Synthesizes vitamin D
– Site of cutaneous receptors
• (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil
glands
The Skeletal
System

– Protects and supports

body organs
– Provides a framework
for muscles
– Blood cells formed
within bones
– Stores minerals
 The
Muscular System

– Allows manipulation
of environment
– Locomotion
– Facial expression
– Maintains posture
– Produces heat
 The Nervous
System

• Fast-acting control
system
• Responds to internal
and external changes
 The
Endocrine
System
• Glands secrete hormones
that regulate
– Growth
– Reproduction
– Nutrient use
 The
Cardiovascular
System

• Blood vessels transport blood

– Carries oxygen and carbon
dioxide
– Also carries nutrients and
wastes
• Heart pumps blood through
blood vessels
Figure 1-2(f)
 The Lymphatic
System

• Picks up fluid leaked from blood

vessels
• Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic system
• Houses white blood cells
(lymphocytes)
• Mounts attack against foreign
substances in the body
 The Respiratory
System

• Keeps blood supplied with

oxygen
• Removes carbon dioxide
• Gas exchange occurs through
walls of air sacs in the lungs
 The Digestive
System

• Breaks down food

into absorbable units
• Indigestible
foodstuffs eliminated
as feces
 The Urinary
System

• Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes
• Regulates water,
electrolyte, and acid-base
balance
 Reproductive
• Overall function is to produce offspring System
• Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
• Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
• Mammary glands produce milk
 Anatomical position – a common visual reference point
 Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
 Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the body

Gross
Anatomy
 Gross Anatomy
Regional terms – names of
specific body areas
 Axial region – the
main axis of the
body
 Appendicular region
– the limbs
Directional terminology
 Refers to the body in
anatomical position
 Standardized terms
of directions are
paired terms

Figure 1.3
Anatomical Directions
Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (1 of 3)
Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (2 of 3)
Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (3 of 3)
Body Planes and Sections
• Coronal (frontal)
plane - Lies vertically
and divides body into
anterior and posterior
parts
• Median (midsagittal)
plane - Specific
sagittal plane that lies
vertically in the
midline
Body Planes
and Sections

• Transverse plane -
runs horizontally and
divides body into
superior and inferior
parts

Figure 1.5
 Body Planes and Sections
• Oblique section through the trunk

Figure 1.6
Body Cavities and
Membranes
• Dorsal body cavity
• Cavity subdivided
into the cranial cavity
and the vertebral
cavity.
– Cranial cavity
houses the brain.
– Vertebral cavity
runs through the
vertebral column
and encloses the
spinal cord
 Body Cavities and Membranes
• Ventral body cavity –
subdivided into:
– Thoracic cavity –
divided into three
parts
• Two lateral parts each
containing a lung
surrounded by a pleural
cavity
• Mediastinum – contains
the heart surrounded by the
pericardial sac
 Body Cavities and Membranes

• Ventral body cavity

– Abdominopelvic
cavity – divided
into two parts
• Abdominal cavity –
contains the liver, stomach,
kidneys, and other organs
• Pelvic cavity – contains the
bladder, some reproductive
organs, and rectum
 Body Cavities and Membranes
• Serous cavities – a slit-
like space lined by a
serous membrane
– Pleura, pericardium,
and peritoneum
• Parietal serosa –
outer wall of the
cavity
• Visceral serosa
covers the visceral
organs
Body Cavities and
Membranes
• Oral cavity
• Nasal cavity Other Body Cavities
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear cavities
• Synovial cavities
 Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
• Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine regions
 Abdominal Quadrants

• Abdominal quadrants
divide the abdomen
into four quadrants
– Right upper and left
upper quadrants
– Right lower and left
lower quadrants