Introduction to Human Anatomy

Compiled by Nigatu D.
 • Introduction to Anatomy
• The term 'anatomy' is derived from the Greek word
'temnein' meaning 'to cut'.
• Clearly, therefore, the study of anatomy is linked, to
dissection.

Approaches to Studying Anatomy:

• There are three main approaches to study human gross
anatomy:
– regional,
– systemic,
– and clinical (applied).
• Sectional anatomy
– Internal structure and relationships of the body through
the use of sections
• Surface anatomy:
– Surface markings of the body to understand the relations
of deep or internal anatomy through visualization and
palpation (gentle touch)
• Radiographic anatomy:
– Body structures that can be visualized with x-rays
• Pathological anatomy
– Structural changes (from gross to microscopic)
associated with disease
• Regional anatomy:- is based on the organization of the body
into parts:
– the head,
– neck,
– trunk (further subdivided into thorax, abdomen, pelvis/perineum,
back)
– and paired upper and lower limbs.
• Systemic anatomy:- is an approach to anatomical study
organized by organ systems that work together to carry out
complex functions:
The integumentary system (dermatology):-
– consists of the skin (integument)
– and its appendages such as the hair and nails.
• The skin, an extensive sensory organ, forms a
protective covering for the body.
2. The skeletal system (osteology):-
– consists of bones and cartilage.
– It provides support for the body and protects vital organs.
– The muscular system acts on the skeletal system to produce
movements.
3. The articular system (arthrology) :-
– consists of joints and their associated ligaments.
– It connects the bony parts of the skeletal system and provides
the sites at which movements occur.
4. The muscular system (myology) :-
– is composed of muscles that act (contract) to move or position
parts of the body
• (e.g., the bones that articulate at joints).
5. The nervous system (neurology) :-
– consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
– and the peripheral nervous system (nerves and ganglia, together with
their motor and sensory endings).
– controls and coordinates the functions of the organ systems.
6. The circulatory system (angiology) :-
– consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems, which function
in parallel to distribute fluids within the body.
• The cardiovascular system (cardiology) :-
– consists of the heart and blood vessels that propel and
conduct blood through the body.
– The lymphatic system :-
• is a network of lymphatic vessels.
• withdraws excess tissue fluid (lymph) from the body's
interstitial (intercellular) fluid compartment, filters it
through lymph nodes, and returns it to the bloodstream.
7. The digestive or alimentary system (gastroenterology) :-
– consists of the organs and glands associated with the:
• ingestion,
• mastication (chewing),
• deglutition (swallowing),
• digestion,
• absorption of nutrients
• and the elimination of feces (solid wastes) after the nutrients
have been absorbed.
8. The respiratory system (pulmonology):-
– consists of the air passages and lungs that supply oxygen and
eliminate carbon dioxide.
• The control of air flow through the system produces tone,
which is further modified into speech
9. The urinary system (urology) :-
– consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
– filter blood and subsequently produce, transport, store, and intermittently
excrete liquid waste (urine).
10. The reproductive system (gynecology for females; andrology for
males) :-
– consists of the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produce oocytes (eggs) and
sperms and the other genital organs concerned with reproduction.
11. The endocrine system (endocrinology) ;-
– consists of ductless glands that secrete hormones,
– (e.g., thyroid gland) as well as cells of the intestine and blood vessel walls
and specialized nerve endings.
• Hormones
– distributed by the cardiovascular system to reach receptor organs in all
parts of the body.
– influence metabolism and coordinate and regulate other
processes (e.g., the menstrual cycle).
 Clinical (applied) anatomy :-
• emphasizes aspects of the structure and function of the body
important in the practice of medicine, dentistry, and the
allied health sciences.
• It deals both the regional and the systemic approaches to
studying anatomy and stresses clinical application.
Anatomicomedical Terminology:
• Anatomy has an international vocabulary that is the
foundation of medical terminology.
• This nomenclature enables precise communication among
health professionals worldwide.
• Anatomical Position:
• All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to the
anatomical position to ensure that the descriptions are
uniform.
• The anatomical position refers to people that regardless of
the actual position they may be in that as if they were
standing erect, with their:
– Head, eyes, and toes directed anteriorly (forward).
– Upper limbs by the sides with the palms facing anteriorly.
– Lower limbs close together with the feet parallel and the toes
directed anteriorly.
Anatomical Planes:
• Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes
that intersect the body in the anatomical position. These
are :-
– sagittal, many
– frontal (coronal),
– and transverse planes,
– but there is only one median plane.
1. Median (median sagittal) plane :-
– is the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the center of
the body
– dividing body into right and left halves.
2. Sagittal planes :-
– are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the
median plane.
• It is helpful to give a point of reference to indicate the
position of a specific plane.
e.g a sagittal plane through the midpoint of the clavicle.
• A plane parallel and near the median plane may be
referred to as a paramedian plane.
3. Frontal (coronal) planes :-
– are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to the
median plane
– dividing body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
• E.g. a frontal plane through the heads of the mandible.
4. Transverse planes :-
– are planes passing through the body at right angles to the
median and frontal (coronal) planes.
– A transverse plane divides the body into superior (upper) and
inferior (lower) parts.
• e.g. a transverse plane through the umbilicus.
 Term Meaning Usage

• Superior (cranial) Nearer to head Heart is superior to stomach

• Inferior (caudal) Nearer to feet Stomach is inferior to heart

• Anterior (ventral) Nearer to front Sternum is anterior to heart

• Posterior (dorsal) Nearer to back Kidneys are posterior to

intestine
• Medial Nearer to Fifth digit (little finger) is on
median plane medial side of hand

• Lateral Farther from First digit (thumb) is on

median plane lateral side of hand
• Proximal Nearer to trunk or Elbow is proximal
point of origin to wrist; proximal part of
(e.g., of a limb) artery is its beginning

• Distal Farther from trunk Wrist is distal to elbow;

or point of origin distal part of lower limb is foot
(e.g., of a limb)

• Superficial Nearer to or Muscles of arm are superficial

on surface to its bone (humerus)

• Deep Farther from surface Humerus is deep to arm muscles

• Dorsum Dorsal surface of Veins are visible in dorsum of hand

hand or foot
• Palm Palmar surface Skin creases are visible on palm
of hand
• Sole Plantar surface Skin is thick on sole of foot
of foot
• Inferomedial :-
– means nearer to the feet and closer to the median plane.
– for example, the anterior parts of the ribs run inferomedially.
• Superolateral :-
– means nearer to the head and farther from the median plane.
• Dorsum :-
– refers to the superior or dorsal (back) surface of any part that
protrudes anteriorly from the body,
– such as the dorsum of the foot, hand, penis, or tongue.
The sole:-
– indicates the inferior aspect or bottom of the foot.
– much of which is in contact with the ground when standing barefoot.
The palm:-
– refers to the flat of the hand, excluding the five digits,
– is the opposite of the dorsum of the hand.
• Terms of Laterality:-
– Paired (bilateral) structures:-
• having right and left members
• e.g., the kidneys are bilateral,
• Unilateral :- structures occurring on one side only
• (e.g., the spleen) are
• Ipsilateral :- occurring on the same side of the body;
• the right thumb and right great toe are ipsilateral.
• Contralateral :- occurring on the opposite side of the body;
• the right hand is contralateral to the left hand.
 Terms of Movement:-
• Movements taking place at joints are described relative to
the axes around which the part of the body moves and the
plane in which the movement takes place.
• Abduction :- moving away from the median plane of the
body in the frontal plane.
Adduction :- moving toward the median plane of the body
in the frontal (coronal) plane.
• When referring to the digits (fingers and toes):
– abduction means spreading them,
– and adduction means drawing them together.
• Rotation :-
– moving a part of the body around its long axis.
• Medial rotation turns the anterior surface medially,
• and lateral rotation turns this surface laterally.
• Circumduction :-
– is the circular movement of the limbs, or parts of them,
combining in sequence the movements of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction.
• Pronation :- is a medial rotation of the forearm and hand
so that the palm faces posteriorly.
• Supination :- is a lateral rotation of the forearm and hand
so that the palm faces anteriorly, as in the anatomical
position.
• Eversion :- turning the sole of foot outward.
• Inversion :- turning the sole of foot inward.
• Protrusion (protraction) :- to move the jaw anteriorly.
• Retrusion (retraction) :- to move the jaw posteriorly.
• Elevation :- raises or moves a part superiorly.
• Depression :- lowers or moves a part inferiorly.
 • BODY CAVITIES
• spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support
internal organs.
• Bones, muscles, and ligaments separate the various body cavities
from one another.
cranial cavity :
• hollow space of the head in the cranial bones which contains the
brain.
Vertebral (spinal) canal
• In bones of the vertebral column (backbone), which contains the
spinal cord and the beginnings of the spinal nerves.
• cranial cavity and vertebral canal are continuous with one another.
• the meninges and a shock absorbing fluid surround the brain and
spinal cord.
 thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
• Are major body cavities of the trunk
• Thoracic cavity or chest cavity : is formed by the ribs, the
muscles of the chest, the sternum (breastbone), and the
thoracic (chest) portion of the vertebral column.
• Contains: pleural cavities
• Each pleural cavity surrounds one lung and also
contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
Mediastinum:
• central portion of the thoracic cavity
• is between the medial walls of the two pleural cavities
• Extends from the sternum to the vertebral column, and
from the first rib to the diaphragm
• contains all thoracic organs except the lungs themselves.
• Structures in the mediastinum are the heart, esophagus,
trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels that enter
and leave the heart.
Pericardial cavity
• is a space that surrounds the heart and contains a small
amount of lubricating fluid.
Diaphragm:
• is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity
from the abdominopelvic cavity.
Abdominopelvic cavity
• extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by
– the abdominal muscle wall and the bones and muscles
of the pelvis.
 Thoracic and Abdominal
Cavity Membranes
• Membrane is a thin
pliable tissue that covers,
lines, partitions, or
connects structures.
• Example: a slippery
double-layered
membrane called a
serous membrane
that covers the viscera
within the thoracic
and abdominal cavities
and also lines the walls
of the thorax and
abdomen.
The parts of a serous membrane are
1. parietal layer: a thin epithe-lium that lines the walls of the
cavities
2. visceral layer: a thin epithelium that covers and adheres to
the viscera
– Because the parietal and visceral membranes are
continuous with one another, they form a serous sac.
– small amount of lubricating fluid (serous fluid) within the
serous
– reduces friction between the two layers,
 Peritoneum
• is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
Visceral peritoneum:
• covers the abdominal viscera,
Parietal peritoneum
• lines the abdominal wall and covers the inferior
surface of the diaphragm.
• Between them is the peritoneal cavity, which
contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
• organs surrounded by the peritoneal cavity are
referred to as intraperitoneal.
Median plane section
• Retroperitoneal organs:-
– are located between the parietal peritoneum and the
posterior abdominal wall.
ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS
• To describe the location of the many abdominal and
pelvic organs more easily there two methods of
dividing the abdominopelvic cavity into smaller
areas.
1. Two transverse and two vertical lines partition this cavity
into nine abdominopelvic regions
• top horizontal line:- the subcostal line
– is drawn just inferior to the right and left lateral margins
of the rib cage;
• the bottom horizontal line: transtubercular line
– intersects the iliac tubercles, landmarks near the top of
the right and left hip bones.
• vertical lines:- the left and right midclavicular lines
– are drawn through the midpoints of the clavicles
– just medial to the nipples.
• quad-one-fourth method: is simpler and divides the
abdominopelvic cavity into quadrants
– In this method:-
• a transverse line, the transumbilical line,
• a midsagittal line, the median line, are passed through
the umbilicus
 Organization of Body Parts
• including body parts, are composed of chemicals made up of
submicroscopic particles called atoms.
• Atoms join to form molecules, which can in turn join to form
macromolecules.
• For example, molecules called amino acids join to form a
macromolecule called protein, which makes up the bulk of our
muscles.
• Within cells are organelles, tiny structures that perform cellular
functions.
• A tissue is composed of similar types of cells and performs a specific
function.
• An organ is composed of several types of tissues and performs a
particular function within an organ system.
• All of the body systems together make up the organism—
➲ Structural & functional units of life (and of disease processes) in
all tissues, organs & organ systems.
Cell Theory
        A). A cell is the basic structural and functional unit.
        B). The activity of an organism depends on  cells.
        C). Principle of complementarity
        D). Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
Two basic cell types
1. Prokaryotes
✹ lack nuclear envelope, histones & memb. organelles
2. Eukaryotes
✹ multicellular organisms with nucleus
• ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
☞ NUCLEUS: Genetic material, Nuclear envelope
☞ CYTOPLASM: Limited by cell membrane
• Contains three structural components
– Organelles (“little organs”) – metabolocally active
– Cytoskeleton – structural framework (fibrillar elements)
– Inclusions – cell products, metabolites (metabolically
inactive)
• CYTOSOL – fluid component (intracellular fluid)
– Exhibits dynamic functional interactions among certain
organelles.
» Uptake & release of materials by the cell
» Protein synthesis
» Intracellular digestion
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
PLASMA MEMBRANE (cell membrane, plasmalemma):
• Thickness about 7.5-10 nm.
• Composition: phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and chains
of oligosaccharides and protein molecules.
Functions
• Physical isolation (physical barrier).
• Semipermeable membrane:
- regulation of exchange with the environment.
- regulate entry of ions & nutrients, elimination of wastes,
release of secretory products).
• Sensory device (receptor)—permits the cell to recognize & be
recognized by other cells.
• provide shape and Structural support.
Fluid Mosaic Model of plasma membrane
• Lipid bilayer
- freely permeable to small nonpolar lipid-soluble molecules;
impermeable to charged ions.
Molecular structure
• Phospholipids:
– consist of two polar (hydrophilic) head & two nonpolar (hydrophobic)
fatty acyl tails.
--organized into a double layer (bilayer)
- with their tails directed toward the middle away from water
- and their heads directed outward to contact water on both
sides
• Glycolipids: in outer leaflet only, form part of glycocalyx.
• Cholesterol:
▪ in both leaflets, constitute about 2% of plasmalemma lipid
▪ assists in maintaining structural integrity of the cell
membrane.
• Membrane Proteins: Ratio of lipid to protein is
variable:
- 1:1 (by weight) in most cells; 4:1 in myelin.
• Main functions:
– Attach cytoskeletal filaments to cell membrane.
– Attach cells to extracellular matrix (e.g., cell adhesion
molecules).
– Transport molecules to or out of the cells (e.g., carrier
proteins, membrane pump proteins)
– Act as receptors for chemical signaling between cells
(e.g., hormone receptors).
Types
• Integralproteins (often glycoproteins):
– dissolved in lipid bilayer.
• may extend into both leaflets or into the inner leaflet only.
• Transmembrane proteins:
- membrane receptors and/or transport proteins.
- completely span the bilayer.
• Peripheral proteins:
- inner leaflet only (do not extend into the lipid bilayer).
- Function as cytoskeleton & intracellular second
messenger system.
Functions
GLYCOCALYX • Cellular attachment to ECM
• Sugar coat in outer leaflet components.
• Consists of polar oligosaccharide side • Binding of antigens & enzymes to
chains linked covalently to most protein the cell surface.
& some lipid (glycolipid). • Facilitate cell-cell recognition &
interaction (e.g., sperm – egg
adhesion).
• ORGANELLES
– are metabolically active cellular structures
that execute specific functions.
 ✪ membranous organelles
o ✹ mitochondria
o ✹ rough endoplasmic reticulum
o ✹ smooth endoplasmic reticulum
o ✹ Golgi apparatus
o ✹ vesicles
 ➽ transport vesicles
 ➽ secretory vesicles
 ➽ lysosomes, phagosomes
 ➽ peroxisomes (microbodies)
 
 ✪ non-membranous organelles
o✹ ribosomes
o✹ cytoskeleton
 ➽ microfilaments
 intermediate filaments
 actin filaments
 ➽ microtubules
 ➽ mitotic spindle
o✹ centriole / basal body
RIBOSOMES (non-membranous):
• Sites where mRNA is translated into protein.
• Exist as free, bounded (fixed) as in RER & outer
nuclear membrane, and as clusters (polyribosomes).
• Intensely basophilic: sites of protein synthesis.
• In glandular cells (ergastoplasm).
• In neurons (Nissl bodies).
• Other cells (basophilic bodies).
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• is a system of interconnected tubules and vesicles
whose lumen is referred to as the cistern.
• two components:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• outer surfaces are studded with robosomes.
• (receptors = ribophorins to which large
ribosomal subunits bind: basophilic).
• Abundant in cells synthesizing secretory
proteins
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(SER)
• lacks ribosomes.
• Usually appears as branching anastomosing tubules,
or vesicles.
• Less common
• predominates in cells synthesizing steroids,
triglycerides, & cholesterol.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria possess their own DNA and perform lipid
synthesis.
• Proliferate by fission of pre-existing mitoch.
• Lifespan = 10 days.
• is enclosed by two membranes
– A smooth outer membrane: possesses a large number of porins
– An inner membrane: is folded into cristae to provide a larger
surface area for ATP synthase.
• One liver cell has ~ 800 mitos (as many as 2000)
• Condensed mitoch. – in brown fat cells (produce HEAT rather
than ATP).
❇ are maternally – derived
• FUNCTIONS
✹Energy production
Mitochondria accumulate where metabolic
activity is intensive.
- Apicalends of ciliated cells
- Middle piece os spermatozoa
- Bases of ion-transferring cells in kidneys
 GOLGI COMPLEX (APPARATUS)
• functions in the synthesis of carbohydrates and in the modification
and sorting of proteins manufactured on the RER.

Lysosomes
•Are cells' garbage disposal system.
– degrade the products of ingestion, such as the bacterium that
has been taken in by phagocytosis.
–degrade worn out organelles such as mitochondria.
Peroxisomes
• Contain oxidative enzymes, such as D-amino acid oxidase, ureate
oxidase, and catalase.
• They may resemble a lysosome, however, they:
– are not formed in the Golgi complex.
– are self replicating, like the mitochondria.
- Ribosomes (and polyribosomes),RER, and the Golgi apparatus are
primary components of the protein synthetic machinery of the cell .
 Cytoskeleton
• structural framework within the cytosol.
✹ Functions:
- maintain cell shape,
- stabilize cell attachments,
- facilitate endocytosis and exocytosis,
- and promote cell motility
NUCLEUS : largest & essential organelle
SHAPES, SIZES & NUMBER
• rounded, loosely packed…………………... Hepatocytes.
• distinctive shape, deeply indented segmented)
…..neutrophils.
 • Binucleated……parietal cells (stomach), some hepatocytes, some
cardiac muscle cells.
• Multinucleated……………osteoclasts, skeletal muscle cells.
• exceptionally large (multiple amounts of DNA)…megakaryocytes.
• no nuclei at all…………….erythrocytes, blood platelets.
† Double memb. – nuclear pores
† Genetic material within – chromosomes (DNA + protein)
† Own cytoskeleton • STORES – DNA
† No cytoplasmic organelles • IMPORTS – PROTEINS
† No protein synthesis • EXPORTS - mRNA
¶ Controls
• growth
• differentiation
• maturation &
• metabolic activities of each cell.
¶Directs: protein synthesis
• Tissues:
– Definition: a group of closely associated cells that
perform related functions and are similar in
structure

nigatu
 Tissue Types in the Human
ΠEpithelial
Πprimarily used for protection
ΠConnective
Πprimarily used for support
ΠNerve
Πprimarily used for control
ΠMuscle
Πprimarily used for movement
• Most organs contain all 4 types
• Connective tissue has non-living extra-cellular
material (matrix) between its cells
nigatu
 Epithelial Tissue
ΠConsists almost entirely of cells, little extracellular material
ΠOne side always exposed to:
Πbody exterior
Πorgan cavity
ΠCells have high regeneration potential *
Œ Cells are avascular * …. (Perfusion)
Œ Some epithelial cells rest on a “Basement Membrane”
ΠBasement Membrane
Œnonliving adhesive substance secreted by epithelial
cells.
Œcomposed of connective tissue (collagen and
glycoproteins) nigatu
Adjectives Describing Epithelial Tissue
Œ Squamous (meaning “scale”) - flat cells
ΠCuboidal - cells as tall as they are wide
ΠColumnar - tall and column shaped
ΠSimple - having a single layer of cells
ΠStratified - having multiple or stacked layers
ΠTransitional - dome shaped surface cells

ΠExamples
ΠSIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Πpermeable - used for filtration and exchange
Πexamples: capillaries, alveoli, kidney glomeruli
ΠSTRATEFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Πused for protection - basil cells may be cuboidal
Πexamples: skin, inside of mouth

nigatu
 Special characteristics of epithelia
• Cellularity
• Specialized contacts
• Polarity
– Free upper (apical) surface
– Lower (basal) surface contributing basal lamina to basement
membrane
• Supported by connective tissue
• Avascular but innervated
– Without vessels
– With nerve endings
• Regeneration

nigatu
 Classes of Epithelia
• Simple: just one layer • Stratified: multiple
or cell shape layers and cell
• specialized for shapes
absorption, and
filtration with minimal
wear & tear.

nigatu
 Stratified Epithelia
• Squamous • Transitional epithelium
– E.g. epidermis
– E.g. urinary structures--
bladder
– Stretches from 6 cells to
3 cells thick as bladder
fills and expands

nigatu
 Simple Epithelium
· Simple squamous
·Single layer of flat
• adapted to diffusion,
osmosis & filtration.
·Usually forms
membranes
·Lines body cavities
·Lines lungs and
capillaries

nigatu
· Simple cuboidal
·Single layer of
cube-like cells
·Common in glands
and their ducts
·Forms walls
of kidney tubules
·Covers the ovaries
·lines the anterior
surface of lens of the
eye, retina & tubules
of kidney
Figure 3.17b

nigatu Slide 3.46

Simple columnar
·Single layer of tall
cells
·Often includes goblet
cells, which produce
mucus
·Lines digestive tract
·It functions in
secretions, absorption,
protection &
lubrication.
Figure 3.17c

nigatu Slide 3.47

Pseudostratified
·Single layer, but
some cells are
shorter than others
· Often looks like a
double cell layer
·Sometimes ciliated,
such as in the
respiratory tract
· May function in
absorption or
secretion

Figure 3.17d

nigatu Slide 3.48

 Stratified Epithelium
· Stratified squamous
· Cells at the free edge are flattened
· Is subdivided in to two based on presence of
keratin. These are :
1. Non-Keratnized
• found in wet surface that are subjected
to considerable wear and tear.
• Example: - Mouth, tongue and
vagina.
2. Keratinized stratified
• the surface cell of this type forms a
tough layer of material containing
keratin.
· Found as a protective covering where
friction is common Example: skin.
nigatu
 · Stratified cuboidal
· rare type of epithelium.
· It is found in :
· sweat glands duct,
· conjunctiva of eye,
· urethra of the male
· urogenital system, pharynx & epiglottis.
· Its main function is secretion.
· Stratified columnar
· Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in
size and shape
· functions in protection and secretion.
nigatu
· Transitional
epithelium
·Shape of cells
depends upon the
amount of stretching
·Lines organs of the
urinary system

Figure 3.17f

nigatu Slide 3.51

nigatu
 Features of Apical Surface of Epithelium
 Microvilli:
 (ex) in small intestine
 Finger-like extensions of the plasma
membrane of apical epithelial cell
 Increase surface area for absorption

 Cilia:
 (ex) respiratory tubes
 Whip-like, motile extensions

 Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial

surface 1-way
 Flagella:
 (ex) spermatoza
 Extra long cilia

 Moves cell
nigatu
 Features of the Basal Surface of
Epithelium

• Basal lamina: supportive sheet between epithelium and

underlying connective tissue
– Selective filter
• Basement membrane = basal lamina plus underlying reticular
fiber layer
– Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
• Sometimes the two are used interchangeably

nigatu
nigatu
Kidney tubules, glands, lining of
nigatuterminal bronchioles, etc.
Glands, bronchioles, stomach,
nigatuintestines, bile ducts, etc.
Mouth, throat, esophagus, urethra,
nigatu skin (keratinized)
Sweat gland ducts, salivary glandnigatu
ducts, etc.
Mammary gland ducts, larynx,
nigatu urethra (males)
Lines nasal cavity & sinuses, nigatu
auditory tubes, trachea,
Bladder lining, ureters, and superior
nigatu urethra
 Connective Tissue
• Matrix
– Ground substance
– Fibers
• Cells
Œ Matrix - “non-living” component of connective
tissue.
ΠIsa complex interaction of different materials.
ΠGround substance
ŒProteoglycan aggregates - pine tree shaped molecules
ŒFluid - Contains gasses & nutrients
ŒMinerals – I.E. Calcium salts

nigatu
 ΠFibers
ΠCollagen, Elastin, and Reticular Fibers
ŒCollagen
ΠFibrous protein in connective tissue structure
Œ Derived from Greek word meaning “to glue together”
ΠConstitutes about 25% of the weight of most mammals
ΠPresent to some degree in all human organs
ΠHas high tensile strength:

• Reticular Fibers:
– Actually very fine collagen fibers
– Branch out to form a network
– Fill “space” between other tissues & organs
nigatu
• Elastic Fibers:
– Contain protein called “elastin”
– Spring like properties
– Can be compressed or distended
ΠCells -
“living” component of connective tissue
Œ“blast” cells (create), “cyte” cells (maintain),
“clast” cells (remove)
ŒMacrophages and white blood cells
ŒMast cells containing heparin & histamine
(important in inflammation)
ŒAdipose cells
nigatu
 Types of Connective Tissue
• Fibroconnective Tissue
• Cartilage
• Bone
ΠFibroconnective tissue - matrix is mostly fibers
ŒAreolar -”loose connective tissue” serves as “packing
material” – Elastic & Collagen Fibers
Œbasal membrane component (attaches skin to
underlying structures)
Œseparates muscles - allows for muscles to slide over
each other
ŒAdipose - highly vascular: insulator, shock absorber, &
energy store
Œcells account for 90% of tissue mass (little matrix
present): cells engorged
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with lipids
ΠReticular - fibers forming a soft internal skeleton for
other tissues
ΠDense regular - contains closely packed parallel collagen
fibers
Œfound where tension is exerted in a particular
direction
ŒExamples: tendons, ligaments
ΠDense irregular - closely packed non-directional collagen
Œforms “sheets” where tension is exerted in many
directions
ŒExamples: dermis of skin, muscle fascia, organ &
nerve coverings
ΠElastic - composed of mostly elastin fibers
ŒExamples: vocal cords, ligamenta flava (vertebral
connection tissue)
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Areolar Tissue

Elastic Fiber

Fibrocyte Nucleus

Collagen Fiber

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Reticular Tissue Adipose Tissue

bv

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Dense Irregular Tissue
(Dermis of Skin & Muscle Fascia) Dense Regular Tissue
(Tendons & Ligaments)

Arrow: orientation of collagen fibers

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ΠCartilage - matrix mostly fibers & ground substance
Πavascular (slow to heal) and not innervated*
Πcartilage matrix:
Πground substance: contains hyaluronic acid
(reduces friction)
Πcollagen (main fiber) & sometimes elastin
Πperichondrium - surrounding tissue from which
nutrients diffuse and where chondrocytes form
Œlimits cartilage thickness
ΠDiffusion must cross entire thickness

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Œtypes of cartilage:
Œhyaline - tough & flexible - more matrix / fewer cells
– serves as shock absorber
Œcovers ends of long bones (articular cartilage)
Œforms “skeleton” of trachea and bronchi
Œfibrocartilage - less firm than hyaline - more cells
and fibers
Œsimilar in structure to dense regular tissue
(tendon)
Œtransitional tissue between tendon and articular
hyaline cartilage
Œforms intervertebral disks and spongy knee
menisci
Œelastic - contains more elastin fibers
Œforms ear pinnanigatu
& epiglottis
Types of Connective Tissue
ΠBone - matrix mostly calcium and phosphate
Π65% of bone weight is calcium hydroxyapatite
Πcalcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate
Πhighly vascular and well innervated
Πcontains lymph channels
Πfunctions in mineral storage and blood cell production
Πbone remodeling - deposition and resorption of bone - neg
feedback
ΠDecr. blood [Ca++] - Inc. PTH РInc. osteoclast activity
ΠIncr. blood [Ca++] РInc. calcitonin - Inc. osteoblast activity
Πred marrow: contains hematopoietic tissue - produces blood cells

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Epiphyseal Bone Histology
Plates
Haversian System (osteon)
Compact (Cortical) Bone
Haversian Canal
(contain blood vessels)

Lamellae
Marrow (concentric rings of
hard bone)
Endosteum Osteocytes in
Lacunae
Periosteum
Volkmans
Canal

Canaliculi
(connecting tunnels)

Trabecular (Cancellous) Bone

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Cross Section of Cortical Bone Osteons

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 Blood & Body Fluids
Π62.5% of total body fluid is intracellular (ICF)
Π37.5% is extracellular (ECF) (blood & interstitial fluid)
ŒBlood functions related to injury / healing
Πhemostasis
Πimmune function
Πinflammation
Πtransport (nutrient, waste, metabolites)
ΠBlood components
Πformed elements (cells and platelets)
Œred blood cells
Œwhite blood cells
Œplatelets
Πplasma

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• Nervous tissue consists of two main cell types:
– neurons (nerve cells)
– and neuroglia (non-neuronal, glial cells).
1. Neurons :- are the structural and functional units of the
nervous system specialized for rapid communication.
– composed of a cell body with processes (extensions) called
dendrites and an axon, which carry impulses to and away from
the cell body, respectively.

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• each axon is associated with certain cells that provide a
sheath for it. These cells are:
– Schwann cells : providing sheath for axons lying outside the
central nervous system.
– oligodendrocyte : within the central nervous system.
• These layers of the mesaxon, along with the
lipids and proteins, form the myelin sheath.
– These type of axons are called myelinated axons.
• Unmyelinated : that are devoid of myelin
sheaths.

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Synapses : point at which neurons communicate with each other.
– communication is via neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters
– Are chemical agents released or secreted by one neuron.
– which may:
• excite or inhibit another neuron,
• continuing or terminating the relay of impulses or the response to
them.
• Neuroglia (glial cells)
• are approximately five times as abundant as neurons.
• are non-neuronal, non-excitable cells.
• form a major component of nervous tissue.
• Function
– support,
– insulate,
– and nourish the neurons. nigatu
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Anatomy of Nerve

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 Muscle Tissue
· Function is to produce movement
· Three types
·Skeletal muscle
·Cardiac muscle
·Smooth muscle
· Skeletal muscle
·Can be controlled voluntarily
· Cells attach to connective tissue
·Cells are striated
·Cells have more than one nucleus
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Muscle Tissue Types
· Cardiac muscle
·Found only in the
heart
· Function is to pump
blood (involuntary)
·Cells attached to
other cardiac muscle
cells at intercalated
disks
· Cells are striated
·One nucleus per cell Figure 3.19c

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Muscle Tissue Types

· Smooth muscle
· Involuntary muscle
· Surrounds hollow
organs
· Attached to other
smooth muscle cells
·No visible striations
·One nucleus per cell

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