ANATOMY- is the science of body

structures and the relationships among

them.
• The word anatomy is derived from
Greek (ana- up; -tomy- process of
cutting) and means “to cut up” or “to cut
open.”
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 Approaches to Studying
Anatomy:
Three main approaches to study human gross
anatomy: regional, clinical (applied) and
systemic.
1.Regional anatomy is based on the organization of
the body into parts:
– Head
– Neck
– Trunk (thorax, abdomen, pelvis/perineum,
back)
– Paired upper and lower limbs.
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 Approaches to Studying
Anatomy:
2. Clinical (applied) anatomy:
– Emphasizes aspects of the structure and
function of the body important in the
practice of medicine, dentistry, and other
health sciences.

– It deals both the regional and the

systemic approaches to studying anatomy
and stresses clinical application. 3
 Approaches to Studying Anatomy:
3. Systemic anatomy is an approach to anatomical study
organized by organ systems that work together to carry
out complex functions:
1. Integumentary system 7. Circulatory system
2. Skeletal system 8. Digestive or alimentary
system
3. Articular system
9. Respiratory system
4. Muscular system
5. Nervous system.
10.Urinary system
6. Endocrine system 11. Reproductive system

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Level of structural organization in
the human body

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Body regions

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 Anatomical Terminology
 Anatomical position - refers to
body position as if the person
were standing upright with the:
Head, eyes, and toes directed
anteriorly (forward).
Arms adjacent to the sides with
the palms facing anteriorly,
and
Lower limbs close together
with the feet parallel.

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 Planes and Sections of the
Body
Median plane is the vertical
plane passing longitudinally
through the center of the
body, dividing it into right
and left halves.
Sagittal planes are vertical
[mid and para sagittal] planes
passing through the body
parallel to the median plane.
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 Planes and Sections of the Body
 Frontal (coronal) planes are vertical planes
passing through the body at right angles to the
median plane
– dividing it into anterior (front) and
posterior (back) portions.
 Transverse planes are planes passing through
the body at right angles to the median and
frontal (coronal) planes.
– A transverse plane divides the body into
superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

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 Directional Terms
 Superior refers to a structure that is nearer the vertex,
the top most point of the cranium.
 Inferior refers to a structure that is situated nearer the
sole of the foot.
 Cranial relates to the cranium and is a useful
directional term, meaning toward the head or cranium.
 Caudal means toward the feet or tail region,
represented in humans by coccyx.

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 Directional Terms
 Posterior (dorsal) denotes the back surface of the body
or nearer to the back.
 Anterior (ventral) denotes the front surface of the body.
 Medial is used to indicate that a structure is nearer to the
median plane of the body.
 Lateral indicates that a structure is farther away from
the median plane.
– For example, the 5th digit of the hand (little finger) is
medial to the other digits.
– The 1st digit of the hand (thumb) is lateral to the other
digits.

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 Directional Terms
Proximal means that a body part is closer to the
point of attachment or closer to the trunk. The
elbow is proximal to the hand.
Distal means that a body part is farther from the
point of attachment or farther from the trunk or
torso. The hand is distal to the elbow.
Superficial & deep describe the position of
structures relative to the surface of the body or the
relationship of one structure to another underlying
or overlying structure.
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 Terms of Laterality
 Bilateral- paired structures having right and left members
(e.g., kidneys, lungs)
 Unilateral those occurring on one side only (e.g., the
spleen).
 Ipsilateral - Something occurring on the same side of body
as another structure.
– E.g., the right thumb and right great toe are ipsilateral.
 Contralateral means occurring on the opposite side of the
body relative to another structure.
– E.g., the left biceps brachii muscle and the right rectus
femoris muscle are contralateral

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 Body cavities
 Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system,
and is divided into two subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity is within the skull and
encases the brain
2. Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral
column and encases spinal cord
 Ventral cavity houses the internal organs
(viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions:
- Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavity.
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 Body cavities….
Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural
cavities, the mediastinum, and the
pericardial cavity
1. Pleural cavities – each houses a lung.
2. Mediastinum – contains the pericardial
cavity, and surrounds the remaining
thoracic organs.
3. Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart.

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Body Cavities….

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 Divisions of Abdominopelvic Cavity
 Used to describe the
location of abdominal
organs and the pain
associated with
abdominal problems.
 The two schemes most
often used are:
1. Four-quadrant
pattern
2. Nine-region
L1-trans pyloric TWO midclaviculo-
organizational ingunal ligament line
L5-trans tubercular
description 19
 Terms of Movement

 Abduction means moving

away from the median plane.
 Adduction means moving
toward median plane.
– Abduction of the digits
means spreading them
apart.
– Adduction of the
digits is bringing the
spread fingers or toes
together.
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 Terms of Movement
Circumduction:
– Circular motion without rotation

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 Terms of Movement
 Rotation
– Direction of rotation from anatomical
position
– Relative to longitudinal axis of the
body
– Left or right rotation
– Medial rotation (inward rotation):
• Turning anterior surface medially
– Lateral rotation (outward rotation):
• Turning anterior surface laterally

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 Terms of Movement
Pronation is a medial
rotation of forearm and
hand so that the palm faces
posteriorly.
Supination is a lateral
rotation of the forearm and
hand so that the palm faces
anteriorly, as in the
anatomical position.
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 Terms of Movement
 Inversion:
– Twists sole of foot medially
 Eversion:
– Twists sole of foot laterally
 Dorsiflexion:
– Flexion at ankle (lifting toes)
 Plantar flexion:
– Extension at ankle (pointing
toes)
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 Terms of Movement
Flexion indicates bending or
decreasing the angle b/n the
bones or parts of the body.

Extension indicates
straightening or increasing
the angle b/n the bones or
parts of the body.

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 Terms of Movement
Protraction:
– Moves anteriorly
– In the horizontal plane
(pushing forward)
Retraction:
– Opposite of protraction
– Moving posteriorly (pulling back)
 Opposition:
 Thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping)
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 Terms of Movement

Protrusion is a movement
anteriorly (forward) as in
protruding the mandible
(chin), lips, or tongue.

Retrusion is a movement
posteriorly (backward), as in
retruding the mandible, lips,
or tongue. 27
 Terms of Movement
Elevation:
– Moves in superior
direction (up)
Depression:
– Moves in inferior
direction (down)

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Skeletal system
• The skeletal system includes all the bones in the
body, the ligaments and the cartilages associated
with the bone
• The adult human has 206 bones(80+126)
• The study of bone is generally called osteology
Functions of the skeletal system
– Support: forms a rigid framework to which
the softer tissues and organs of the body are
attached.
– Protection: encloses and surrounds the vital
organs of the body by forming cavities. E.g.,
rib cage, skull, pelvic cavity, vertebral
column, ... 29
– Body movement: helps to move the body by giving
attachment to skeletal muscles. By doing so the bones act
as levers, with the joints functioning as pivots, when
muscles contract to produce movement.
– Hemopoiesis: the red bone marrow of an adult produces
red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
– Mineral storage: about 95% of the calcium and 90% of
the phosphorus in the body are deposited with in the
bones and teeth. Lesser amounts of magnesium and
sodium salts are also stored in bone tissue.

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 Classification of Bones
• Long Bones
– are tubular structures
– Has a shaft and two ends
– Named according to shape and not size
• Femur, Humerus, Phalanges
• Short Bones
– Shaped like cubes
• Carpals and Tarsals
– Sesamoid bone is a special type of short bone that
forms in a tendon where there is physical stress e.g.
the patella (knee) also palms and soles.
The function of sesamoid bones is to protect tendon from
excessive wear and tear.
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• Flat Bones
– Thin, broad and a bit curved
– Serve for protection and provide an extensive surface for
muscle attachment
• Scapula, rib, sternum, skull bone
• Irregular Bones
– Complex shape that do not fit any of the categories above
• Vertebrae and hip bones and calcaneus

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• A

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 Structure of Bone
• Long bones have a tubular bone shaft:-
• diaphysis,
diaphysis consisting of a bone collar surrounding a
hollow medullary cavity,
cavity which is filled with yellow bone
marrow in adults.

• Epiphyses are at the ends of the bone, and consist of

internal spongy bone covered by an outer layer of
compact.
• Epiphysial plates :cartilaginous intervene between the
diaphysis and the epiphyses

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• The epiphyseal line is located between the epiphyses
and diaphysis, and is a remnant of the epiphyseal
plate.

• Endosteum : is a connective tissue membrane that

lines the internal surface of the bone.

• The medullary cavity contains triglyceride storing

yellow bone marrow in adult.

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 Microscopic structure of bone
Four types of cells present in bone tissue
- Osteogenic- stem cells ( mitotically active cells)
- Osteoblasts- form bone matrix bone forming cell
- Osteocytes- maintains bone tissue , mature bone
cell
- Osteoclasts- remodel & bone dissolving cells bone
destroying cell

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 DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
• The adult human skeleton consists of 206 named bones,
most of which are paired, with one member of each pair on
the right and left sides of the body.
• The skeletons of infants and children have more than 206
bones because some of their bones fuse later in life.
– Examples are the hip bones and some bones of the vertebral
column (backbone).
• Bones of the adult skeleton are grouped into two principal
divisions:
– the axial skeleton 80 bones in number
– the appendicular skeleton (appendic- to hang onto) 126 bones
in number.

38
 Cont…
• The axial skeleton consists of the bones that lie
around the longitudinal axis of the human body, an
imaginary vertical line that runs through the body’s
center of gravity from the head to the space
between the feet:
– skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid
bone , ribs, sternum (breastbone), and bones of
the vertebral column.
– The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones
of the upper and lower limbs (extremities),
plus the bones forming the girdles that
connect the limbs to the axial skeleton.
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 Articulations/Joints
The skeletal system is able to permit body movement a
The science concerned with the study of joints is called
arthrology.
• classified according to structure or function.
• Structurally 3 types (i.e., based on presence or absence of
joint cavity).
– Fibrous joint
– Cartilagenous joints
– Synovial joints
• Functionally 3 types of joints (i.e. based on the degree of
movement)
– Synarthroses –immovable joints
– Amphiarthroses – slightly movable
– Diarthroses – freely movable
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• Fibrous Joints
– lacks a joint cavity
– articulating bones JOIN by a fibrous connective tissue.
– are rigid and relatively immovable.
– 3 types: sutures, syndesmoses and gomphoses
• Sutures:
– Found only b/n the flat bones of the skull
– characterized by a thin layer of dense regular connective
tissue that binds the articulating bones.
• Syndesmosis:
– Found only in forearm and leg where adjacent bones
– E.g., tibiofibular joint, and radioulnar joint
• Gomphosis:
• It is where the root of a tooth is attached to the periodontal
ligament of the alveolus (socket) of the bone.
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• Cartilagenous joints
– lack a joint cavity
– articulating bones binds by cartilage.
– They allow limited movement in response to twisting,
compression or stress.
– The two types of cartilagenous joints are symphyses and
synchondroses.
– Symphyses:
• the adjoining bones are separated by a pad of
fibrocartilage.
• This pad cushions the joint and allows limited
movement. E.g., symphysis pubis and
intervetebral discs. 42
• Synchondroses:
– Have hyaline cartilage b/n the bone segments.
– articulations b/n the ribs and the sternum. Some
temporary joints of these sorts exist between the
epiphyses and diaphyses of long bones forming
epiphyseal plates (growth lines) in children.
• Synovial joints
– These joints are the most common and
– make up most of the joints of the skeletal system.
– Hence, they provide free movement in most parts of
the body (diarthrotic).

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• A synovial has three unique features:
• Joint cavity: houses the synovial fluid (lubricates)
• - provides space for movement
• Hyaline cartilage: covers the end of the articulating bones
and protects the bones from abrasion and serves as shoch
absorber between the bones.
• Synovial membrane: encapsulates the joint
• Articular capsule: surrounds the articulation (helps keep it
together)
• Ligaments:
– Synovial joints are usually reinforced by accessory
ligaments that are either separate (extrinsic) or are a
thickening of a portion of the joint capsule (intrinsic).
– These ligaments help to support the articulating bones.. 44
 Muscular system
• Highly cellular, well-vascularized tissue responsible for body
movement
• Muscle provides contractile force by shortening their elongated
shape
• The three kinds of muscle tissue
– skeletal
– cardiac has 1 or 2 nucleus
– smooth
• These muscle tissues differ in the structure of their cells, their body
location, their function, and the means by which they are activated
to contract
• muscle cells are elongated and are referred to as muscle fibers

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 Types of muscle
 Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of very long, cylindrical,
multinucleated cells that show cross-striations.
• Their contraction is quick, forceful, and usually under voluntary control.
 Cardiac muscle also has cross-striations and is composed of elongated,
branched individual cells that lie parallel to each other.
• At sites of end-to-end contact are the intercalated disks, structures found
only in cardiac muscle.
• Contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary, vigorous, and rhythmic.
 Smooth muscle consists of collections of fusiform cells that do not show
cross-striations.
• Their contraction process is slow and not subject to voluntary control.

46
47
 Functional Characteristics
• Excitability or irritability
– It has the ability to respond to a stimulus
• Contractility
– It has the ability to shorten forcibly
• Extensibility
– Muscle fibers can be stretched
• Elasticity
– Resume its normal length after being
shortened

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 Skeletal muscle

• Wrapped by connective tissue into organs called muscles

• Attach to bones and some to skin
• As contracts it causes gross body movements
• Long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells
• Striated (fibers contain alternating light and dark bands)
• Voluntary control

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 Connective Tissue Wrappings
• Each skeletal muscle is a discrete organ with thousands of
fibers
• Muscle fibers predominate the tissue but it also contains
blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue
• Each muscle fiber is wrapped by fine sheath of areolar
connective called endomysium
• Several fibers are gathered side by side into bundles called
fascicles
• Each fascicle is bound by collagen fiber layer called the
perimysium

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 Connective Tissue Wrappings

51
 Attachments
Most muscles span joints and have at least two attachments
Origin
 Attachment of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during
muscular contraction
 Generally a more proximal or axial location
Insertion
 Attachment of a muscle that moves during muscular contraction
 Generally a more distal or appendicular attachment
Direct attachments have the epimysium attaching directly to the
periosteum of the bone or perichondrium of a cartilage
Indirect attachments have the epimysium attaching to a tendon or
an aponeurosis

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 Myofibrils and Sarcomeres
• A myofibril is a long row of repeating segments called sarcomeres
• The sarcomere is the basic unit of contraction in skeletal muscle
• The boundaries at each end of the sarcomere are called z discs
• Attached to each Z disc and extending toward the center of the
sarcomere are many fine myofilaments called thin (actin) filaments,
which consist primarily of the protein actin
• In the center of each sarcomere and overlapping the inner ends of the
thin filaments is a cylindrical bundle of thick (myosin) filaments
• Both ends of a thick filament are studded with knobs called myosin
head or cross bridges

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 Skeletal muscle cross-striation
• A band (anisotropic with polarized light)
– contain both thin [actin] and thick [ myosin] filaments
• I band (isotropic with polarized light)
– contain only thin filaments
• H band (light regions that transect A band)
– consist of thick filaments only
• M line (dark regions at the center of H bands)
– cross-sections at the center of adjacent thick filaments
• Z disc (line)
– dense regions bisecting each I band

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 Muscle Types
• Prime mover: the muscle that has the major
responsibility for causing a particular movement
• Antagonists: muscles that oppose or reverse a
movement
• Synergists: work together or help prime movers by
producing the same movement or by reducing
undesirable movements
• Fixators: specialized synergists
– Hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover
 Naming Skeletal Muscles
• Shape
– rhomboideus (rhomboid), trapezius (trapezoid)
• Location
– pectoralis (chest or pectus), intercostal (between ribs)
• Attachment
– sternocleidomastoid (sternum, clavicle & mastoid process)
• Size
– maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), longus (long), brevis (short)
• Number of origins
– Biceps, triceps, quadriceps
• Orientation of fibers
– rectus (straight), transverse, oblique
• Relative position
– medial, lateral, internal & external
• Action
– adductor, flexor, extensor, levator

57
 Arrangement of Fascicles
• Arrangement of fascicles within a muscle vary
• Arrangements result in differing shapes and capabilities
• Common forms are
– Parallel: fusiform
– Pennate: uni-, bi-, multi-
– Convergent
– Circular or sphincteral

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 The cardiovascular system
• Heart
– hollow, muscular, 4 chambered organ
– Cardiology is a discipline of which deals with heart
– Weighs about 300 g in adults (about the size of a clenched
fist)
– 2 cm long, 9cm wide & 6 c m thick
– it rests on the diaphragm near the mid line of the thoracic
cavity in the mediastinum
• Mediastinum is a mass of tissue that extends from the
sternum to the vertebral column and between the
covering (pleura) of the lungs
– 2 / 3rd portion of the heart is located in the left side of the
body,
– the heart has a pointed end the apex, and a broad portion
opposite to the apex called base

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62
Structure of the heart
• Pericardium (peri = around)

– is a protective and surrounding membrane of the heart

– it consists of two principal portion:
• the fibrous pericardium
• the serous pericardium
• Fibrous pericardium
– is tough inelastic, dense irregular connective tissue, which
looks like a bag.
– It rests & attaches to the diaphragm:
– its open end is fused to the vessels entering and leaving the
heart.
– Function of fibrous pericardium
• prevents overstretching of the heart
• provides protection and
• anchors the heart in the mediastinum 63
• The serous pericardium
– is a thinner membrane which forms a double layer
– parietal layer –
• is the outer serous pericardium
– visceral layer-
• The inner serous pericardium
• adheres tightly to the surface of the heart.
– pericardial fluid.
• is a fluid In the cavity b/n two layers of pericardium
• is important to reduce friction b/n the heart and the outer layers and
also prevent the heart from external pressure.

64
Layers of the heart wall
– contain 3 distinct layers:
– Epicardium –
• thin, external membrane around the heart
• allow protection against friction by rubbing organs
– Myocardium –
• thickest layer; consists of cardiac muscle. i.e the bulk of
the heart wall.
• It is involuntary muscle
• responsible for the ability of the heart to contract
– Endocardium –
• a thin innermost layer; a unique type of epithelial tissue
that lines the entire circulatory system
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66
Chambers of the heart
– The heart has four chambers
• two upper chambers- atria (entry halls or chambers)
• two lower chambers – ventricles (little bellies)
Right atrium
– forms the right border of the heart
– it receives blood from
• superior vena cava
• inferior vena cava and
• coronary sinus
– Interatrial septum- is a thin partition between right and
left atriums.
– blood passes from the right atrium in to the right
ventricle through a valve called tricuspid valve, it
consists of three leaflets of cusps 67
68
• Left atrium
– forms most of the base of the heart
– receives blood from the lungs through four pulmonary
vein (2 right & 2 left)
– Blood passes from the left atrium in to the left
ventricle through the bicuspid valve which has two
cusps.
• Right ventricle
– forms most of the anterior surface of the heart
– left ventricle is separated from the right ventricle by
inter ventricular septum
– Blood passes from right ventricle through the
pulmonary valve to a large artery, pulmonary trunk,
which divides in to right and left pulmonary arteries.
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Left ventricle
forms the apex of the heart
– The most muscular chamber
– Pump blood to the body through aorta
– Blood passes through the aortic valve in to the
largest artery of the body, aorta, which gives
coronary arteries, descending aorta (thoracic
& abdominal aorta) and ascending aorta.

70
71
• Heart Valves:
– prevent back flow of blood and ensure that blood flows
in the proper direction through the heart.
– The valves function to maintain blood flow in one
direction.
– Valves open and close in response to changes in
pressure:
• 4 heart valves
– Atrioventricular (AV) valves
• tricuspid and
• bicuspid valves
– Semilunar valves
• Aortic valve
• Pulmonary valve
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• Atrioventricular (AV) valves
– b/n atrium & ventricles
– prevent backflow of blood from ventricles to
atria during ventricular systole (contraction)
– open when pressure in the atria is greater than
pressure in the ventricles (i.e., during ventricular
diastole) and
– closed when pressure in the ventricles is greater
than pressure in atria

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• The AV valves include
– tricuspid and
– bicuspid valves
• Tricuspid valve –
– located between right atrium and right ventricle,
– hence prevent back flow from right ventricle to right
atrium during ventricular systole
• Bicuspid or Mitral valve –
– located between left atrium and left ventricle,
– hence prevents back flow from left ventricle to left
atrium (during ventricular systole)

74
• Semilunar valves –
– prevent backflow of blood from arteries to
ventricles during ventricular diastole (relaxation)
– open when pressure in the ventricles is greater
than pressure in the arteries (i.e., during
ventricular systole)
– closed when pressure in the pulmonary trunk and
aorta is greater than pressure in the ventricles
(i.e., during ventricular diastole)
– it includes 
• Aortic valve - located between left ventricle and the aorta
• Pulmonary valve- located b/n rt.ventricle & pulmonary art.
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76
• Two circulatory routes:
– pulmonary circulation:
• right ventricle ----pulmonary artery----
lungs----pulmonary vein----- left atrium
– systemic circulation:
• left ventricle ----- aorta-----body------ superior
and inferior vena cava------right atrium
• Coronary circulation is part of the systemic
circulation and supplies blood to the heart
tissues via coronary arteries and veins.

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 Principal Arteries of the body
• aorta
• ascending aorta
– ascends from the heart (left ventricle)
– The coronary arteries are the only branch of the
ascending aorta
• Aortic arch
– Three vessels arise from the aortic arch:
• the brachiocephalic artery–supplies the upper
limbs and head regions
• left common carotid artery
• left subclavian artery
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80
• brachiocephalic artery
– bifurcates into:
• the right common carotid artery (supplies
the right side of hand and neck) and the
• subclavian artery (supplies the right
upper limb)
• The left common carotid artery and the left
subclavian artery
– branch directly from the aortic arch.

81
 Arteries of the neck and head
• Common carotid artery
– ascends upwards in the neck lateral to trachea
– Divides slightly below the angle of the mandible
into
• the internal carotid artery and
• the external carotid artery

82
 Arteries of the upper limbs
• Right subclavian- from brachiocephalic.and
left subclavian- from aortic arch.
• It has the several branches in the thorax but
becomes the axillary artery as it passes in the axilla.
• It becomes the brachial artery in the arm.
– Site for BP(blood pressure measurement)

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84
85
86
87
• The brachial artery bifurcates at the cubital fossa
into:
• Radial artery- supplies muscles on the radial side of
the forearm. It is the site of measuring pulse.
• Ulnar artery – supplies muscles on the ulnar side of
the forearm.
• Both arteries form
– palmar arch in the palm and
– digital arteries supplying the digits.

88
89
90
• Branches of the thoracic portion of aorta
– It is a continuation of the aortic arch
– descends though the thoracic cavity to
diaphragm
– gives branches to the muscles and organs of
thoracic region;
– e. g.,
– Pericardial artery – pericardium of heart,
– Bronchial artery – systemic circulation to
the lungs.

91
• Branches of the abdominal portion of aorta
– Abdominal aorta is the segment between diaphragm
and L4
– Has three main unpaired branches
– Other paired branches
• unpaired
• Celiac trunk –
– short, thick, branch, which divides into three vessels:
• Splenic artery (to spleen)
• Left gastric artery ( to stomach)
• Common hepatic (to liver)
92
93
• Superior mesenteric artery-
– to the small intestine (except the duodenum), cecum,
appendix, transverse, and ascending colons
• Inferior mesenteric artery –
– last major, anterior, unpaired branch just before
bifurcation into the common iliac arteries.
• Supplies the descending, and sigmoid colons, rectum
• Paired branches
– Renal artery– to kidney
– Suprarenal artery - to adrenal glands
– Testicular artery to testes
– ovarian artery- to ovaries
94
95
96
• Arteries of the pelvis and lower limbs
– the abdominal aorta terminates by
bifurcating into
• right common iliac arteries
• left common iliac arteries
– The common iliac divides into
• the internal iliac and
• external iliac.

97
98
• The internal iliac artery
– supply gluteal muscles and organs of the pelvic region
• branches
– Middle rectal - internal visceral organs of the pelvis
– Superior, inferior, middle vesicular arteries - urinary
bladder
– Uterine and vaginal arteries - female reproductive
organs
– Superior and inferior gluteal arteries - gluteal muscles.
– Obturator artery - upper medial thigh muscles
– Internal pudendal artery - perineum and external
genitalia of male and female

99
100
• The external iliac artery–
– passes out of pelvis beneath the inguinal
ligament to become the femoral artery
• Femoral artery –
– passes through the femoral triangle on the
upper medial portion of the thigh.
– At this point it is close to the surface, hence for
palpation and pressure.
– the femoral artery becomes the popliteal artery
as it passes across the posterior aspect of the
knee.
101
102
• The popliteal artery
– divides into the
• anterior tibial and
• the posterior tibial arteries
– the anterior tibial artery at the ankle, becomes
• the dorsal pedal artery and
• forms the plantar arch with the lateral plantar
artery of the posterior tibial artery.
• The dorsal pedal artery is the site from which
the most distal pulse is recorded to get
information about circulation.
103
• The posterior tibial artery
– forms the large fibular artery which
supplies the peroneal muscles of the
leg.
–At the ankle it bifurcates into the
lateral and medial plantar arteries.
–The lateral plantar artery forms the
plantar arch and gives off digital
arteries to the digits of the foot.
104
• Veins of the thorax
• Superior vena cava
– receives blood from the right and left brachiocephalic
veins, which drain head, neck, and upper limb as well as
from azygous veins.
– lacks valves which are characteristics of most veins
• The azygous vein
– extends superiorly along the dorsal abdominal and
thoracic walls on the right side of the vertebral column

105
 Cont…
– joins the superior vena cava at T4.
– Its tributaries are:
• ascending lumbar veins - drain from lumbar
and sacral regions
• intercostals veins- from intercostals regions
• accessory hemiazygous and hemiazygous
veins– from left of the vertebral column

106
• Veins of the lower extremity
• have a deep and a superficial group
• The deep veins
• accompany the corresponding arteries
• These include:
– posterior and anterior tibial veins
• originate in the foot and descend upwards in front of the tibia to the back
of the knee where they merge to form the popliteal vein.
– Popliteal vein
• drains blood from the knee region and above the knee, it becomes the
femoral vein
– the femoral vein
• receives blood from the deep femoral vein and above this, receives from
the great saphenous vein, then becomes the external iliac vein (as it passes
under the inguinal ligament).
– the external iliac vein
• merges with the internal iliac vein to form the common iliac vein 107
• The superficial vein include
– small saphenous vein :
• arises from the lateral side of the foot,
courses posteriorly along the surface of the
calf of the leg and enters deep into the
popliteal vein behind the knee.
– Great saphenous vein :
• longest vessel in the body, originates at the
arch of the foot and ascends superiorly along
the medial aspect of the leg and thigh before
draining into the femoral vein.
108
• Veins of the Abdominal Region
• The inferior vena cava
– parallels the abdominal aorta on the right as it ascends
through the abdominal cavity.
– It penetrates the diaphragm and empties into the right
atrium
– largest in diameter of all vessels in the body
– in the abdomen has tributaries corresponding to the
branches of the abdominal aorta .
– (Exceptions: the left testicular vein, left ovarian vein and
the left suprarenal vein drain into the left renal vein)

109
 Cont…
• 4 paired lumbar veins
– renal veins
– right and left testicular veins.
– right and left ovarian veins
– right and left suprarenal veins.
– inferior phrenic vein
– right and left hepatic veins

110
 Hepatic portal system cont…
• Hepatic portal vein – drains blood from digestive
organs
• - formed by union of superior mesenteric vein
(from small intestine) and splenic vein (from spleen)
• Splenic vein is formed by convergence of - inferior
mesenteric vein (from large intestine), pancreatic
vein, left gastroepiploic vein.
• The right gastroepiploic vein from stomach drains
directly into the superior mesenteric vein.
• Three veins other veins drain directly into the portal
vein: left and right gastric vein (from lesser
curvature) and cystic vein (from gall bladder).
112
 Digestive system

functional
activities
Ingestion: -
Mastication
Deglutition
Digestion
Peristalsis:-
Defecation

113
114
• Anatomically or structurally and functionally, the digestive
system can be divided into:
– a tubular digestive tract, or (GI tract)
– accessory organs.
• The GI tract
– is approximately 9m long and
– extends from the mouth to the anus.
– It include
• the oral cavity -stomach
• pharynx -small intestine,
• esophagus -large intestine.
• Accessory digestive organs
– it include
• the teeth -liver
• tongue - gallbladder
• salivary glands - pancreas. 115
III. Histological Layers of the GIT
– are similar throughout the alimentary canal, but display
characteristic regional specialization
A. Mucosa
1. Epithelium
– lines the lumen of the alimentary canal.
2. Lamina propria
• consists of loose connective tissue housing glands and
lymphoid accumulations.
3. Muscularis mucosae
• is composed of one to three layers of smooth muscle.
• is responsible for the motility of the mucosa
116
B. Submucosa
– consists of dense irregular collagenous or fibroelastic connective
tissue.
– contains glands only in the esophagus and duodenum
– houses Meissner’s (submucosal) nerve plexus.
C. Muscularis
– is composed of two layers of smooth muscle (three layers in the
stomach) in the esophagus,
– houses Auerbach’s (myenteric) nerve plexus, which is primarily
responsible for its innervation.
– is responsible for gut motility, which is controlled by, innervation,
stretching of the muscle, and several paracrine hormones.
D. Serosa
– 1. Serosa consists of a mesothelial lining (peritoneum) over a layer
of loose connective tissue.
– 2. Adventitia consists only of loose connective tissue.
117
118
119
 Mouth
• also known as the oral or buccal cavity .
• It is formed by the cheeks, lips, hard and soft
palates, tongue.
• The oral cavity is divided into
– the vestibule
– the mouth proper.
• The vestibule
– is the area b/n the cheeks and lips externally and the
gums and teeth internally.
• The mouth proper
– is the space bounded by the teeth.
– The mouth is lined by nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.
120
• The pharynx
• The pharynx consists of external and internal muscles.
– The external include
– the superior,
– middle
– inferior
– which constrict the pharynx during swallowing.
– The internal muscles of the pharynx include
• stylopharygeus,
• palatopharyngeus, and
• salpingopharyngeus.
– These muscles elevate the larynx and pharynx in swallowing and
during speaking.
– the inferior constrictor muscle prevents air from entering the
esophagus during breathing. 121
• The pharynx
• The pharynx consists of external and internal muscles.
– The external include
– the superior,
– middle
– inferior
– which constrict the pharynx during swallowing.
– The internal muscles of the pharynx include
• stylopharygeus,
• palatopharyngeus, and
• salpingopharyngeus.
– These muscles elevate the larynx and pharynx in swallowing and
during speaking.
– the inferior constrictor muscle prevents air from entering the
esophagus during breathing. 122
• Esophagus
– This is a collapsible muscular tube (25cm) that connects the
pharynx to the stomach, and located posterior to the trachea.
– It passes through the diaphragm is an opening called esophageal
hiatus.
– The esophagus is lined with a nonkeratinzed stratified squamous
epithelium.
– The upper third of the esophagus contains skeletal muscle, the
middle third contains both skeletal and smooth muscle, and the
terminal portion contains only smooth muscle.
– The lumen of the terminal portion of the esophagus is slightly
narrowed due to the presence of the lower esophageal
(gastroesophageal) sphincter.
– This prevents regurgitation of stomach contents into the
esophagus.
123
• Stomach
– The stomach is a J-shaped pouch and is the
most distensible part of the GIT.
– The functions of the stomach are:
• to store food as it is mechanically churned
with gastric secretions
• to initiate the digestion of proteins
• to carry out limited absorption
• to move food into the small intestine as a
chyme (pasty material)
• Secration of gastric juice 124
The stomach is divided into four regions
– Cardia: - the narrow upper region immediately
below the gastroesophageal sphincter
– Fundus: - the dome shaped portion to the left
and in direct contact with diaphragm
– Body: - the lager central portion
– Pylorus:- the funnel shaped terminal portion.
• The pylorus communicates with the duodenum
through a pyloric sphincter.

125
126
• Small intestine
• It is the portion of the GIT b/n the pyloric sphincter
of the stomach and the ileocecal valve opening into
the large intestine.
– is the site where digestion is completed and nutrients
are absorbed.
– The surface area of the intestinal wall is increased by
villi, and microvilli.
– It is supported, except for the first portion, by the
mesentery.
– Enclosed within the mesentery are blood vessels, nerves
and lymphatic vessels that supply the intestinal wall.
127
• The functions the small intestine are
– the reception of the secretions from the liver and
pancreas,
– mechanical breakdown of chime,
– absorption of nutrients and
– transportation of the remaining undigested material to
the large intestine.
• The small intestine is divided into three regions
• These are
– the duodenum,
– jejunum and
– ileum.
128
• The duodenum
– is a relatively fixed C- shaped tube (25cm long)
– extend from the pyloric sphincter to the
duodenojejunal flexure.
– Its left concave surface receives bile secretions through
the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder,
and pancreatic secretions through the duct of the
pancreas.
– Both ducts unite to form a common entry into the
duodenum called the hepatopancreatic ampulla (or
ampulla of Vater), which pierces the duodenal wall and
drains into the duodenum from an elevation called the
duodenal papilla.
• Duodenal glands (Brunner’s glands)
– produce mucus, buffers 129
130
• The jejunum
– (1m long) extends from the duodenum to the ileum.
– It has a slightly larger lumen and more internal folds
than the ileum.
• The ileum
– (2m long) makes up the remaining part of the small
intestine.
– The terminal portion of the ileum empties into the
medial side of the cecum through the ileocecal valve.
– The walls of the ileum have an abundance of lymphatic
tissue aggregated into nodules called mesenteric
(payer’s) patches

131
• Large Intestine
– The large intestine (about 1.5m long) begins at the
terminal end of the ileum and terminates at the anus
– The mesocolon, a specialized portion of the mesentery,
supports the transverse portion of the large intestine
along the posterior abdominal wall.
– The large intestine has little or no digestive functions.
– It functions
• to absorb water and electrolytes from the remaining chyme
and
• forms, stores, and
• expels feces from the body.

132
133
• The large intestine is structurally divided into
– the cecum
– colon
– rectum
– anal canal.
• The cecum
– is the dilated pouch that hangs inferiorly slightly below
the ileocecal valve.
– The ileocecal valve is a fold of mucus membrane at the
junction of the small and large intestine that prohibits
the back flow of chyme.
– The appendix (9cm) is attached to the inferior medial
margin of the cecum.
– It has an abundance of lymphatic tissue which serves to
resist infection. 134
• The colon
– consists of ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
portions.
– The ascending colon extends superiorly from the cecum along the
right abdominal wall to the interior surface of the liver.
– Hence the colon bends sharply to the left at the hepatic flexure
(right colic flexure) and transversely crosses the upper abdominal
cavity as the transverse colon.
– At the left abdominal wall, it bends at a right angel called the
splenic flexure (or left colic flexure).
– The latter marks the beginning of the descending colon.
– This passes inferiorly along the left abdominal wall to the pelvic
region where it bends medially from the pelvic brim to form an S-
shaped curve called the sigmoid colon..

135
• The terminal (20cm) portion of the GIT is the
rectum of which the last 2 to 3 cm is called the anal
canal.
• The anus is the external opening of the anal canal.
• Two sphincter muscles guard the anal opening:
– the internal anal
– external anal sphincter
• composed of smooth muscle fibers and the
composed of skeletal muscle.
• The mucus membrane of the anal canal is a ranged
into highly vascular longitudinal folds called anal
columns

136
137
 Accessory digestive glands
– These organs aid in the chemical break down of
food.
– These are
• the liver
• gallbladder, and
• pancreas.
– The liver and pancreas function as exocrine
glands in this process because their secretions
are transported to the lumen of the GIT via ducts.

138
139
 Endocrine System
• Works closely with the nervous system
• How the body communicates with itself?
• Nervous system – impulses travel down
nerves
• Endocrine system – hormones released
into the blood and travel to target organs.

140
Comparison of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems

Endocrine System Nervous System

Secretes hormones that are Transmits neurochemical impulses

transported to target cells via the via nerve fibers
blood or by surrounding
interstitial fluid

Action is relatively slow (seconds Action is very rapid (milliseconds)

or even days)

Effects are relatively prolonged Effects are relatively brief

Causes changes in the metabolic Causes muscles to contract or

activities in specific cells glands to secrete 141
 Endocrine System
• Glands can be one of three types:
• Exocrine – release secretions that are carried within
a duct or tube – sweat glands, salivary glands,
sebacious glands
• Endocrine – release secretions directly into the blood
– thyroid gland, adrenal gland, anterior pituitary
gland
• Heterocrine – contain both exocrine and endocrine
components – pancreas, testis

142
A comparison of
endocrine vs exocrine

endocrine gland, such as

the thyroid gland shown
here, is a ductless gland
that releases hormones into
the blood or surrounding
interstitial fluid

By contrast, exocrine

glands,such as sweat
glands in the skin, secrete
their products directly onto
body surfaces or into ducts
that lead to body surfaces.

143
 Primary Endocrine Glands
 Endocrine system is unique in that its glands are widely
scattered throughout the body

• Hypothalamus
• Hypophysis (Pituitary
Gland)
• Thyroid Gland
• Parathyroid Gland
• Adrenal Gland
• Pancreas
• Testis and ovary

144
 GLANDS
The Important Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
• A .HYPOTHALAMUS:
– An intermediary between nervous and endocrine system
– Autonomic NS and endocrine functions
– Works through releasing/inhibiting factors
– Hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system
– Functions are visceral, behavioral/emotional; temp.
regulation, perspiration, GI secretion/motility, appetite,
thirst, B/P, respiration, sexual behavior, fear, rage,
sleep,& menstrual cycles
145
 important releasing/inhibiting hormones
produced in hypothalamus:
- Corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH)
- Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH)
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH)
- Growth-hormone-releasing
hormone(GHRH)
- Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
- Prolactin-inhibitory hormone (PIH)
-Somatostatin hormone
146
 Pituitary or Hypophysis
• is small gland about size of large pea 1.3 cm, located on inferior
aspect of brain in the region of diencephalon
•attached to the brain by structure called pituitary stalk
•is covered by the dura mater and is supported by the sella turcica
of the sphenoid bone
• The cerebral arterial circle surrounds highly vascular pituitary
gland, providing it with a rich blood supply
•Often referred to as the “master gland”
•Secretes hormones zt regulate other endocrine glands
•Consists of two major lobes:-
• anterior adenohypophysis and
• posterior neurohypophysis separated by intermediate lobe
147
 Pituitary or Hypophysis cont..
• The larger anterior lobe referred to as the
adenohypophysis .
– is a highly glandular tissue that produces and
secretes numerous hormones.
• The second smaller posterior
neurohypophysis
– is neural tissue that secretes two hormones
produced by hypothalmus.

148
 Adenohypophysis
• Larger anterior lobe
• Subdivided into :
– the glandular pars distalis which is most of the
lobe and is active in secretion
– Also contains the pars tuberalis that forms
covering for stalk
– The pars intermedia separates the anterior lobe
from the posterior lobe

149
150
 Thyroid and Parathyroid gland
 The thyroid gland is anterior in the neck below and lateral
to the thyroid cartilage
 It consists of two lateral lobes (which cover the
anterolateral surfaces of the trachea, the cricoid cartilage,
and the lower part of the thyroid cartilage) with an isthmus
that connects the lateral lobes and crosses the anterior
surfaces of the second and third tracheal cartilages.
 The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small, ovoid,
yellowish structures on the deep surface of the lateral
lobes of the thyroid gland.
 They are designated as the superior and inferior
parathyroid glands
151
152