Anatomy and Physiology PDF (7 Files Merged)

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM
ANIMALS
ANIMAL SCIENCE
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF FARM ANIMALS
 Anatomy- Science that deals with the form and structure of all organisms.
 Gross (macroscopic) anatomy- study of the form and relations (relative
positions) of the structures of the body that can be seen with the unaided eyes.
 Microscopic anatomy or histology- study of the tissues and cells that can be seen
only with the aide of the microscope.
 Comparative anatomy- study of the structures of various species of animals,
with particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in classifications.
 Embryology- is the study of the developmental anatomy, covering the period from
conception (fertilization of eggs) to birth.
 Physiology- study of the integrated functions of the body and the function of all its
parts (system, organs, tissues, cells and cell components), including biophysical and
biochemical processes
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS USEFUL IN THE STUDY OF ANATOMY
 Cranial- directional term meaning toward the head

 Caudal- toward the tail
 Rostral or caudal- directional terms used in reference to features of the head to
mean toward the nose(rostral) or toward the tail (caudal)
 Median plane- imaginary plane passing through the body so as to divide body into
equal right and left halves.
 Sagittal plane- plane parallel to the median plane . the median plane is
sometimes called the midsagittal plane
 Transverse plane- right angle to the median plane and divides the body into
cranial and caudal segments
 Horizontal plane- right angle to both the median plane and transverse plane
 Medial- meaning close to or toward the median plane
 Lateral- antonym of medial. Away from the median plane
 Dorsal- toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral column
 Ventral- away from the vertebral column or toward the mid abdominal wall.
 Proximal- relatively close to a given part.
 Distal- farther from the vertebral column.
REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 2

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PROPERTIES OF LIFE
 Homeostasis- is the tendency of living things to attempt to maintain a state of

relative stability.
 Growth- increase in size.
o Hypertrophy- increased in size of a cell or organ beyond normal
o Hyperplasia- an increased in the size of a structure because of an
increase in the numbers of cells
o Atrophy- decrease in size from normal
o Aplasia- failure of a tissue or organ to develop
o Hypoplasia- incomplete development or a defective development of a tissue
or organ
 Reproduction- of a cell or of an organisms implies that the ability to produce
more cells or more organisms that are essentially the same as the original
 Absorption- process of taking dissolved materials or water through the cell
membrane into the substance of the cells
 Endocytosis- extracellular materials enter the cells, the exterior cell
membranes moves to surround extracellular metrials in a membrane pocket.
 Phagocytosis- if a large amount of particulate materials is endocytosed by
ameboid movement of the cells
 Metabolism- sum total of the physical and biochemical reactions occurring in
each cell and therefore in the entire animals.
o Anabolic-reaction that builds and maintains cellular components
o Catabolic- break down cellular components or constitutents
 Irritability (also called excitability)- property of being able to react to stimulus.
The reaction must necessarily consist of one other properties of protoplasm, such
as conduction, contraction or secretion.
 Conductivity- property of transmitting an electrical impulse from one point in
the cell to another
 Contractility- ability to shorten in one direction.

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SKELETAL SYSTEM
This system is made up of hard tissues like bone and cartilages. This system gives form
and shape to animal body .The skeleton of a living animal is made up living structures of
bones. The bones have blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. They are subject to
disease, repair themselves and adjust to changes during stress.
 Bone – a highly specialized supportive tissues which is characterized by its

rigidity and hardness.
MAIN FUNCTION
 Mechanical support (body framework)/ Rigidity and form to the body:

animals without a skeleton of some type have little or no regular form. The
skeleton gives a basis for the external structure and appearance of most animals.
 Permit locomotion and movement/ Act as lever: in the vertebrates, locomotion,
defense, offense, grasping, and other activities of this type depend largely upon the
action of muscles that are attach to the levers. Almost without exception, these
levers are made of bone and are integral parts of skeleton.
 Protection of vital organs - protection of some vital organs from the external
damages is one of the important functions of bones. The central nervous
system (CNS) is protected by the skull and vertebral column; the heart and
lungs by rib cage; and pelvis protects the internal parts of urogenital system.
 Metabolic reservoirs of minerals calcium, and phosphorous- the entire
skeleton serves as a dynamic storage area for minerals, particularly calcium
and phosphorous. These minerals are deposited and withdrawn as needed in
the on- going homeokinetic process.
 Hemopoisis/ Site for blood formation: blood formation is not strictly a function
of bone proper, but of the marrow found within the marrow cavity of long bones
and within the spongy substance of all young bones.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
 LONG BONES: are relatively cylindrical in shape with two extremities called
epiphyses There is metaphysis between each epiphysis and the diaphysis. A long
bone grows in length only at the epiphyseal cartilage which is located within the
metaphysis.
 Function of long bones: chiefly as levers and aid in support, locomotion and
prehension. The best examples of long bones are pectoral limb, humerus,
radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges; pelvic limb, femur, fibula, tibia,
metatarsals and phalanges.
 SHORT BONES: are somewhat cuboid in shape i.e approximately equal in all
dimensions. There is no marrow cavity. They are found in complex joints such as
the carpus (knee) and tarsus (hock). Example of short bones: Patella.
 Function: - for variety of movement ,absorption of shock
 FLAT BONES: are relatively thin and expanded in two dimensions. They consist of
two plats of compact substance, lamina externa and lamina interna, separated by
diploe. Example of flat bone: frontal base of skull, scapula and pelvic bones

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 Functions: - protects vital organs such as brain, the heart and lungs. -
many provide large areas for muscle attachment.
 SESAMOID BONES: they are developed along the course of tendons. Example:
Patella (knee cap) is the largest sesamoid in the body.
 Functions: - reduces friction or change the course of tendons, may change
the angle of the pull of muscles and this give a greater mechanical
advantage.
 PHUNUMATIC BONES: they contain air spaces or sinuses that communicate with
the exterior. Example: long bones of bird, frontal bones and maxillary bones of the
skull.
 IRREGULAR BONES: are unpaired bones located on the median plane and include
the vertebrae and some of the unpaired bones of the skull.
 Functions: - protection, support and muscle attachment.
For better understanding the skeletal system can be divided into two parts viz the axial
skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
 Axial skeleton: is made up of skull, and vertebral column sternum and ribs.
Skull Vertebrae cervical thoracic lumbar sacral caudal

Cranial bones
-occipital Ribs
parietal
interparietal True ribs -join sternum by costal cartilages False ribs- not d
temporal Floating ribs- last 1 or 2 pair connected only with vertebrae
frontal
ethmoid Sternum manubrium body
sphenoid Facial bones xiphoid process
pterygoid
lacrimal
nasal
palatine
conchae (turbinates)
maxilla
incisive (premaxilla)
zygomatic (malar) Vomer
Mandible Hyoid
Skull: forms the basis of the head. It consists of cranial bones, which surround the brain
and facial bones, which exhibits observable variation among the species.
Function: - protection of brain

- Supports many sense organs

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- Forms passage for the beginning of digestive and respiratory system
Vertebral column: composed of median, unpaired and irregular bones. The following
indicates the part of vertebral column and letters are used to designate the respective
regions.
• Cervical vertebrae (C) - neck region
• Thoracic or dorsal (T) - chest region
• Lumbar (L) - loin region
• Sacral (S) - in region of pelvis- fused vertebrae
• Fused Lumbar and Sacral (LS)- in fowl
• Caudal or Coccygeal (Cd) - located in tail
Vertebral formula: for a given species consist of the letter symbol for each region followed
by the number of vertebrae in that region in the given species. The following shows the
vertebral formula of common farm animals.
Cow: C7 T13 L6 S5 cd18-20

Sheep: C7 T13 L6-7 S4 cd16-18
Pig: C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 cd20-23
Horse: C7 T18 L6 S5 cd15-20
Chicken: C14 T7 LS14 cd6
Sternum and Ribs: forms the floor of the bony thoracic wall and gives attachment to the
costal cartilages of the sternal (true) ribs as well as forming a place of origin for the pectoral
muscles. The sternum consists of segments called sternebrae which tend to fuse together as
age advances. The number of sternebrae varies with species as follows:
Pig: 6; Sheep: 6; Cow: 7; Goat: 7; Horse: 8
Sometimes the last one or two pair of ribs have no connection with other ribs at the ventral
end. Such ribs are called floating ribs. The spaces between the ribs are called intercostal
spaces.
Table 1. Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Bones. Spurgeon 1992.
Pectoral limb Pelvic limb

Pectoral girdle (shoulder Pelvic girdle (os coxae)-
girdle) pelvis
Scapula Ilium
Clavicle Ishium
Coracoid Pubis
Humerus-arm Femur- thigh
Radius-forearm Patella
Ulna- forearm Tibia- leg
Carpus- Fibula-
Metacarpus- cannon Tarsus- hock
Phalanges- digits Metatarsus- cannon
Phalanges- digits

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Pectoral limbs:
• Scapula (shoulder blade)- in all animals, it is rather flat, triangular bone.
• Humerus (arm bone)- is a typical long bone that varies only in minor details from
one animal to another.
• Radius- is the larger of the two forearm bones, and the ulna is the smaller mammal
but not in birds. The radius is well developed in all species.
• Ulna- varies in its degree of development from species to species. In horse the
proximal portion of the shaft of the ulna is well developed but fused to the radius.
The cow, sheep, goat and pig each have a complete ulna, but with restricted or no
movement between the ulna and radius. The cat and dog have considerably more
movement between these complete bones, but not nearly as much as man.
• Carpus- in all animals is a complete region that includes two rows of small bones.
Those in the proximal row are called radial, intermediate and ulnar. Those in the
distal row are numbered as 1,2,3, and 4.
Anatomy of chicken
The domestic chicken is descendent of red jungle fowl. All systems are present but there is
modification of each system to meet the requirements of species. Modifications are
described below:
General modification
Cattle Chicken
1. Mouth Beak
2. Fore limb Wings
3. Long bones with Pneumatic

marrow without Without marrow,
marrow, pneumatic pneumatic
4. Lungs and kidneys Attached to dorsal wall

not attached Presence of comb and
wattle in head
Skeletal System- Is made up of bones that are pneumatic in nature making the body
light for flight.

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Functions of the muscular system
 Layers of smooth muscle in the walls of the stomach and intestines contract to
mix and propel food along the gastroentistinal tract
 Smooth muscle layers in the walls of the blood vessels control distribution of
blood, which is propelled by the contraction by the cardiac muscle of the heart
 In the inner eye, smooth muscle fibers adjust the diameter of the pupil and
thickness of the lens for optimal visions
 In skin, contraction of smooth muscle causes the hair to stand up.
 Skeletal muscle permits locomotion by contracting to change the relative positions
of the bones during movement and by maintaining joint angles against the pull of
gravity during support
 Skeletal muscle of respiration move air into and out of the lungs by contracting
to change the volume of the thoracic cavity
Types of muscle tissues
Skeletal Muscle
 The bulk of the muscle of the body and is responsible for producing the
voluntary movement of the limbs, trunk and head.
 These muscle are usually attached to the bones of the skeleton (hence the term
skeletal muscle) and are under voluntary control of the animal.
 Skeletal muscles are striated muscles
Smooth (involuntary or unstraited muscle)
 Composed of muscle cells that have no striations visible with a microscope.

 Found in a system of the body with autonomic functions
 Contraction of smooth muscle is an intrinsic property of the fibers themselves ,
which means the contraction does not generally require stimulation by a nerve
Cardiac Muscle
 Characterized by fibers with visible striations, so it is considered a type of striated

muscles
 Contracts intrinsically and is not under voluntary control
 Restricted to the heart, where it constitute most of the thickness of the wall.
Its rhythmic contraction is responsible for the circulation of blood.

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The general structure of a muscle fiber include myofibrils (chains of repeating

subunits) composed of two kinds of filaments:
 thin filaments (composed of myosin) and thick filaments (composed
of actin, tropomyosin and troponin) that interact by binding to produce a sliding
movement between the filaments, and that creates tension in the muscle fiber
leading to muscle contraction.
GENERAL MUSCLE TERMINOLOGIES
1. Action-• takes place by contraction, which creates tension in the muscle so that it
shortens and thus moves what it is attached to (whether it is a bone, hair or the
epithelium of an organ)
• for skeletal muscles, each muscular unit may be described based on a number of
factors, such as where the main body of the muscle (belly) is located, such as
shoulder muscles, pectoral muscles, gluteal muscles, etc.
2. Origin: the end of a muscle that attaches to the more fixed part of the skeleton,
which is the proximal end in limb muscles
3. Insertion: the point of attachment of a muscle that moves the most when
the muscle shortens, and is the most distal end of limb muscles
4. Antagonistic - oppose or resist the action of another muscle (such as is the case of
the biceps and the triceps)
5. Synergistic - work together to produce a common effect (such as in the action
of making a fist, in which the muscles of the forearm and fingers work together)
6. Flexor - decreases the angle at a joint
7. Extensor - increases the angle at a joint
8. Abductor - moves a bone away from the midline
9. Adductor - moves a bone closer to the midline
10. Levator - produces an upward movement
11. Depressor - produces a downward movement
12. Sphincter - decreases the size of an opening
13. Tensor - makes a body part more rigid
14. Rotator - moves a bone around its longitudinal axis
Arrangement of the muscle fibers:
Strap-shaped muscles - have parallel fibers and broad attachments (teres major)
Fusiform muscles - parallel fibers, but narrow tendons for attachments (biceps)
Pinnate muscles - diagonally arranged fibers that insert on the side of the muscle
into a tendon. (subscapularis)
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Size:
Maximus = largest
Minimus = smallest
Longus = longest
Brevis = shortest
Number of origins:
Biceps = two origins

Triceps = three origins
Quadriceps = four origins
Relative shape
Deltoid = triangular
Trapezius = trapezoid
Serratus = saw-toothed
Rhomboideus = rhomboid or diamond-shaped
COMMON MUSCLES FOUND IN LIVESTOCK ANIMALS
1. The masseter is the superficial muscle of the cheek that aids in chewing and biting
movements.
2. The trapezius is the superficial, triangular muscle of the shoulder that helps
move front appendages
3. The latissimus dorsi is a long muscle that connects the humerus bone of the
forearm to the back of the animal.
4. The abdominal obliques are large muscles that run along the sides of the animal and
help support the internal organs of digestion and reproduction.
5. The gluteals are the large muscles in the upper hind quarter region of the animal
that aid in rear leg
6. The biceps femoris is a large muscle found in the rear leg of an animal.
7. The biceps brachii is the muscle responsible for the flexing of the front legs (elbow
joint) of an animal.
8. The triceps brachii is the muscle responsible for the extension of the front legs
(elbow joint) of an animal.movement.
9. The pectorals are large muscles that run across the chest of the animal and are
responsible for the primary movement of the front legs.
10. The serratus ventralis are muscles that connect the forelimbs (or front legs) to the
trunk of the animal.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Controls the rapid activities of the body such as muscular contraction, secretions of some
endocrine glands, heart rate, respiration rate, gastro-intestinal motility etc.
BASIC UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is composed of the brain, the spinal chord and the nerves
 The nerve cell or the neurons specialize in impulse conduction or the relay of
messages from the effector organs to the nervous system and vice-versa
Classification of neurons according to the direction of impulse conduction
a. Afferent (sensory) neurons- transmit nerve impulses from effector organs to

the spinal chord or brain
b. Efferent (motor) neurons- transmit nerve impulses away from the brain or spinal
chord to or towards muscles or glands (effector organs). The effector organs could
either be the skeletal, muscle, cardiac muscle , smooth muscle or some other gland
; and
c. Interneurons- conduct impulses from an afferent neurons to an efferent neurons
within the central nervous system(CNS) which is made up of the brain and the
spinal chord.
Structure of Neurons
 All neurons consist of a cell body, one axon and one or more dendrites. Axon and
dendrites of sensory neurons are threadlike extensions from the cell body and
are often called nerve fibers. The distal end of dendrites of sensory neurons are
called receptors because they receive the stimuli that initiate the conduction of
impulses to the cell body of the neuron. The axon is a single process that extends
out from the cell body, and may end up or any effector organ.
 Neurons or nerve cells do not come in direct contact with one another; instead, there
o 6
is a small gap of about 200 A ( Angstrom= 1/10 inch) between them. This gap is
called a synapse where nerve impulses are transmitted from one nerve cell to
another. Thus, synapse are located between the axon terminals of one neuron
(presynaptic or pregnaglionic cell) and the cell body or dendrites of another
neuron (postsynaptic or postganglionic cell). The transmission of nerve impulses
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across the synapse involves the release from presynaptic neuron of a chemical
mediator or neurotransmitter (mostly acetylcholine) which crosses the synaptic
cleft and brings about a generation of signal or initiation of impulses in the
postsynaptic neuron.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The brain and the spinal column jointly control the activities of the skeletal or
voluntary muscle and the involuntary or smooth muscle of the body in response to
stimuli in their environment. Information about the internal and external
environment reaches the CNS via a variety of sensory receptors. The sensory
receptors are transducers that convert various forms of energy in the environment
into action potential or nerve impulse in the neurons.
 The sensory receptors could be a part of a neuron or a specialized cell that generates
action potential in neurons. The receptor is often associated with non-neural cells
that surrounds it, forming sense organ. The form of energy converted by the
receptors include for example, mechanical (touch-pressure), thermal (degree
of warmth); electromagnetic (light) and chemical energy (odor, taste, and
O2 content of blood). The receptor in each sense organs are adapted to respond
to one particular form of energy at a much lower threshold than other receptors
respond to this form of energy. The particular form of energy to which an action
potential is called adequate stimulus.
The Sensory Modalities-This consist of the various sense organs of the body. This
include the senses of smell, vision, hearing, rotational and linear acceleration, taste and
cutaneous senses with receptors in the skin to monitor touch-pressure, cold, warmth and
pain. There are in addition, a large number of sensory receptors which relay information
that does not reach consciousness. The rods and cones of the eye, for example, respond
maximally to light of different wavelengths, and there are different cones for each of the
primary colors. There are four different modalities of tastes-sweet, salty, sour and bitter-
and each is perceived by a more or less distinct type of taste bud in the tongue. Sounds of
different
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pitches are heard primarily because different groups of hair cells in the organ of Corti are
activated maximally by sound waves of different frequencies.
 The sensation evoked by impulses generated by a specific receptor is interpreted
by a specific part of the brain which ultimately activates.
The Somatic Nervous System-The striated or skeletal muscles of the body are innervated
by the somatic division of the nervous system. This part of the nervous system brings about
quick adjustments of the muscles to changes in the environment.
Autonomic Nervous System-The autonomic nervous system, like the somatic has
afferent components, central integrating stations, and effector pathways. The glands and
visceral musculature of the body receive efferent fibers from the autonomic nervous
system. The adjustments in the gland and visceral musculature are made by means of
chemical mediators, acetylcholine and epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the
terminal neurons of the autonomic fibers
Major divisions (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
 The cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division are
contained in the grey matter of the thoracic and lumbic regions of the spinal chord,
while the cell bodies of the pregnaglionic neurons of the parasympathetic system
are situated within the midbrain, the hindbrain and in the sacral region of the spinal
chord. The preganglionic neurons extend from the grey matter of the CNS to one of
the ganglia where they make synaptic junctions with post-ganglionic neurons which
extend from the ganglia to the effector organs
 The preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic division
produces acetylcholine as do the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic
divisions. However, postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division produce
mainly norephinephrine and this compound is generally considered as the andrenic
neurohumor, although small amounts of epinephrine may also be produced by
certain neurons. In general, the two types of fibers produce antagonistic effects in
the end organs they innervate, and many organs received fibers from both
systems.

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Hormone- substance or chemical mediators produced by the endocrine glands

and carried by the blood to some distant part of the body where it exerts its
effects
 Hormones do not initiate reactions in a cell but only excite or inhibit the on-going
cell reactions. The cell must have all the materials or ingredients, the enzyme
system and the required environment to carry on the reaction de novo. Thus, the
hormone has only neither an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the existing cell
reaction. It is effective in very minute quantities (biocatalytic amount) but unlike
enzymes which has also a catalytic effect, hormones are destroyed in the process of
participating in the reaction, whereas enzymes are not.
 Some hormones exert their effect by participating in , or affecting enzymatically
controlled reaction in the animal. Some facilitate the passage of an important
metabolites across the cell membranes. Hormones are not secreted in regular
amount; the amount of secretion depends on the need of the animals
 Hormones may be classified as simple protein, glycoprotein and steroids but they
all have common characteristics and functions
1) Regulate rather initiate reactions

2) Effective in biocatalytic amount
3) Inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect or at some other
glands or organs
4) Transported through the circulatory system or blood stream
 Not all hormones have specific target organs like growth hormone or
somatotropin (STH) but for those with specific target organs, the cells in
the target organ contain receptors that specifically recognize the hormone.
Hormone receptors bond specific hormones and directly or indirectly trigger
a metabolic effect.

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CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
1. Amines: these are the smallest group of hormones derived from two amino acids
e.g. epinephrine
2. Steroids: these are large group of hormones originating from cholesterol
e.g. testosterone and estrogen
3. Proteins and polypeptides: these are the largest group of hormones and they vary
in length from 8 to more than 180 amino acids with CHO attached to it e.g.
hypothalamic and pituitary hormones
HYPOPHYSIS OR PITUITARY GLANDS
This is located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the sphenoid bone called
Sella turtica, which protects it from outside pressure. It has three lobes or portion
A. Anterior pituitatry lobe or adenohypophydid

B. Intermediate lobe or Pars Intermedia and
C. Posterior Pituitary Lobe or Meurophysis
The Adenohypophysis secretes the following hormones
a. Growth Hormone of Somatotropic Hormone (STH)- promotes growth of the

long bones before the epiphyseal-diaphyseal plate is fused together in adulthood.
Over secretion of STH results in gigantisms when this happen before adulthood
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and

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Acromegaly when this happen after adulthood in human. Dwarfism occurs

when there is a deficiency of STH during growth development
b. Adrenocorticotropic Hormoone or ACTH)- stimulate the adrenal cortex
to produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone.
c. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH- stimulated the thyroid gland to
produce thyroid hormones (T4 and T3).
d. Prolactin or Leutotropic hormone- (LTH)- stimulate milk secretion in
lactating mammary glands.
e. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)- stimulates the ovary to produce
grafean follicle ; in the male, it maintains the integrity of the seminiferous
tubules of the testis.
f. Luteinizing Hormone- stimulates ovulation in maturing grafian follicle and the
formation of the corpus luteum in ovulated follicle as well as the production of
progesterone by the corpus luteum. In the male it stimulates the cell of the Leydig or
inspertitial cells to produce testosterone, a male sex hormone.
The intermediate lobes secretes MSH or melanophore stimulating hormone which is

essential for some reptiles and amphibians to enable them to change skin color by
dispensing melanin granules in a melanophore of the skin.
The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:
1) Oxytocin- stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females

2) Vasopressin or Antideuretic Hormone ADH)- important in conserving body
water by reducing urine formation
THYROID GLAND
 This gland is located at the neck area just below the Larynx. There are two lobes
of thyroid connected to each other by a bridge of tissue called Isthmus.
 The thyroid gland maintain the level of metabolism in the tissues that is optimal for
their normal function. It secretes the hormone thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) which stimulates the oxygen consumption of most cells in
the body, helpd regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and is necessary for
normal growth and maturation. Thyroxine increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
of an individual.
 The thyroid gland is made up of follicles which are filled with colloids. When
the gland is inactive, the colloid is abundant , the follicle is large, and the cells
lining them are flat. When the gland is active, the follicles are small, and the
cells are cuboids or columnar.
 Thyroid gland is not essential for life, but in its absence, there is poor resistance to
cold, mental and physical slowing, and in children, mental retardation and dwarfism
(cretinism). Conversely excess thyroid secretion lead to body wasting,nervousness,
tachycardia, tremor and excess heat production. The common disease associated
with over activity of the thyroid gland is thyrotoxicosis such as Graves diseases
(exopthalmic goiter) caused by thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI).
There is marked stimulation of the secretion of thyroid hormones , and high
circulating T4 and T3 levels inhibit TSH secretion , so the circulating TSH is
depressed. The exophthalmos in Graves diseases is due to the swelling of the
tissue, particularly the extraocular muscles within the rigid bony walls of the orbits.
This pushes the eyeballs forward.
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 In the case of hypothyrodism such as simple goiter, there is lack of thyroxine

secretion due to a deficiency of iodine in the diet. Iodine is an important component
of thyroxine, thus iodine deficiency will concomitantly result in thyroxine deficiency.
The low level of thryoxine in circulation will stimulate TSH production by the
pituitary in an effort to increase thyroid activity. In the process there will be
hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the thyroid gland resulting in the production of
goiter.
 The secretion of T4 or thyroxine is controlled by TSH of the pituitary. Whenever T4
is low, TSH production is increased and this will turn, stimulate increased secretion
of TSH and TSH level will decrease in circulation. This type of control is known as
negative feedback mechanisms.
THE PANCREAS
 This gland is located at the duodenal lope of the small intestine. It is both an
exocrine and an endocrine gland. Its functions as exocrine gland when it
acinar cells secrete pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. The
endocrine function is limited to the cells of the islet of langerhams which
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are found throughout the pancreas. The alpha cells of the islet of
langerhams secrete sugar levels; and the beta cells secrete insulin which is
responsible for lowering blood glucose level.

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 The insulin facilitates the transport of glucose from the blood into the cells of the
tissues, thus, increasing the storage of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids. On the
other hand, glucagons is catabolic, mobilizing glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
from the stores into the bloodstream. The two hormones are thus reciprocal in their
overall action and are reciprocally secreted in most circumstances. Insulin excess
hypoglycemia, which leads to convulsion and coma. Insulin deficiency, either
absolute or relative causes diabetes mellitus, a complex and debilitating disease that
if untreated is eventually fatal. Glucagon deficiency can cause hypoglycemia, and
glucagons excess makes diabetes worse. A third hormone somastostatin play a role
in the regulation of islet cell secretion. It produces hyperglycemis and other
manifestations of diabetes when there is hypersecretion of overproduction of
somatostatin.
THE ADRENAL GLAND
 There are two endocrine organs in the adrenal gland, one surrounding the other.
The main secretion of the inner adrenal medulla are the epinephrine and
norepinephrine ; the outer adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones such as 1)
aldosterone which regulate sodium metabolism by reabsorbing sodium from the
kidney tubules; 2) glucocortoids (cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone ) which
stimulates glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis, thus, hyperglycemic.
 The adrenal medulla is in effect a sympathetic ganglion in which the postganglionic
neurons have lost their axons and becomes secretory cells. The cells secret
epinephrine and norepinephrine which are not essential for life, but they help to
prepare the individual to deal with emergencies.
 The secretion of glucocorticoids is controlled primarily by ACTH from the anterior
pituitary. Where there is low low levels of glucocorticoids in circulation , ACTH
secretion is increased which in turn, stimulates increased production of
glucocorticoids. The increased level of glucocorticoids in circulation will in turn inhibit
further secretion of ACTH. Stressful stimuli will also stimulate the production of
ACTH which is independent from that elicited by the level of glucocorticoids in
circulation.
 The secretion of aldesterone is not under the control of ACTH but by circulating
factors such as blood pressure and/or the extra cellular fluid volume (ECF). When
the blood pressure or the EFC is low, this would stimulate the adrenal cortex, to
produce aldosterone which in turn will act in the kidney tubules to reabsorb sodium
as well as water which has a close affinity to sodium, thus increasing EFC volume
and eventually blood pressure.

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 The adrenal cortex has three types of cell making up the three zones of the cortex;
the zona glumerulosa which secretes aldosterone and zona fasciculate and zona
reticularis which both secrete the glucocorticoids.
PARATHYROID GLANDS
 In human there are usually four parathyroid glands which are embedded the thyroid
gland. However, the location of the individual parathyroids and their number vary
considerably. Parathyroid tissue is sometimes found in the mediastinum. There are
two distinct types of cells making up the parathyroid : 1) the chief cells which have
clear cytoplasm secrete the parathyroid hormone or PTH, and 2) the less abundant
and larger oxyphil cells which have oxyphil granules in their cytoplasm, contain large
numbers of mitochondria. The function of oxyphil cell is unknown.
 Parathyroid hormone or PTH mobilizes calcium from bone and increases urinary
phosphate excretion, thus in effect increases blood calcium level.
Hyperparathyroidism due to hyper-secretion of a functioning tumor in humans is
characterized by a hypercalcemia, hypophosphatamia, hypercalciuria, and
hyperphospheturia. There will be demineralization of the bones and the formation
of calcium-containing kidney stones. In young animals, demineralization of the
bones results in rickets but in adults, it is known as osteomalacia. In rickets of
orsteomalacia the amounts of mineral accretion in bone per unit of bone matrix is
deficient. When there is a decrease in bone mass with preservation of the normal
ratio of mineral to matrix, the condition is known as osteoporosis. Likewise, these
bone diseases will also manifest in severe vitamin D deficiency. Thus, vitamin is
closely associated with the function of the parathyroid gland. Vitamin D is
metabolized in the kidney tubules into 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol which increases
the efficiency of calcium and phosphate absorption into the intestinal wall, thus
making these minerals available for bone formation. On the other hand, when there
is vitamin D deficiency, limited amounts of calcium and phosphate are absorbed
from the intestines resulting in low blood calcium level, thus, stimulating the
parathyroid gland to secrete PTH, resulting in calcium mobilization from the bones.
 In hyperthyroidism, osteoclerosis, may set in due to increased amount of calcified
bones. Symptoms manifested include hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia,
hypercaliurea, and hypophosphaturia

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 Calcitocin or also known as thyrocalcitocin is a hormone that lowers calcium

level in the blood, thus, has an opposite effect to that of parahormone which
increases calcium level in the blood. Thyrocalcitonin is secreted by the thyroid
gland upon stimulated by a secretion coming from the parathyroid gland in
response to a high calcium level in the blood perfusing the parathyroid gland.
Thyrocalcitonin lowers calcium level by preventing bone resorption through the
activation of the osteoblast cells which stimulates bone formation. Also,
thyrocalcitonin increases calcium excretion in the urine, thus, contributing to the
lowering of blood calcium level.
There are three types of cells associated with bone formation and bone resorption
a. Osteoblast stimulates bone formation
b. Osteoclasts
c. Osteocystes are both associated with bone formation.
 When there is hypersecretion of PTH, osteoclasts, and oteocytes cells
predominates to cause bone resorptioon ; on the other hand, when there is
a hyposecretion of PTH or hypersecretion of calcitocin, osteoblasts cells
predominate to cause bone formation

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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (CVS)
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, the blood and the blood vessels through
which the blood flows in circulation
Functions of CVS
a. To convey the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to the tissues;
b. To carry O2 from the lungs to the tissues and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs ;
c. To remove the waste products of metabolisms and take them through the
excretory organs for disposals ;
d. To transport hormones from one part of the body to another ;
e. To help in maintaining the water equilibrium of the body ;
f. To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body;
g. To regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in the body and ;
h. To assist in overcoming diseases by the antidotes contained in the blood
THE HEART
 The heart is located in the middle mediastinal space. It is enclosed with a

pericardium or pericardial sac. The mammalian heart has 4 chambers : the
upper 2 chambers are the atria, and the lower 2 chambers, are the ventricles.
There is a complete septum separating the left and the right side of the heart.
However free communication exists between the atrium (auricle) and the ventricle
on the same side of the side. The atrio-ventricular or A-V valve prevents the
backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium during ventricular systole. The
valve on the right side is called tricuspid valve and on the left side is known as
bicuspid or mitral valve. A valve also stands at the aortic orifice (aortic
valve)
and at the pulmonary orifice (pulmonary valve). These valves prevent the
backflow of the blood from these blood vessels (aorta and pulmonary artery) into
the ventricles during diastole.
 The heart normally beats in an orderly sequence : contraction of the atria (atrial
systole) is followed by the contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systoles) and
followed by diastole in which all the 4 chambers are relaxed. During diastole, when
all the four chambers are in isometric relaxation, the AV valves opens, thus,
allowing the blood to fill up the ventricles. In fact ¾ of ventricular filling occurs
during diastole and complete filling occurs during atrial systole. At the start
of ventricular systole , the AV valves are closed. At the start of the ventricular
systole, the AV valves are closed, and the aortic and pulmonary valves are opened
to allow the flow of ventricular blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery,
respectively. However, not all ventricular blood are ejected at the end of the
ventricular systole; about 50 ml of blood are left in each ventricle in human heart
as end systolic ventricular volumes.
 Contraction of the heart is spontaneous and is initiated the depolarization of the
sino-atrial node (SA node). The depolarization spreads radially through the atria
resulting in atrial systole, and converges on the atrio-ventricular nodes (AV nodes).
From the AV nodes, the wave of depolarization passes through the bundle of His
then through the Purkinje system to the ventricular muscle, causing ventricular
systole. The SA node is the cardiac pacemaker and its rate of discharge
determines the rate at which the heart beats. However, the vagal stimulation

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results in bradychardia or slowing of the heart rate and stimulation of the

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sympathetic cardiac nerve results in tachycardia or increased heart rate.

Temperature also influences the rate of discharge of SA node. Increased
temperature results in tachycardia.
Heart Sound
 Two sounds are normally heard through the stethoscope during cardiac cycle; a
low, slightly “lub” sound (first sound), caused by the closure of the mitral and
tricuspid valves; and a shorter, high pitch “dub” sound (second sound) caused
by closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves just after the end of ventricular
systole.
 The blood forced into the aorta during systole not only moves the blood in the
vessels forward but also set up a pressure wave which travels down the arteries. The
pressure waves expand the arterial wall has its travels, and the blood vessels
forward but also sets up a pressure wave which travels down the arteries. The
pressure wave expands the arterial wall as it travels, and the expansion is palpable
as the pulse. Thus, the pulse is a wave of dilation of an artery originating
from the aorta as the blood flows into it from the heart. The rate of heart beat
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is usually measured by determining the pulse rate. The average pulse rate per
minute in different classes of animals is as follows :
Elephant 30-45 pulse rate/ min.

Horses 38 pulse rate / min.
Carabao and Cattle 54 pulse rate / min.
Goat 78 pulse rate / min.
Chicken 200-400 pulse rate / min.
Mouse 600 pulse rate / min.
Pulse rate may be taken by feeling the artery on the following animals:
 Horse- external maxillary artery or about the middle of the lower jaw
 Cattle and carabao- similar location as in the horse but slightly on the outer
surface; coccygeal artery at the base of the underneath of the tail
 Sheep, goat, dog and cat- femoral artery ; saphenous artery
 Pigs and others- auscultation method using stethoscope at the cardiac or chest
region.
The Blood Vessels-In general the blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart is
called the artery; and that which carries blood back to the heart is called a vein. Also the
blood running through the artery is oxygenated blood; and that which run through the
vein is unoxygenated blood. The only exception to this principle is the pulmonary
artery which carries unoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, and
pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
of the heart. The aorta or aortic artery carries blood from the left ventricle to the
different systemic circulations, such as the head, neck, trunk, limbs, and the visceral
organs. The aorta gives off to smaller branches of arteries which in turn give rise to
several arterioles. An arterioles gives rise to a bed of capillaries which eventually join
together to form a venule. A venule joins to a bigger vein which eventually end up on the
vena cava which return unoxygenetaed blood from several systemic circulations to the
right atrium of the heart.
Blood Circulation-Venous blood coming from the different parts of the body is returned
back to the heart via the vena cava to the right atrium. From the right atrium it goes to
the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. Then it passes through the pulmonary
valve and goes to the pulmonary artery. Which carries the blood to the lungs
(pulmonary circulation). In the lungs the exchange of gases takes place; carbon dioxide
is given off and oxygen is taken in by the circulation blood. The oxygenated blood is
returned back to the heart by the pulmonary veins which enter the heart at the left
atrium. From the left atrium, the blood goes to the left ventricles through the mitral
and or bicuspid valve. Then it goes through the aortic valve to the aorta which carries
the blood to the different systemic circulations. In systemic circulations, the oxygen is
taken in by the tissues and carbon dioxide is given off by the tissues to the circulating
blood. These cellular exchange of gases take place from the different capillary beds.
Then all the venous blood from the systemic circulations are returned back to the heart via
the vena cava.
The systemic circulation includes the following special system of blood circulation:

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1) CORONARY CIRCULATION- systemic circulation; it supplies blood to the

heart itself
2) HEPATIC CIRCULATION- part of the systemic circulation ; it supplies arterial blood
to the liver
3) CEREBRAL CIRCULATION- supplies arterial blood to the brain
4) RENAL CIRCULATION- supplies arterial blood to the kidney
5) SPLANCHNIC CIRCULATION- supplies blood to the digestive tract.

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The Blood-Blood is a thick suspension of cellular elements in aqueous solutions of

electrolytes and some non-electrolytes. By centrifugation, the blood is separated into two
categories of plasma and cells.
1) Plasma- the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic
molecules , and organic molecules which are in transit to various parts of the
body or which aid in the transport of other substances. Blood plasma is composed
of the following important constituents : water, gases (oxygen, CO2, nitrogen),
proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen) glucose, lipids (fats, lecithin,cholesterol),
non-protein nitrogen substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine ammonia, salts, etc), inorganic salts and minerals (chlrorides,
bicorabonates, sulfates, phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron, and traces of manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc etc), enzymes, hormones,
vitamins, immune substances etc. The normal plasma volume is about 3 to 5% of
the body weight.
2) Blood Cells- made up of the white blood cells or WBC (leokocyctes), the
red blood cells (erythrocytes) and the platelets, which are all suspended in
the plasma. The number of each kind of cell present in the blood is
determined by means of haemocytometer.
a) The white blood cells are of the three types : Granulocytes,
Lymphocytes, and Monocytes. Of these the granulocyctes or
polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) are the most numerous. The
granulocyctes are subdivided into neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
based on their affinity to either neutral , acidic, or basic dyes, respectively.
They are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow, mature rapidly and
enter the circulation where they survive for no more than 2 weeks. Their
main functions is phagocytic in nature. At least in the nuetrophils and
eosinophils, the granules appear to be lysosomes and functions in the
digestion of material (like bacteria) taken into the cells by phagocytosis.
Old granulocytes are normally destroyed in the spleen and other portions of
the reticulo-endothelial system
 Lymphocytes are mostly formed in the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus
and to some extent also in the bone marrow. They enter the blood
circulation for the most part via the lympahtics. They are believed to
produce antibodies and counteract toxins
 Monocytes are large none-nuclear leukocytes. They are also called the
transitional cells and have well developed motility. They are believed to
come from the reticulo- endothelial cells. Like neutrophilic
leukocyetes
, they are actively phagocytic and are capable of ingesting all sorts of
foreign matters.
b) The erythrocytes are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone

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marrow. In mammals, they lose their nuclei before entering the
circulation. These

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non-nucleated cells are soft and contain hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a

complex iron-containing conjugated protein with a molecular weight of
about 68,000. it is globular molecule made up of 4 subunit, and each unit
contains a red pigment, iron-containing derivative porphyrin called heme
moiety conjugated to a polypeptide globin. The oxygen-carrying property
of hemoglobin is due to the iron content in the pigment. Hemoglobin binds
02 to form oxyhemoglobin, O2 attaching to the Fe++ in the heme. Since
hemoglobin contains 4 Hb units, the hemoglobin molecule actually reacts
with 4 molecules of O2 to form Hb408…………….
Hb4 + 402--Hb408
This reaction is oxygenated (not an oxidation) and requires less than

0.01 second. Oxygen is afterwards readily given off to the tissues as the
blood goes to the systemic capillaries. In the muscles, oxygen is taken up by
myohemoglobin
c) Platelets or thrombocytes- are small oval disk-like granulated bodies 2-4

microns in diameter. There are about 300,000 /cu mm of circulating blood.
The megakaryocytes, giant cells in the bone marrow form platelets by
pinching off bits of cytoplasms, and extruding them into circulation. When
blood vessel walls are injured, platelets collect at the site, sticking to the
vessel wall and liberating serotonin, which leads to local vasoconstriction.
They also liberate thromboplastin which aids in blood clotting, and they
play a role in clot reactions.
Blood Coagulation-The essential process in coagulation is the conversion of the

soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein,fibrin, a reaction that is
catalyzed by the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin is formed from its inactive circulating
precursor, prothrombin, in the presence of calcium ions by the action of activated
thromboplastin. Thrombin is synthesized in the liver and vitamin K is essential in the
hepatic synthesis of prothrombin. This is precisely why vitamin K is essential in blood
clotting mechanisms

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LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The circulatory system and the lymphatic system are related to the body fluid
compartments. The animal body is made up of 60-70% water. This is distributed
as intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is about 40-
50% of the body weight and the ECF is about 20% of the body weight.
 In animals with closed vascular system,the ECF is divided into 2 compartments :
the Interstitial fluid which consists of cerebrospinal fluids, synovial fluid and the
lymph; and the blood plasma. The interstitial fluid is about 15% of the body weight
and the blood plasma is about 5% of the body weight.
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph node lymph vessels and the lymph.
The lymph nodes and its function-The lymph nodes are small bodies of lymphoid
tissues which are ovoid or bean shaped and located in strategic points of the body through
which the lymph passes on its ways to the blood stream. It is generally agreed that lymph
nodes have at least 2 functions. One of these is the production of lymphocytes of which
the lymph nodes contain large numbers. Another function is to stop foreign materials that
come to them in the lymph. This filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by
the filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by the phagocytic activity of the
reticulo- endothelial cells.
They become swollen or inflamed during severe bacterial infections.
The Lymph Vessels-The lymphatic drain from the lungs and from the rest of the body
tissues via a system of vessels that end in the various system. The lymph vessels begin
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in

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the tissues as blind lymph capillaries, similar in structure to blood capillaries. By the
convergence of lymph capillaries, smaller lymph vessels are formed, and these in turn to
form larger lymph vessels. Like the veins, the lymph vessels contain valves which prevent
the back flow of its content, but have thinner walls than the veins. Ultimately, all the
lymph vessels drain into either the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct, which empty
into the venous system anterior to the heart. Lymph from the right side of the head and
neck, the right forelegs and the right side of the thorax drain to the right lymphatic duct:
that from the rest of the body, to the thoracic duct.
Flow of lymph-The tissue fluid is in communication with the blood in the capillaries, the
intercellular fluid, and the lymph capillaries. The latter remove from the tissues spaces
materials that do not or cannot enter the blood capillaries. Water and crystalloids can
move either way. Particulate matter and large molecules such as proteins and lipids
cannot enter the blood capillaries but can penetrate the much more permeable wall of the
lymph capillaries. The flow of lymph in the lymph vessels is sluggish and in one directions
only, from the tissues towards the heart. The factor concerned in lymph flow are : (1) the
difference in pressure at the two ends of the lymph systems (2) the massaging effect of
muscular movement; and (3) the presence in the lymph vessels of valves, which permit
flow in only one direction, that is, towards the heart.
Composition of Lymph
 Tissue fluid and lymph proper, that is, the fluid in the lymph vessels are different.
Lymph derived largely from the blood is similar in composition to blood plasma.
The plasma of the blood passes through the thin wall of the blood capillaries, enters
the tissues themselves also contribute somewhat to the composition of the lymph,
for there is free interchange between intracellular fluid and the tissue fluid. In this
way the cells rid themselves of the waste products of metabolisms and absorb
foodstuffs.
 The composition of the lymph varies with the state of activity of the
digestive organs; lymph derives from the intestine during fat absorption has
a milky appearance because of the fat that it contains and is known as
chyle.
 Ordinarily, the lymph is colorless, clear, watery liquid having a specific gravity of
about 1.015. it contains a few red cells normally, and lymphocytes are present. The
latter cells are more abundant in lymph that has passed through lymphoid tissue.
Whether or not monocytes are present in uncertain. Neutrophilic leukocytes are
ordinarily absent; however, they may be present in greater number in infections.
Platelets are said to be absent; nevertheless, lymph will clot, though feebly. Lymph
contains water, glucose, gases, proteins, non-protein nitrogenous substances,
inorganic substances, hormones, coenzymes, vitamins and immune substances.
The proteins are the same kind as in blood plasma but the amount is less. This is
especially true of lymph from the limbs, for the capillary walls in these regions are
less permeable to the blood proteins than in other regions
Inter-relationship between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system
 All body tissues are supplied with blood capillaries as well as lymph capillaries. The
blood capillaries absorb substances produced by the cells and other nutrients and
metabolites presents in the interstitial fluid which require the circulatory system
for their distributions to other parts of the body. However, there are substances
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which cannot readily enter the walls of the blood capillaries because of the size of
their molecules, such as protein molecules of certain hormones and enzymes.
These

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proteins molecules can still join the circulatory system by way of the lymphatic
system. Since the lymph capillaries have more permeable walls than the blood
capillaries, all metabolites of big molecular size which cannot be absorbed by the
blood capillaries will be absorbed by the lymph capillaries. Eventually, the lymph
fluid will enter the circulatory system through the right lymphatic duct and the
thoracic duct.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The main function of respiration is to provide oxygen to the cells of the body
and to remove excess carbon dioxide from them. Different species achieve this
in different ways. Unicellular organisms get their O2 by diffusion from the fluid
surrounding them and eliminate CO2 in the same way; larger organisms cannot.
Some larger organism that live in air (certain insects) do get enough O2 by diffusion
alone, but they have a special system of air tubes (trachea or spiracles) that pipe air
directly to many regions of the body, so that the distances O2 must diffuse to reach
tissue cells are short. Large animals, including man, make use of two systems:
1) The blood circulatory system to carry to and from the tissue cells large
quantities of O2 and CO2 with the help of hemoglobin
2) A respiratory system , a gas exchange , to load the blood with CO2 and remove
excess CO2. In fish, blood flows through gills vessels and extracts O2 from the
water flowing around hem. In man and other farm animals, the respiratory surfaces
are folded within the body to prevent drying of the delicate membranes ; air
saturated with water vapor is drawn into intimate contact with the blood flowing
through the pulmonary capillaries and gases are exchanged.
 These two systems cooperate to supply the needs of the tissues. One system
supplies air; the other supplies blood. The ultimate purpose is the transfer of gases
between air and cells. The respiratory system is an air pump which draws fresh air
through the air tube to small air sacs (alveoli) that have very thin membranes. The
circulatory system is a blood pump which which drives the whole output of the
heart the fine thin-walled blood tubes (capillaries) surrounding the alveoli.
The Respiratory Apparatus
 The nasal cavity has two nasal tubes (sometimes a third tube, the mouth is also
used), and then becomes one, the trachea. The trachea is always kept open by
the presence of rings of cartilage in its wall. It subdivides into two main branches,
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the

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right and left bronchi, which are similar in structure and function as trachea. Each
of the two bronchidivides into two more, ad each of these into two more, and so on
until there have been 20-30 subdivisions in all. A simple calculation shows that 20
subdivisions of this type produce about a million terminal tubes. At the end of each
are numerous blind pouches, the alveoli or alveolar sacs; here gas exchange
occurs. There are about 300 million of these in the two lungs of amn; their
diameter varies from 75 to 300 microns.
 The lungs may be regarded as two elastic membranous sac whose interior (in free
communication with the outside air through the respiratory passages) is highly
modified and enlarged by the presence of numerous alveleoli. The wall of the
alveolus is composed of a single layer of respiratory epithelium. Across this layer
of cells and the endothelium of the blood capillaries, gaseous exchange between
the air in the blood in the numerous adjacent capillaries takes place. The total
area of the alvelolar walls in contact with the capillaries in both lungs is estimated
to be 70 square meters in human, which is about 40 times the surface area of the
body.
 The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the mediastinal organs. This activity is
completely separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The pleura, a
serous membrane line the thoracic cavity, forming the lateral walls of
mediastinum and are reflected from there on the lungs, thus forming a pleural
cavity. The pleural cavity is merely a capillary space, occupied by a thin film of
fluid, which serves to moisten and lubricate the two pleural layers. The pressure
of the pleural cavity is negative. Therefore when the pleural cavity is opened, air
rushes in and the lungs will collapse.
 The inspiratory muscles consists of the diaphragm and the external intercostals
muscles. The movement of the diaphragm accounts for 75% of the change in
intrathoracic volume during quite inspiration. The diaphragm is attached around
the bottom of the thoracic cage and arches over the liver and moves downward
like a piston it contacts. The distance of movement is about 1.5 to 7.0 cm.
 The external intercostals muscles run obliquely downward and forward from rib to
rib. The rib pivot as if hinged at the back, so that when the external intercostals
muscles contract, they elevate the lower ribs. This pushes the stenum outward and
increases the antero-posterior diameter of the chest.
 The expiratory muscles consist of internal intercostals muscles and the muscles of
the anterior abdominal wall. The internal intercostals muscles pass obliquely
downward and posteriorly from rib to rib, and therefore, pull the rib cage
downward when they contract. The muscles of the anterior abdominal wall also aid
expiration by pulling the rib cage downward and inward; and by increasing the
extrabdominal pressure which pushes the diaphragm upward.

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The Respiratory Center
1. Medullary cavity- capable of initiating and maintaining sequences of the

respiratory cycle. This contains the minimal number of neurons necessary for the
basic coordinated sequence of inspiration, expiration , inspiration. The center is
often is often divided into an inspirational center and expiratory center, because
maximal sustained inspiration follows electrical stimulation of some region and
maximal expiration follows stimulation of adjacent regions. As the lateral sides of
this region, there are special receptors which are believed to respond to H
concentrations. A rise in H results in hyperventilation.
2. Pneumonotaxic center- located in the upper pons above the medullary center.
Stimulation of this center accelerates respiration, especially expiration. It is
postulated that inspiration sets up impulses that ascend from the medullary
inspiratory center to the pneumotaxic center, where they generate impulses that
descend to the expiratory center and inhibit inspiration, a negative feedback
mechanisms
3. Apneustic center- located in the lower pons, between the pneumotaxic center
and the medullary center. The role of the center is revealed when both the
pneumotaxic center and the vagi are inactivated; prolonged apneusis then results.
(Apneusis is the cessation of respiration in the inspiratory position.)
Regulation of Respiratory Center Activity-Respiration would increase whenever cells of

the body need more O2 or form more CO2 and would decrease whenever they need less O2
or form less CO2. there are many sensory receptors, in many locations which can influence
respiration rate : appropriate electrical stimulation of almost any sensory nerve and of
many parts of the brain can affect respiration. However, some receptors appear to be
highly specialized for the task of respiratory regulation. These receptors are sensitive to
chemical changes in their environment- therefore called generally as chemoreceptors. The
well known of the chemoreceptors are :
1) Medullary chemoreceptors- believed to be located on the ventral surface of the

brain system. It is believed to monitor the H- concentration of the cerebrospinal
fluid or, possibly the brain interstitial fluid. An increase in H concentration
stimulates respiration.
2) Carotid bodies- are small, pinkish nodules located just beyond the bifurcation of
the common carotid artery into the external and internal carotids. The carotid
bodies are completely different from the carotid sinuses in structure and function.
The carotid sinuses contain mechanoreceptors that respond to changes in stretch or
deformation of the carotid artery wall; the carotid bodies contains chemoreceptors
that respond to certain changes in their chemical environment.
3) Aortic bodies- contain chemoreceptors that function separately from aortic
pressoreceptors, which are in the wall of the ascending arch of the aorta. Most of
the aortic chemoreceptors lie between the arch of the aorta and the pulmonary
artery or on the dorsal aspect of the pulmonary artery.
The carotid and aortic chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in PO2, PCO2 and H-
concentration in arterial blood. When the PCO2 or H- in arterial blood is increased, or
when arterial PO2 is decreased, the carotid and aortic chemoreceptors are stimulated
and the respiratory center activity increases.

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 Application of the acetylcholine or nicotine to the chemoreceptor areas

stimulates respiration; whereas applicatopm of cyanide or procaine resuces or
abolishes respiration.
 The non-chemical influence of respiration can be shown by the fact that breathing
can be controlled. Irritation on the walls of the trachea or bronchi produces
coughing which begins with a deep inspiration followed by forced expiration against a
closed glottis. The glottis is then suddenly opened, thus producing an explosive
outflow of air at velocities up to 600 miles per hour. Sneezing is a similar expiratory
effort with a continuously open glottis. This illustrates that non-chemical factors can
influence the activity of the respiratory center in response to some mechanical
stimuli.
 The respiratory adjustments during vomiting, swallowing, and gagging are other
examples of non-chemical control of respiratory. Inhibition of respiration and
closure of the glottis during these activities not only prevents the aspiration of food
or vomitus into the trachea but, in the case of vomiting, fixes the chest so that
contraction of the abdominal muscles increases the intra-abdominal pressure.
Mechanisms of Inspiration
 Inspiration is an active process. Contraction of the diaphragm increases the

longitudinal diameter of the chest. Also, the contraction of the external
intercostals muscles elevates the ribs, resulting in an increased transverse
diameter of the thorax.
 At the start of inspiration, the intrapleural pressure is about -2.5 mmHg (relative
atmosphere pressure). When the chest volume is increased, the interpleural pressure
is further decreased to about -6 mmHg, and the lungs are pulled into a more
expanded position. The pressure in the airway becomes slightly negative, and air
flows into the lungs.
Mechanisms of Expiration
 Following an inspiration, the enlarged thorax may return to its resting position by
purely passive forces, that is, without muscular effort. At the end of inspiration, the
lung recoil pulls the chest back to the expiratory position where the recoil
pressures of the lungs and chest wall balance. The pressure in the airways
becomes slightly positive, and air flows out of the lungs
 Although in quite breathing expiration is passive, labored breathing is accompanied
by active expiration, that is ,the return of the thorax to the resting position being
hastened. This is accompanied by the contraction of the expiratory muscles (internal
intercostals muscles and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall). Very active
expiration is seen also in coughing , talking, laughing, barking etc)
Regulation of Expiration-The muscle of respiration posses no inherent rhythm.

Spontaneous respiration is completely dependent upon the discharge of the respiratory
center in the medulla oblongata. It is the efferent connection from the center to the
respiratory muscles are interrupted, or if the center is destroyed, breathing stops.
Lung Volume
 The amount of air that moves into the lungs with each inspiration (or the
amount that moves out with each expiration) is called the tidal volume or TV.
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The air

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inspired with a maximal inspiratory effort in excess of the tidal volume is the
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). The volume expelled by the active expiratory
effort aster passive expiration is the expiratory reserved volume (ERV), and the air
left in the lungs after maximal expiratory effort is air left in the lungs after a
maximal expiratory effort is the residual volume (RV). The space in the
conducting zone of the airways occupied by gas that does not exchange with blood
in the pulmonary vessels is the respiratory dead space. The vital capacity, the
greatest amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort is
frequently measured clinically as an index of pulmonary function. It gives useful
information about the strength of the respiratory muscles and other aspects of
pulmonary function. The fraction of the vital capacity expired in 1 second( timed
vital capacity ; also called forced expired volume in 1 second, or FEV 1”) gives
additional information ; the vital capacity may be normal but the timed vital
capacity is greatly reduced in diseases such as asthma, in which the resistance of
the airways is increased owing to bronchial constriction. The amount of air inspired
per minutes (pulmonary ventilation, respiratory minute volume) is normally about
6 L (500 ml/ breadth x 12 breaths/ min)
Gas Exchange
 Oxygen continuously diffuse out of the gas in the alveoli (alveolar gas) into the
blood stream, and CO2 continuously diffuses into the alveoli from the blood. In the
steady state, inspired air mixes with the alveolar gas, replacing the O2 that has
entered the blood and diluting the CO2 that has entered the alveoli. Part of this
mixing is expired. The O2 content of the alveolar gas then falls and its CO2 content
rises until the next inspiration. Since the volume of gas in the alveoli is about 1.8 –
2.0 L at the end of expiration (functional residual capacity), each 350-ml to 500ml
increment of inspired and expired air changes the PO2 and PCO2 very little. Indeed
the composition of alveolar gas remains remarkably constant, not only at rest but
in a variety of conditions as well.
 Oxygen moves from the alveoli to the capillaries across the thin membrane formed
by the epithelial cells, the endothelial cells, and their fused basement membrane.
The PO2 of the alveolar air is 100 mmHg, whereas, that in the venous blood in the
pulmonary artery is 40 mmHg. There is no evidence that any process other than
passive diffusion is involved in the movement of O2 into the blood along this
pressure gradient. Diffusion into the blood must be very rapid, since the time each
millimeter of blood is in the capillaries is short. Nevertheless, O2, diffusion is
adequate in health to raise the PO2 of the blood to 95 mm Hg, a value just under the
alveolar PO2. On the other hand CO2 diffuses from the capillaries to alveolar air,
thus, reducing the CO2 content of the blood which returned to the heart at 40 mm
Hg.
 In short, the arterial blood distributed to the different systematic circulation, has a
PO2 of 95 mmHg and PCO2 of 40 mmHg. The tissues which would received the
arterial blood has PO2 of 40 mmHg and PCO2 of 46 mmHg. Thus at the tissue level
O2 diffuses out of the blood capillaries to the tissues, whereas, CO2 diffuses from
the tissues to the blood capillaries. The resultant venous blood has PO2 of 40 mmHg.
And PCO2 of 46 mmHg when returned back to the right atrium of the heart.

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THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM-Kidney and Body Fluids
The kidneys play a prominent role in regulating
a) The concentration of metabolic wastes

b) The osmotic pressure
c) The fluid volume ; and
d) The ionic composition of the internal environment
 The kidneys are commonly describe as excretory organs; but actually,

they are primarily organs which regulate volume and composition of the
internal fluid environment. Their excretory function is incidental to their
regulatory mechanisms.
The kidney aids in keeping the concentration of blood plasma constant by:
a) The excretion of urea and other nitrogenous waste products of metabolism;

b) The elimination of excess inorganic salts
c) The elimination of excess water;
d) The elimination of non-volatile, soluble foreign substances that may have
gained entrance to the blood.
Structure of the Kidney
 The kidneys are paired, somewhat flattened bean-shaped organs which lie
retroperitoneally on either side of the vertebral column against the posterior
abdominal wall. Each kidney is supplied with blood by a single renal artery which
arises from the abdominal aorta. Each renal artery divides into a series of
branches which pass dorsal and ventral to the pelvis. These arterial branches pass
between the calyxes and penetrate the parenchyma. Within the parynchyma,
these arteries are designated as interlobar because they course between the lobes
or pyramids.
 At the junction of the cortex and medulla , the interlobar arteries bend over the
bases of the pyramids to form a series of incomplete arches, the aciform arteries.
Interlobular arteries arises at right angles from the acriform arteries and run radially
toward the periphery in the cortical medullary rays. In their course through the
cortex they give rise to short lateral branches, the afferent arterioles, each of which
supplies a glomerulus. The venous system which drains blood out of the kidney
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runs parallel with the arterial system and comes out of the kidney as renal veins.

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Each kidney is composed of over a million units of nephrons. A nephron consists of several
parts
1. The glomerulus is formed by the invagination of tuft of capillaries into the dilated,
blind end of the nephron called the Bowman’s capsule. The glumerulus and the
Bowman’s capsule is collectively called as the renal corpuscle or malphigian.
2. The proximal tubule is joined to Bowman’s capsule by a short connecting
segments. The convulated portion of the proximal tubule (pars concoluta) enters
a cortical medulla ray to penetrate the deeper layers of the cortex and become the
loop of Henle. The proximal tubule is composed of a single layer of cuboidal or
truncated pyramid cells on a basement membrane. The cells are coarsely granular;
nuclei are large and basally located. The apical surfaces of the cells which bulge into
the tubular lumen are covered with numerous cytoplasmic filaments which are
revealed by electronmicroscopy as microvilli.
3. The Loop of Henle includes : the descending thick limb (pars recta) of the proximal
tubule; the descending and ascending thin limbs; and the ascending thick limbs. The
thin segments of the loop of Henle arises abruptly from the descending thick
segments of the loop, the so-called pars recta of the proximal tubule. The diameter
of its lumen is less than that of either the proximal or the distal segment. The cells
are flattened and thin except in the nuclear region, which bulges into the lumen. The
descending limb of the loop of Henle bends upward forming the ascending limb of
the loop of Henle, which communicate with the pars recta of the distal convulated
tubule.
4. The distal tubule is shorter than the proximal tubule, and its convolution are less
complex. The cells of the distal tubule are cuboidal in the region of the pars recta
and become more columnar in the cortical convulations.
5. Several distal tubules coalesce to form collecting ducts which pass through the
renal medulla to empty into the pyramids of the kidney at the apices of the
meduallary pyramids. The renal pelvis drains into the ureter and the latter enters
the urinary bladder.

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Figure . Several kidney tubules or nephron
Figure A kidney nephron or tubule
Urine Formation
 In the kidneys, a fluid that resembles plasma is filtered through a glomerular

capillaries into the renal tubules (glomerular filtration). As this glumerular filtrates
passes down the tubules, its volume is reduced and its composition altered by the
processes of tubular reabsorption, active transport and osmosis to form urine.
 Each day about 160 to 180 liters of water are filtered through the glumeruli of
normal man. Each liter contains 300 mOsm/L of solute, consisting largely of sodium,
chloride and bicarbonate ions. As the filtrate flows along the proximal convulated
tubules , sodium is actively exruded into the intersittium of the cortex. Chloride
follows sodium passively down an electrical gradient and water is reabsorb by
osmosis. The ions and water deposited in the interstitium are rapidly carried away
by blood perfusing the cortical capillaries. Although the volume of the tubular fluid
is sharply reduced to perhaps 20% of that of the filtrate at the ends of the thick
descending limbs of the Henle’s loops, the osmolar concentration remains
unchanged at 300 mOsm /L
 As the tubular fluid progresses down the thin descending limbs of Henle’s loops,
water diffuses out into the hypertonic interstitium of the medulla and papilla; and
increases progressively to the bneds of the loops. In the ascending limbs of Henle’s
loop, sodium is extruded into the interstitium. Because of the ascending limbs are
impermeable to water, the osmolar concentration of the tubular fluid is reduced. At
each level, a gradient of about 200 mOsl/ L is established between tubular contents
and hypertonic interstitium. Indeed, it is this capacity of the tubular epithelium to
establish a modest gradient at each level accounts for the much more significant
gradient of 300 to 1200 mOsm /L developed along the length of the loops. This
process is termed as countercurrent multiplication of concentration.
 The fluid which enters the distal convoluted tubules is hypotonic to the surrounding
cortical interstitial fluid. Its volume is perhaps 15% of that of the glomerular
filtrate. The continued active extrusion of sodium and the passive osmotic diffusion
of water continue in the distal tubule, reducing volume to a few percent of that of
the filtrate as the fluid enters the collecting duct. This fluid becomes progressively
concentrated as it flows along the collecting duct and gives up water to the
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hypertonic medullary

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and papillary interstitium. The final urine entering the renal pelvis is essentially as
concentrated as the interstitial tissue of the tips of the papillae.
 The water which diffuses out of the descending limb of Henle’s loops and out of
the collecting ducts, and the sodium, which is pumped out of the ascending limbs
of Henle’s loop, are removed by blood perfusing the vesa recta of the papilla.
 In water diuresis, in which the titer of circulating ADH is low, the epithelium of the
distal tubules and collecting ducts is impermeable to water. The hypotonicity of
the tubular urine leaving the loops of Henle is maintained throughout the
remainder of the nephron and is increased by the continued active extrusion of
ions. The final urine is dilute and its volume large.
Role of ADH in Water Conservation
Vasopressin or ADH conserves body water by the following actions:
1. Since ADH is a vasoconstrictor, it reduces medullary and papillary blood flow in the
renal interstitium, thus, increasing tissues hypertonicity of the interstitium. This
would increase the concentration gradient of the solute between the interstitium
and the fluid in the lumen of the kidney tubules, thus, the reabsoprtion of water by
osmosis would increase.
2. ADH may stimulate the “sodium pump” of the ascending loop of Henle, thus ,
increasing both the rate of sodium transport from the tubule lumen to the
interstitium and the concentration gradient of sodium between the interstitium
and the fluid in the lumen of the tubules.
3. ADH may dilate the “pores” of the collecting duct, thus, facilitate water reabsorption.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The principal sex organs of the female are the ovaries. The ovaries have two main
functions are
a) Production of sex cell or ovum

b) Production of female sex hormone estrogen
The ovaries are almond-shaped bodies attached by the broad ligament to the dorsal
wall in the sublumbar region of the body cavity. The outer layer (cortex) of the ovary is
made up of germinal epithelium with very large number of primary follicles ech of
which contains a potential ovum. The inner layer (medulla) contains blood vessels,
nerves ganglion cells, stroma and embryonic vestiges.
 The accessory reproductive tract includes the infundibulum, oviducts, uterus

(horn and body), cervix, vagina and vulva.
 The infundibulum is a funnel-shaped structure which picks up the egg when
released by the ovary. The “picking-up” of the egg is believed to evolve the active
participation of the celia-like structures at the rim of the infundibular funnel which
attract the eggs into the infundibulum.
 The oviduct is s tubular structure connecting the infundibulum to the horn of the
uterus. It serves as the passage way of the egg on its way to the uterus. It is the
site of fertilization and the beginning of embryonic development after
fertilization.
 The horn of the uterus is the organ which serves as the site of implantation for
the fertilized egg. This is where the fetus would develop during the stage of
pregnancy in gestating animals. The body of the uterus unites the two horns of
the uterus and connects them to the cervix.

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 The cervix is sometimes considered as the neck of the uterus. Its opening, os
uteri, closes when the animal gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents. It
serves as sperm receptacle in certain animals.
 The vagina is the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the receptacle of
the sperm cells in many species. It also comprises a part of the birth canal of
the animal at parturition.
 The vulva is a common passage way for the products of reproduction and for
urine. The vulva of mammals is comparable to the ventral portion of the cloaca of
birds. It is also homologous with the scrotum of the male, since both are derived
from the same embryonic structure.
 Clitoris is a rudimentary organ located in the ventral commissure of the vulva of
animals. It is homologous to the glans penis of the male.
 The broad ligaments suspends the female genital system from the dorsolateral
wall of the pelvic canal. Three specialized regions of the broad ligaments are
recognized.
1) Mesometrium- is that portion of the broad ligaments which suspends the anterior
portion of the vagina, the cervix and the uterus and comprises the major portion of
the broad ligaments.
2) Mesosalpinx- is a lateral fold on the anterior portion of the broad ligaments which
suspends the oviduct (Salpinx)
3) Mesovarium- is a specialized portion of the anterior edge of the broad
ligament which suspend the ovary proper.
 In some species a pocket-like structure called Bursa is formed by fusion
of two or more of the mesovarium, mesoslpinx and the infundibulum. It
encloses, more or less, completely the ovary.
 A bind pouch opening into the floor of the genital tract at the external
urethral opening of the junction between the vagina and the vulva is the
sub- urethral diverticulum. The neck of the bladder opens through the
roof of the sub-urethral divericulum. This relationship of the neck of the
bladder to the blind pouch and hence to the external urethral opening would
appear to be safety feature to prevent entrance of foreign objects into the
urinary bladder proper.

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o
v
Raptured follicle
a
r
y Infundibulum (fertilization)
Magnum
(Albumen )
o
v
i Isthmus (shell
d membrane )
u
c
t Uterus/ Shell glands
(water anfd shell)
Vagina(bloom cuticle )
Cloaca
Avian Female Reproductive Tract
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 The main sex organ of the male is the testis. In birds, the two testes are located
within the body cavity in the dorsolumbar region. In farm animals, the testes are
located outside the body cavity within the scrotum. The scrotum is the cutaneous
sac that serves as the external covering of the testes. It protects the testes
from the direct mechnanical injuries and provides an environment which is a few

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degrees

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(6-8F) cooler than the body temperature which is required for normal
spermatogenesis. The thermoregulatory muscles of the testes are the cremaster
muscle and the dartos muscles.
 During fetal development, the initial development of the testes starts inside the body
cavity. As the fetus grows, the testes start to descend to the scrotum through the
inguinal canal. In certain instances, when both testes failed to ascend to the scrotal
sac, the individual is said to be bilateral cryptorchid, hence is sterile. If only one of
the testes failed to descend to the scrotal sac, the individual is said to be unilateral
cryptorchid , but capable of fertilization. However, cryptorchid animals should be
culled and not allowed to mate because this condition is heritable.
The testes has two main functions:
a) Production of sperm cells

b) Production of sex hormone, testosterone.
 The testosterone is the male sex hormone responsible for the
development of secondary sex characteristics. Male characteristics such as
muscular development at the rear quarters and shoulders, aggressiveness
and libido when confronted with an in heat female animal of the same
species are governed or influenced by the hormone testosterone.
 The seat of spermatozoa production in a testes is in the seminiferous
tubules. The semineferous tubules joins together to form the rete testis
and come out of the testes as vasa efferenta. The vasa efferentia
converged to form the head of the epididymis, then the body and tail of the
epidiidymis. The convulated epididymis straightens up to form the vas
deferens which then enters the inguinal canal and enlarges to form the
ampulla. The ampulla joins with the urethra of penis. The penis is the male
organ of copulation and serves to introduce the spermatozoa into the female
reproductive tract.
There are three accessory glands which contribute to the bulk of the semen ejaculate :
these are the
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 Seminal vesicles
 Prostate glands
 Cowpers gland or bulbo-urethral gland.
The semen consists of the sperm cells plus the secretions of the three accessory
glands. In vasectomized animals, the vas deferens are severed, thus the ejaculate
consists only of the secretions of the accessory glands- making the vasectomized
male sterile but without losing libido. On the other hand, in castrated animals both
testes are removed, thus rendering the male sterile with loss of libido.
 The secretions of the accessory glands serves as the vehicle for the transport of the
spermatozoa from the vagina to the oviduct. It stimulates also spermatozoa activity
and serves as the lubricating substance during copulation particularly the secretions
of the bulbo-urethral glands. The seat of the spermatogenesis is the seminiferous
tubules. FSH stimulates the germinal epithelium lining the seminiferous tubules to
initiate spermatogenesis up to the secondary spermatocytes stage. On the other
hand, LH stimulates the interstitial cells or the cells of Leydig to secrete
testosterone; and testosterone is required for the final maturation of the
spermatozoa. Therefore both FSH and LH are required for normal spermatogenesis.
FSH has a direct influence on spermatogenesis, whereas the influence of LH on
spermatozoa production in through its stimulating effect on testosterone secretion,
which is required for the final stages of spermatogenesis. The level of testosterone
in circulation also serves as the negative feedback in controlling LH production by
the anterior pituitary ; whereas inhibin, produced by the sertoli cells in the
seminferous tubules has a negative feedback effect on FSH secretions.
 Testicular and epididymal sperii cells are non-motile. They become motile only
when they are suspended in a fluid and this occurs when they come in contact with
the secretions of the accessory glands
 The normal spermatozoa consists of a head, neck or mid-piece and a tail. The head
is covered by a protoplasmic cap( galea capitis) and the shape is flattened ovoid in
bull, ram, boar and rabbit and rounded in men. It varies with species like rat, rooster
and salamander.
 The mid-piece and the tail are composed of several strands or fibrils which are
covered by a sheath. At the tip of the tail, these fibrils flare out into a naked
brush.
 The common abnormalities encountered in a semen sample are sperm cells with
protoplasmic droplets at the mid-piece; headless or tailess; giant and miniature
heads; bent, coiled and shoe-hooked tailed sperm cells. When sperm abnormalities
in a semen ejaculate are about 50% of the total sperm cell counts, the male is
usually sterile. Abnormal sperm are often seen in males suffering from fever, males
used too frequently for breeding, or too young males. In the same manner, if the
number of dead sperms in a semen ejaculate, as determined by a dead-alive
staining techniques, is 50% or more, the males has impaired fertility if not sterile.
 The life-span of ejaculated spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract is about 24
hrs (20-30 hrs) in most mammals and about 14 days in chickens. Of so many million
sperms per ejaculate, only a few thousand reach the oviduct and few dozens
actually reach the vicinity of the ovum. Several may penetrate the zona pellucida,
but only one sperm cells enters the ovum proper and accomplishes fertilization.

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Avian Male Reproductive Tract
Castration
Male calves and lambs that are kept for meat may be castrated when they are young to
prevent them from developing secondary sexual characteristics. Castration can also make
management easier as they will not be able to mate with female livestock on the farm,
may be less aggressive, safer and easier to handle. However growth rate may be reduced.
Piglets may also be castrated,
however, the practice is less common than in the past. Castration can prevent boar taint
(meat from entire males having an unpleasant taste), but many pigs are slaughtered at a
sufficiently early age for it not to be a problem.
Vasectomies
Entire males produce pheromones (chemicals) that send messages to females which can
stimulate female hormone production. Rams which have been vasectomised are called
teasers; that is they have had the vas deferens
cut so that the sperm which is produced will not be able to reach the penis. Teasers will
produce pheromones and behave like entires, however they will be infertile. They are used
to synchronise the breeding season of female livestock.
Puberty and Estrous Cycles
 The female reproductive tract starts to function when a female reaches the age of
puberty. Puberty indicates that the female has reached sexual maturity –capable of
producing offspring. The age of puberty varies between breeds of animals among
female animals of the same breed. The first manifestation to indicate that the female
animal has reached the age of puberty is when it starts to show signs of estrus.
 When the animal reaches puberty, the anterior pituitary gland starts to secrete
gonadotrophic hormones which could affect the ovaries. The first gonadotropin
secreted in significant amount is follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) with little
leutenizing hormone or LH. FSH causes the growth and development of the Graafian
follicles (GF) in the ovary. In turn, this developing follicles secretes a hormone
known as estrogen. This is the hormone which causes estrus in female. The presence
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of estrogen stimulates the production of LH. At the peak of estrogen production LH

production increases which coincides with the production of inhibin hormone from
the ovary, which inhibits FSH production. Usually, LH is also produced with little
FSH because the cells in the anterior pituitary which secretes the former are the
same cells that secrete the latter. These cells are the basophils of the anterior
pituitary.
 LH is the hormone that causes ovulation of maturing follicles. It also initiates the
formation of corpus luteum (CL) by converting the cells of the stratum granulusom
into lutein cells. Eventually, upon the action of LH, what used to be the GF will be
filled up with lutein cells and becomes the corpus luteum or CL. So, the GF with the
action of LH becomes the CL.
 The CL secretes a specific hormone known as progesterone. It has a strong
inhibitory of FSH production. As long as the CL is secreting progesterone, estrus is
inhibited . Progesterone prepares the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of
the fertilized egg. It also maintains normal pregnancy until birth. Thus, CL persists if
there is pregnancy; however, if there is no pregnancy, the CL will regress. It is
known that the uterus secretes prostaglandin F2 alpha which could destroy the CL.
In a normal cycle or if there is no pregnancy, prostaglandin F2 alpha is secreted by
the uterus and causes the luteolysis or regression of the CL.
 To summarize, in an estrous cycle, the sequence of events are follows : the anterior
pituitary secretes FSH which causes the formation of GF in the ovary. In turn, the
GF secretes estrogens which stimulates LH production and at the same time causes
heat or estrus cycle in the female animal. This is the best time to breed the animal.
Then, the surge of LH released by the anterior pituitary causes the ovulation of
maturing GF. At the same time, LH would initiate the formation of CL and causes
the production of progesterone by the CL. Progesterone would prepare the uterus
for implantation of the fertilized egg if fertilization had taken place. Also
progesterone maintains pregnancy, but if the animal is not pregnant, the uterus
then would produce prostaglandin which causes the destruction of the CL, resulting
in the cessation of progesterone production. When this happen, FSH production
would again continue and a new cycle begins. The period from one estrus to the
next estrus is known as estrus cycle. In many farm animals like carabao, cattle,
pigs, and horses estrus comes every 21 days if the female animal is cycling
regularly, although it could vary from 12 to 30 days.
Animals may be classified based on the occurrence of their estrous cycle as

 Monoestrus- if the animal comes in heat only once a year, such as dogs
 Seasonally polyestrus-if it comes in heat at certain seasons only, such as sheep
 Polyestrus- if it comes in heat all throughout the year, like cattle, swine
and carabao.
Portions of an estrous cycle
1) Proestrus- characterized by follicular growth

2) Estrus- which is under the influence of estrogen
3) Metestrus- characterized by the formation of CL
4) Diestrus- under the influence of progesterone secreted by the CL.
 Spontaneous ovulators- are those that ovulate spontaneously during or around

estrus, such as cattle, carabao, goat, sheep, hogs etc
 Induced ovulators- are those animals that do not ovulate unless there is
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copulation, such as rabbit

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Signs of Heat or Estrus
Estrus is perceived through physiological manifestations that the female show or exhibit.
The manifestations of heat are as follows:
1. Reddening and swelling of the vulva

2. Mucus discharge from the vagina
3. Frequent urination
4. Animals become restless and lacks appetite
5. Mounting other animals in herd
6. Female stand still when mounted by the male
The mucus discharge is watery at first and towards the end of estrus becomes sticky. The
vaginal lining of in heat animal is pinkish and it is pale when not in heat. However, the best
sign of heat is when the animals stands still when mounted by male animals of the same
species
When to Breed or Inseminate
 In cattle and carabaos, oculations takes place about 15-18 hours from the end of
estrus. The best time to inseminate a female animal is toward the end of its estrus.
But since the duration of estrus is variable and no one can tell exactly when the
animal started its heat, it is then recommended that once the animal is observed to
be in heat, then inseminate it immediately. If the animal is observed to be in heat in
the morning, inseminate immediately, and if it is still in heat in the afternoon,
inseminate again. Likewise, if it is observed to exhibit heat in the afternoon,
inseminate immediately and if is is still in heat the following morning, give the
second insemination. This is the thumb rule that should be followed. The duration of
estrus in carabao lasts from 5 to 36 hours or an average of 18 hours (less than a
day)
 In swine the duration of estrus is about 2-3 days. The best time to breed or
inseminate a sow is on the second and third day of estrus.
In mares (female horse that has already given a birth), estrus duration is about 6-7 days.
Mating or insemination is recommended on the fourth and fifth day of estrus

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BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Vertebrate animals may be classified into two groups based on their ability to regulate their
body temperature with respect to the environment.
1) Homeotherms or warm-blooded animals – whose body temperature is

largely independent of that of the environment
2) Poikilotherms or cold-blooded animals- whose body temperature varies
directly with that of the environment.
Homeotherms attain body temperature by :
1) Chemical Regulation
a) Altering the metabolic rate by adjusting the production of certain hormones

such as thyroxine and / or epinephrine
b) Shivering and changing muscle tension- the animal performs no external
works while shivering because its position does not change, but the energy
developed in the transfer of chemical-substrate energy to mechanical work of
muscular contraction is liberated as heat within the muscles
2) Physical devices and activities
a) Sweating with evaporation of water from the skin

b) Changing the rate of breathing to alter vaporization from the lungs
c) Altering the volume of blood flowing to the body surface by vasodilation or
vasoconstriction.
d) Changing the amount of internal and external thermal insulation such as
subcutaneous fat, feathers, fur, hair or clothing
e) Changing the “free” body surface area by lying down huddling when it is cold or by
standing in a stretch position when it is hot
f) Locating more favorable environment such as sunshine, shade, dry or wet areas,
shelter from winds, etc
Processes of heat dissipation
1. Conduction- involves direct contact of the animal with a part of its environment.
Thermal energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighboring molecule. The
amount of heat transferred and its direction depends on the following:
a. Contacting surface area of the animal;

b. The difference in temperature between the animal body and its
environment; and
c. Conduciveness of the contracting surface
This process of heat transfer has its greatest significance in the transfer of heat from the
interior to the surface of the animal body rather than from the animal body to the
environment and the reverse
2. Convection- heat is transferred to or from the animal by the movement of heated

air “particles”; it is the process by which actual mass motion of heated gas (or liquid)
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transfers heat from one place to another. The rate of heat dissipation from the body
by convection is :
a) Proportional to the surface area of the body;

b) Affected by the velocity of the air moving along the animal surface; and
c) Affected by the temperature of the animal’s surface and of the ambient air.
Thus, posture of the animal and other conditions affecting surface area affect the
convection transfer of heat
3. Radiation- involves the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves

traveling at the speed of 186,000 miles per second; there is no material medium or
physical contact between the animal and the segment of its contact between the
animal is reacting in the transmission of heat. The transfer of heat by radiation
depends on :
a) The effective surface area- example posture

b) The absolute temperature of the animal’s surface and of the surrounding surfaces.
c) Surface quality known as “emissivity”- example, color, texture and sheen of the skin
and hair coat. White surface may absorbed only 20% of the visible solar radiation
falling on it, wheras, a black surface may absorbed as much as 95 to 100% of the
same radiation
4. Vaporization- though not a strictly a homeothermic reactions, this is the most

important process by which the animal loses heat to maintain a constant body
temperature. The extent of heat loss from the skin and respiratory surfaces depends
on the following:
a) Temperature of the skin

b) Covering of the skin- when the skin is covered with hair, water vapor may be
trapped to form a high humidity layer over the surface, tending to prevent air
contact and evaporation.
The extent of heat loss by vaporization from the lungs depends on :
a) Ventilation rate or respiration rate

b) Humidity of the inspired-expired air
The normal rectal temperature range of the different classes of animals is as follows :
 Primates, asses, horses, mice, rats, elephants, ruminants, and dogs36-38C or

96- 101F
 Cats, pigs and rabbits38-40C or 100-103 F
 Chicken, turkey, goose, and ducks- 40-41C or 103-106F
 Quail, pheasant, sparrow41-43C or 106-109F
The effect of environmental temperature on body heat loss:
If the ambient temperature is the same as the body temperature, the body cannot lose the
heat by radiation, convection, or conduction; all the heat has to be lost by vaporization.
The vaporization of one (1) liter of water dissipates about 583 kcal of heat.
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When the ambient temperature is higher than that of the body temperature, the body
absorbs heat by radiation, convection and conduction. The body, therefore, must
dissipate not only the heat it produces but also that which it absorbs at higher
environmental temperature, the body can lose heat only by vaporization of water.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON PRODUCTIVITY OF LIVESTOCK
 The effect of climate varies on account of interactions between the climatic variables
and diurnal, daily and seasonal changes
 Animals have different levels of adaptation to different climatic stress, e. g.
temperate-type Holstein cattle have a thermal comfort zone for milk production
within the range -5 to20oC, with optimal production at around 10oC and with a
critical temperature range afterwhich milk production declines steeply, of 21-27oC.
the critical temperature is however inother temperate breeds (Jersey and Brown
Swiss) and higher still in tropical breeds
 Seasonal fluctuation in availability and quality of roughages for livestock during
dry season also affect productivity in the tropics
 Other factors affecting animal productivity includes diseases and parasites,
low genetic potential and poor management system
Some effects can be seen in:
 Reduced growth rate and prolonged time to reach puberty

 Low milk yield per lactation
 Reduced fertility and libido in male
 Reduced length and intensity of oestrus
 Slow return to oestrus and conception after weaning
 Embryonic mortality
 Reduced feed utilization
 Increased morbidity and mortality
HEAT STRESS
 Some of the common factors that can lead to stress (stressors) in livestock
production include transportation, noise, fasting, water deprivation,
hotness, coldness, etc.
 Most livestock (mammals and avians) are homeothermic animals
 They maintain the core body temperature constant or within a narrow range
 They employ various means to regulate the body temperature which include
both sensible and insensible heat loss methods
 They have a thermoneutral zone in environmental temperature in which
body temperature maintenance is possible
 When ambient temperature increases beyond the thermoneutral zone, animals
exhibit varying physiological responses depicting that they are stressed
 This form of stress is termed heat stress or distress
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 Heat stress is a multi-faceted adaptive response that occurs when an animal’s

capacity for heat dissipation is exceeded by the heat load acquired through excessive
exposure to high environmental temperature. It results from the interactions of air
temperature, humidity, radiant heat and air speed, where the air temperature plays
the major role
Indicators of heat stress in livestock
 Increase water intake

 Increased rectal temperature and respiratory rate
 Changes in haematological parameters
 Increased blood pH
 Changes in electrolytes and metabolites
 Reduced tri-iodothyronine, thyroxine and immune function
 Reduced feed intake and growth performance
 Increased mortality and morbidity
 Reduced egg size, production and shell quality in layers
 Reduced fertility and egg hatchability in breeders

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REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
ABGREGANA, K.W. 2012. Review / Lecture Notes in Anatomy and Physiology of

Farm Animals. In preparation for the 2012 Licensure Examination for Agriculturist.
FRANDSON, R.D., WILKE, W.L., & FAILS, A.D. 2003. Anatomy and Physiology of
th
Farm Animals. 6 Edition. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE . Lecture Notes in Animal Science 1a. Introduction

to Animal Science. The Institute of Animal Science. College of Agriculture. University of
the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna.
PEPITO, J. 2004. Review/ Lecture Notes in Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. IN
preparation for the 2004 Licensure Examination for Agriculturists.
"’THE CLOSER YOU GET TO SUCCESS, THE HARDER IT IS TO REACH IT”
END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

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ANIMAL BREEDING AND
GENETICS
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ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS
TERMS IN ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS
 Additive effects- the effect of each allele in the locus where no interaction exists
 Alleles- one or more alternative forms of a gene occupying the same site(locus) on a chromosome, one of a
pair of controlling genes
 Allelic gene- genes that occupy the same locus in the chromosomes
 Autosomal linkages- state when genes are located in the same autosomes
 Autosome- the type of chromosome other than the sex chromosome
 Bases- the chemical component of the gene consisting of adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine
 Chromosome- the colored bodies in the nucleus that contain the DNA.
 Chromatid- a longitudinally divided half chromosome which occur during mitosis and meiosis.
 Crossbreeding- the breeding of individuals from one population to individuals from another distinctly different
population.
 Dominance- the condition where the expression of a gene suppression that of its alternative allele
 Diploid- the occurrence of chromosome in pairs
 Epistasis- a type of genetic interaction, where a gene in one locus suppresses the action of a gene in another
locus
 Gamete- the collective term for the reproductive cells from either the male or female
 Gametogenesis- the process of production of gametes
 Gene- 1. the carrier of hereditary characteristics 2. A segment pf the DNA that determines the base sequence
of the nucleotides in the mRNA that makes up the code for a certain biological function
 Gene frequency- The proportion of particular gene at a given locus
 Genotype- the specific combination of genes in the diploid phase representing a phenotype
 Genotypic frequency- the proportion of a particular phenotype present in the population or breeding group.
 Haploid- The state of an organisms or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes, e.g. gamete.
 Heritability- the degree by which a character is genetically transmitted from parent to offspring
 Heterogametic sex- the sex that carries different sex chromosomes, e.g. X and Y in the mammals
 Homogametic sex- the sex that carries identical sex chromosomes; e.g. X and X in the mammals
 Hybrid vigor or heterosis- a condition where the heterozygote is better than the average of the homozygotes
 Inbreeding- the process of mating animals that are closely related by decent
 Law of independence- In Mendelian inheritance , members of one pair genes segregates independently with
other pairs of genes
 Locus- the specific location of a pair of genes in the chromosomes ( pl. loci)
 Maternal inheritance- inheritance of maternal characteristics through the distinctive maternal phenotypes; e.g
lack of teats in the udder of the sow could retard the growth of some piglets
 Meiosis- The process of cell multiplication in which the number of chromosomes in the reproductive cells are
reduced from diploid to haploid as in gametogenesis
 Mitosis-the process of multiplication of identical cells
 Mutation- spontaneous change in the biochemical or structural characteristics in the genetic material that
results in a different biological action
 Oogenesis- The process of production of female gamete
 Phenotype – the observable effect of a gene action
 Random mating- process where each individual of one sex has an equal chance of mating with any other
individual in the opposite sex
 Recombinant type gamete- a gamete that carries two or more genes resulting from the crossover of segments
of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
 Segregation- the separation of the pair of genes in the process of gametogenesis
 Selection- the process where certain individuals are able to contribute more progeny in the next generation
than other individuals
 Sex chromosomes- the chromosomes that determines the sex of the individual
 Sex- linkage- the state where a gene is located in the sex chromosome.
 Spermatogenesis- the process of producing sperm cells
 Test- crossing- crossing of an individual of unknown genotype to be completely recessive genotype
 Transcription- the process whereby the sequence of the bases in the DNA is transcribed by the mRNA in
the nucleus for subsequent translation into the corresponding protein
 Translation- the process of synthesis of the polypeptide chain based on the sequence in the mRNA
 Zygote- fertilized egg.

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History and Development of Genetics
 Before the work of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk was rediscovered in 1900, everyone attributed the
th
phenomenon to simply because of the blending of the blood of the parents. Mendel’s work was made in the 18
century but this just gathered bust in the shelf until it was recognized in 1865 that indeed there is s scientific
bases of inheritance
 In 1901, de vRies, Correns and Von Tshermark independently rediscovered the work of Mendel which then
resulted to the understanding and acceptance of Mendel’s work.
 W. Bateson, an English biologist studied the inheritance of certain characteristics of chicken in 1906.
 Galton (1822-1911)- introduced statistical methods into the study of heredity and can be considered as the
founder of the modern science of biometrics.
 Johannsen -a Dannish biologists coined the term “gene” to refer to the particulate factor that Mendel
hypothesized as the basic unit of inheritance.
 TH Morgan (1910)- working with the fruitly drosophila put forward the linear theory of the gene, explained
the crossing over of an genetic basis and produced the first chromosome maps.
 Bridges (1916)- developed the theory of sex determination
 Mulller(1928)- demonstrated that gene mutations could be artificially induced in X-rays.
 Avery and Co-worker (1944)- produced the evidence of the role of the nucleic acid DNA as the carrier of
genetic information.
 Watson and Crick-produced the model of the molecular structure of DNA and introduced the basic concept
of genetic codes.
History of Animal Breeding
 Robert Bakewell (1725-1795) is generally considered to be the the first great pioneer of animal breeding. He laid
the foundation for three new breeds of animals : the shire horse, longhorn cattle and Leicester sheep.
o The principles Bakewell used were:
 Like produces like or the likeness of some ancestor
 Inbreeding produces propotency and refinement
 Breed the best to the best.
GENES AND THEIR ROLE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTIVITY
Genes and their Function
 Gene is the basic biological unit of inheritance. Through this, parents transmit their characteristics to their
offspring. The biochemical nature and function of the gene however was hypothesized by James Watson and
Francis Crick (1956) which is now universally accepted.
 Gene may be defined as a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which determines the base
sequence of nucleotides in the messenger ribonucleic acid(mRNA) that makes up the code for certain
biological function
 The DNA is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides called polynucleotide. Each nucleotide
consist of a phosphate (P), a sugar (S) and a base (B). The coding system of the gene is based on the
arrangement of the four bases: Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
DNA RNA
Contains A,G,C, and T Contains A,G,C, Uracil (U)
Contains deoxyribose Contains ribose
Double stranded Single stranded
Store of genetic Expression of genetic
information information
 Amino acids which are building blocks of proteins are known to be coded by specific combinations of 3 bases.
There are about 20 amino acids
Functions of Genes
 Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell and from parent to offspring
 Copy or replicate itself with great consistency and precision

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 Undergo mutation or error in the copying of the genetic code which would subsequently be copied and replicated
The manner by which the genetic information is transmitted from cell to cell is made possible thru the somatic cell
division(mitosis). The transmission of the genetic material from the parent to the offspring is made possible through the
reduction division of the germinal cells(meiosis) and the subsequent union of the gametes.
 Consistency in the copying of the genes during mitosis is made possible by the gene structure itself. The DNA
segment consists of two strands of the chain of bases. These 2 strands are linked together at each other of the
base so that it forms a helical shape or twisted ladder. The nature of the gene is such that each base in one
strand can only pair with a specific base.
 Adenine (A) always opposite Thymine (T)forming A-T base pair
 Guanine (G) always opposite cytosine (C)forming G-C base pair
 In spite of the consistency and the precision by which the gene copies itself, mistakes, even if they are rare
occur. These mistakes are copied and become incorporated as part of the genetic information itself. Such
mistakes are called mutations. If the mutation occurs in the somatic cell, then it is transmitted only from cell to
cell in the in the same individual. But if it occurs in the germinal cells, then it may be transmitted to the next
generation.
 The genetic information that is stored must be such that it can be decoded and translated into action in the
developing individual.
 Protein is a basic nutrient for growth, maintenance, and reproduction of all organisms. The orderly synthesis of
proteins in the body is made possible by genes. Genes provide the code for the synthesis of proteins through a
process of transcription and translation involving the ribonulciec acid (RNA) and the ribosome in the cells. In the
nucleus, the RNA transcribes the sequence of the bases in the DNA and then carries the information to the
cytoplasm of the cells. The ribosomes attach to the m-RNA and then “reads” the message according to 3 bases at
a time. Each string of 3 bases codes for a certain amino acid. As each string of 3 bases is read, the
corresponding free amino acid in the cytoplasm is picked up and assembled into the string. When enough of the
specific amino acids have been assembled together, it forms a protein molecule.
The role of genotype
 The mechanisms by which the gene is able to synthesize protein in the cells underlies the relationship among the
genotype (G) and the environment (E) in the formation of the phenotype (P) of the organism.
 Genotype refers to the specific combinations of genes that are associated with a particular
characteristics of the individual. The environment is the totality of non-genetic factors affecting the
individual.
 The phenotype is the observable manifestation of a given character of an individual.
 This relationship is best expressed mathematically as P=G + E + (GXE) is the interaction of the genotype of an
individual and the environment which it is raised.
GENE ACTION
 Genes could only be expressed in the phenotype if they are in pairs or alleles during the diploid phase. Alleles
are the genes that may occupy the same locus or position in the paired chromosomes. During the gametic stage,
the cells is in the haploid phase where only one-half of the genetic compliment of the organism is contained. At
this stage, the genes are inert and will only be activated soon after fertilization. After the mating and the sperm
cell successfully fertilized the ovum or egg cells, the fertilized eggs becomes a diploid cell containing half of the
genetic complement of the male and the other half, the female parent. Not all of the genes become active at the
same time however. Those that are responsible for growth and development become active sooner than genes
that are responsible for reproduction.
 Genes perform different roles. There are the Structural genes- which directly responsible for the synthesis of
certain biochemical products during cell metabolism. Regulator genes- which serve to control or regulate
the function of other genes. Regulator genes may function in terms of quantity or timing of the activity of
certain structural genes.
Action of the genes may be detected only from the phenotype.
Generally there are two types of gene action
Non-additive- non-linear expression of genes or variations attributed to a deviation from additive action of the different
factors
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 Dominance: co dominance, complete, over dominance

 Epistasis- interaction leading to masking of the effects of one gene (at one locus) by the action of another (at
another locus)
Additive- when a pair of allelic genes contribute independently to the genotypic value, the action of the gene is said to
be additive. This intra-allelic interaction is sometimes referred to as partial dominance or incomplete dominance.
When a gene suppresses the expression of its alleles, the former is called the dominant gene while the later is referred
to as the recessive genes.
Gene action is not only the result of interaction of genes in the same locus but also between genes at different loci. Such
inter-allelic interactions are called epistasis, which is taken from the Greek word which means “to stand up”.
Examples
a. The red-roan-white coat color of Shorton cattle where there are three phenotypic classes (instead of two) is sadi
to be affected by partial or codominance
b. The mating of a homozygous pea comb (genotype PP) and a single comb (pp) results to progeny with pea
comb(Pp). the gene P for a pea comb suppresses the expression of a single comb gene p such that in a
heterozygous pair/allelic combination, the phenotype will be pea comb. Gene P is said to be dominant while
gene p is recessive
c. Plumage color in chickens is governed by espistasis where the interaction of genes at different loci interact.
Dominant gene C at the C-c locus and another dominant gene O at the O-o locus enables the individual to
synthesize the color pigment for its feathers. In the presence however of a dominant gene I at the I-I locus, the
action of the C and O genes is inhibited
THE MECHANISM OF INHERITANCE
 The flow of the genetic material from generation to generation is made possible by reproduction which in animals
involves two processes : gametogenesis and fertilization.
 Gametogenesis is the process of producing the reproductive cells (spermatogenesis in male; oogenesis in
female).
 Fertilization on the other hand is the process of the union of the sperm and egg cells to form a zygote
which develops as a new individual) Note that each individual animal is provided with specialized organs
which are responsible for the formation of the reproductive cells.
 These cells serve as the vehicle for the transmission of the genetic material from the parents to their
offspring. These specialized organs are the testis in the male and the ovary in the female.
GAMETOGENESIS AND FERTILIZATION
 Normally, each individual animal is provided with specialized organs which are responsible for the formation of the
reproductive cells. These cells serves as the vehicles for the transmission of the genetic material from the parent
to their offspring. These specialized organs are the testes in the male and the ovary in the female.
 In the juvenile stage, the primordial germ cells in the diploid stage. Upon approach to sexual maturity, the
reproductive cells undergo meiosis, a process by which the germinal cell divides to produce haploid cells carrying
one-half of the genetic complement of the individual. Eventually, these haploid cells develop into sperm cells in
the male while in the female, the ova or the egg cells
 During mating, the male deposits the sperm cells into the reproductive tract of the female which if it meets a
matured egg cell in the oviduct/fallopian tube; it may penetrate though the walls of the ovum. When that
happens, fertilization takes place and the fertilized egg cells would contain now one-half of the genetic
compliments of each parent. The fertilize egg then undergoes active cell multiplication or mitosis to form the
zygote (2n)

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THE MENDELIAN INHERITANCE AND PROBABILITY
1) Law of independent segregation- characters are determined by particular factors(later given the term gene))
and that these factors occur in pairs. In the formation of gametes, these factors are segregated so that only one
of the pair is transmitted by a particular gamete.
2) Law of Independent Recombination- The paired factor(genes) recombined (by chance and independently) to
compose the genetic character of the individual
One of the most important implication of Mendel’s finding is that the process of segregation and recombination of genes
is governed purely by chance and that the occurrence of each new combination may be predicted according to the rules
of probability
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
1) SEX LINKAGE
 Animals carry a pair of sex chromosomes in addition to autosomes. Sex chromosomes determine the sex of the
individual. The Autosomes carry genetic material but do not determine sex. Types of sex chromosomes are
Mammals- females XX; males XY while in birds- females ZW and males ZZ. The male XY sex chromosomes in the
male animal and the ZW in the female avian are non-homologous. The Y and the W chromosomes are also
smaller than their respective X and Z pairs. Genes that are located in the sex chromosomes are referred to as
sex- linkage genes
 The sex that produces only one kind of gamete is referred to as homogametic while the one that produces two
types of gametes is referred to as the heterogametic sex. .
Features of sex-linked genes
 The heterogametic offspring could only received the gene from its homogametic parent while the homogametic
offspring receives the allelic genes from both parents
 The distribution of the genotypes in the male and female progeny is not the same when reciprocal crosses
are made between pure recessive and dominant genotypes
 Examples of sex-linkage characteristics in farm animals are hemophilia and color-blindedness in some mammalian
species ; barring plumage pattern and dwarfism in some species of poultry
2) AUTOSOMAL LINKAGE
 Chromosomes is a chain of genes linked together. Genes that are more closely linked tend to be inhireted
together more often than those that are located further in the same chromosome. This is because during the
prophase stage of meiosis when the chromosome double, segments of the homologous chromosomes usually
cross—over and exchange segments. The longer is the distance between genes in the chromosomes the
more likely that cross-over will take place between them.
 Parental types gametes will be more frequent than recombinant type gametes. The former are those that were
similar to what the offspring received from the parent while the latter are those that are different from what was
received from either of the parents but were produced as a result of crossing-over of chromosomes during
meiosis. Examples of such linkages are those of white/ non-white plumage color in chicken
3) NON-NUCLEAR INHERITANCE
 This more commonly seen in plants where chlorophyll-bearing plants are carried in the cytoplasm. In animals
however, this is very rare. There are some evidences that cytoplasmic genetic material affecting milk production
may be present in cattle. If needed there are cytpolasmic genetic materials affecting economically important traits
in animals, females would play a larger role than the males in influencing the characteristics of the progeny since
the sperm cells have very little or if any cytoplasmic material

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4) MATERNAL INFLUENCE
 Other than the genetic material in the chromosomes and the possibility that there may be genetic materials in the
cytoplasm, the mother could further influence the characteristics of her offspring because of the maternal care she
provides to her young. One example is that of the incidence of mammary cancer in the progenies of white mice.
 Maternal effect forms part of the total environment of the individual. Nonetheless, it is important to
recognize variability due to maternal effects because it could easily be mistaken as genetics.
GENES IN POPULATION
Population in biological standpoint is a group of individuals sharing a common gene pool. The “gene pool “ is the
frequencies in which the genes and genotypes occur in them. Thus, in a particular locus with tow alleles, A and a ; a
population may be characterized as follows
Genotype Gene
F(AA)= PP f(A)=P
F(Aa)=2Pq f(a)=q
F(aa)= qq
Where: PP + 2Pq + qq = 1 where P+q=1
EQUILIBRIUM POPULATION
 The genetic composition of most population is in constant change from generation to generation. For us to
understand and appreciate the change of population however, let us examine a condition where a population
may remain in equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 1908). The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle
states that in an indefinite large random mating population; the gene and genotpic frequencies will
remain constant from one generation to the next provided that selection, migration and mutation do
not operate in the population
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GENETIC COMPOSITION OF A POPULATION
 Selection- is a process in which certain genotypes contribute more progeny in the next generation than in other
genotypes. This make takes place because of natural forces (natural selection ) or because of the intervention
of man (artificial selection). Selection increases the frequency of the desired gene and depress the gene
selected against.
 Migration- is the transfer of individuals from one population to another. The change in the genetic composition in
the host population after migration is directly proportional to the following factors. (1) The number of migrants in
proportion to that of the resulting population after migration and (2) the difference in the gene frequencies
between the migrants and the natives.
 Mutation- is an error in the copying of the genetic code resulting in different phenotypic effect. If mutation
happens in the somatic cells(as in cancer), it is not heritable. However, if it happens in the gametes / germinal
cells than it could be transmitted from the parents to the offspring
 Small population size- would result in the change in the gene frequency simply because of change in variations.
 Random genetic drift- is the chance fluctuation of genes from one generation to the next and is proportional to
the population size
 Non-random mating- occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of mating with individuals of
the opposite sex. Forms of non-random mating are assortive (individuals which are phynotypically similar tend
to mate more often), disassortive(mating of individuals which are phenotypically less similar ) and inbreeding
(mating of individuals that are related by descent tend to mate more often).

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ANIMAL BREEDING
 Art and science of the genetic improvement of farm animals.
Objectives of animal breeding
 Improve the quantity of production of farm animals and of their product per unit time
 Improve the efficiency of production and their products
 Improve the quality of farm animals and their products
 Improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and products
METHOD OF SELECTION
 Selection is defined as choosing animals as parents of the next generation of animals. Selection is the most
important tool that could change the genetic composition of a population considering that man could interfere in
this and effect the standards that he would like to have in his herd of animals. There are three methods of
selection available to anybody and these are : tandem method, independent culling method and the index
method.
AIDS TO SELECTION
 Pedigree selection- animals are selected based on their ancestors.

 Progeny testing-the breeding value of each individual is assessed on the average performance of a random
sample of its progeny and animals are selected or culled based on this progeny average.
 Mass or individual selection- a single (or repeated) measurement of each animals phenotype is made and
individuals selection or culled on the basis of the performance.
 Family selection
METHODS OF SELECTION
 Tandem method considers one trait at a time while the independent culling method considers two or more
traits at one time. The index method considers the whole animals characteristics and makes use of the score
card
The above-mentioned selection method should be gauged on the phenotype/performance of animals for a particular
trait(s) that one would like to improve. Measures like heritability(h2) estimates could be also looked into to check
whether one could make improvements in the herd for traits in question.
 Heritability measures the genetic component of the phenotype and traits that are highly heritable are more
likely to be transmitted to the offspring from the parents. Growth performance traits like liveweight gains have
high heritablity estimates though fertility traits like no. of services per conception have low estimates indicating
that one could make improvement in these traits through the manipulation of the environment.
 Tandem selection- selection is made for one trait or character at a time until it is improved, then for a second
trait and so on. Selection may thereafter be switched back to the first trait, then to the second etc., until finally
each reaches a desired level.
 Independent Culling Levels or Independent Score Method- in this case, a minimum phenotypic level is set
for each character under consideration. Below these levels animals are culled whether they reach the satisfactory
level in other characters or not.
 Selection index- each character is given a score and scores for all characters being considered are added
together. Those with the poorest total scores would be culled. It does allow usually high score on one character to
make up for deficiencies in another.
SYSTEM OF ANIMAL BREEDING
A. Random Mating- this is where the males and females in a population are allowed to mate at random and with no
real control.
B. Purebreeding-breeding of animal within a herd or at the most within a breed

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 Inbreeding- is a form of non-random mating or a special case of assortive mating where individuals that are
related by ancestry are mated together. The effect of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of the homozygous
genotypes at the expense of the heterozygous. Theoretically, inbreeding does not affect the gene frequency.
When the trait is influence only by the genes with additive effect, inbreeding would not affect the mean
phenotypic value of the population. However, when the trait is influenced by genes with dominance effect,
inbreeding tends to depress the mean phenotypic value of the population. Furthermore, when the population is
loaded with lethal or deleterious genes which generally occur as recessives, inbreeding increases the frequency
of defective individuals in the population
 Nonetheless, inbreeding is usually resorted to by breeders in establishing pureline stock which is more
homozygous and is genetically more stable and uniform. Inbreeding allows for offspring to perform uniformly
(prepotency) considering the homozygosity of the genes in the offspring. Inbreeding is also an intermediate step
in the production of hybrid stocks.
Within purebreeding the degree of inbreeding usually occurs into:
 Close inbreeding- the closer together the animals are in a relationship the greater the degree of
inbreeding. Mating between full sibs or between parents and progeny.
 Linebreeding-mating of animals which are more distantly related and can be traced back to one common
ancestor. It is accomplished by using parents that are closely related through the desired ancestor, but are little
if at all related through any other ancestor. Mating of cousins, grandparents to grand offsprings or half-brother to
half-sister.
 Outcrossing- Mating of animals of different families within the same breed but not closely related.
 Linecrossing- mating of animals from two different lines of breeding within a breed. The purpose is to
bring together desirable traits from different line of breeding.
 Outbreeding- is the mating of two unrelated individuals. Under this system are subsequent subsystems
namely: crossbreeding, outcrossing, upgrading and hybridization
C. Crossbreeding- refers to mating of animals of different established breeds. In current practice however, the term
crossbreeding also applies to the mating between groups of animals of diverse genotypes such as between varieties and
lines of animals. Crossbreeding increases the frequency of heterozygotes at the expense of homozygotes. There is also
noticeable better performance of offspring to that of the parents which is termed as heterosis or hybrid vigor
Outcrossing on the other hand is a mating of two individuals within the breed but are not related.
Upgrading is the mating of a purebred to a mongrel or a native while hybridization is the mating of animals from
different species.
Methods of Crossbreeding
a) Single two-way crosses- two different populations can be crossed with each other to produce an F1 generation
which is used only for production purpose and not for breeding
b) Three-way cross- this system relies on the crossing of two breeds A and B to produce a female excelling in
maternal performance in a particular environment and the use of a third breed to produced the ideal animal
for the market product.
c) Four-way cross- populations A and B are first crossed with each other, and so are C and D to obtain the F1
generation A x B and C x D. These are then crossed together to produce the double hybrids AB x CD. It is
necessary to maintain only relatively small number of animals of the lines A, B, C, and D.
d) Back cross- the F1 females are backed crossed to one of the parental populations.
e) Two-way rotational cross-in which males of the two breeds involved are used alternately; this system has the
advantages over the two-way cross, in that the crossbreed females can be used for breeding.
f) Three-way rotational cross-in which the males of each of the three breeds are used in turn; crossbred
females produced can be used for breeding.

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REPRODUCTION AND GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS
Different species of farm animals have different cycles and rates of reproduction. Modern breeds of chickens, for
example, could produce as much as 200 to 250 chicks per year in contrast to cattle which produces only about one calf
per cow in two years time. Poultry species could lay eggs almost everyday in all months of the year whether it is a
fertile eggs or not. Fertile eggs could then be incubated and hatched in multiple depending on the capacity of the
artificial incubators even if the eggs were hatched in different days. Cattle and other mammals shed eggs only once in
every 3 weeks or so. When the egg is fertilized, embryonic development happens in the uterus for several months until
delivery. The female will ovulate again after 3 weeks from birth.
Table 1. Frequency of ovulation and length of embryonic development and expected number of progeny/year/breeder
female in various farm animal species
Species Estrus Incubatio Expected

cycle n/pregna number of
(days) ncy youngs
(days) produced per
year
Quail 16-19 100-300
Pigeon 17 10-20
Chicken 21 50-300
Mallard 28 50-100
duck
Turkey 28 50-100
Geese 30 20-50
Muscovy 36 50-100
Duck
Rabbit 15-20 32 10-30
Swine 18-24 114 10-25
Sheep 17 147 1-3
Goat 20-21 148 2.5
Cattle 21 280 0.5
Water 22-24 316 0.5
Buffalo
Assuming that the male-female ratio among the progeny is 50:50 and that no mortality is incurred from birth to
breeding age, a farmer could afford to select the top 1 % among the progeny to replace all the female parent breeders
in the flock within a period of about 1.5 to 2 years. In cattle, it may take an average of 2 to 3 years to produce enough
calves for replacement. A period of 4-6 years is then needed by the farmers to select and replace 50 percent of his
present female breeders. It would take about 40 years for a cow to produce 10 females calves where there 1 to 10%
will be retained to replace the female parent. Cow usually remains productive for only 10 years and could not possibly
produce enough calves in her lifetime to allow the farmers to exercise the selection pressure as intense as 10% among
the dams.
Lower reproduction rate, in effect retard the rate of genetic improvement because of the longer period requirement to
produce enough progeny as reliable basis for selection.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI)
AI is a process of inducing fertilization in the female reproductive tract without the benefit of sexual contact between the
male and female of the species. Semen is usually collected from the male and extended and stored in vitro. This
extended semen will then be inseminated to the in-heat female. One of the benefits derived from AI is that it increases
the number of females “serviced” by one male. In bulls , one ejaculate could even serve as much as 100 females. It also
eliminates the possible transmission of sexually-transmitted diseases and at the same time, prevent possible injuries in
the female which are smaller in body size with that of the males.

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MULTIPLE OVULATION AND EMBRYO TRANSFER(MOET)
While AI increases the number of progeny that a male could possibly produce. MOET increases the reproduction rate of
the female. Multiple ovulation is a process by which the female animals is induced to simultaneously produce more eggs
than the usual number being shed. Embryo transfer is a technique wherein a young embryo is collected from a donor
and implanted to the uterus of a female recipient parent. MOET does not necessarily increase the rate of reproduction of
a given population, but rather it increases the rate of reproduction in the females that are selected to serve as embryo
donors to as much 30 to 50 times.
SEXING SEMEN AND IN VITRO FERTILIZATION
Recent researches have also demonstrated techniques of separating fraction of the semen that would carry a much
larger proportion of sperm cells carrying the Y-chromosome than those that carry the X-chromosome. For example, if
only the fraction of the semen that carry a much higher proportion of X-carrying sperm cells may be used to fertilized
the ova in vitro then more female offspring could be produced (with the X-X sex chromosome combination) This
however should be coupled with embryo transfer technology.
NUCLEAR CLONING
Continued splitting of embryos that would lead to an indefinite duplication of an individual would be referred to as nuclear
cloning. Identical twins, for example is a result of the splitting of an embryo in its early stage of development. If the
technology for nuclear cloning is fully developed it would have a dramatic impact on the rate of genetic improvement and
on the methodology of animals breeding as a whole. The challenge to animal breeders would be to identify the superior
genotypes to be cloned and the system of continues the genetic gain after the superior genotype have been
disseminated.
Table 2. Chromosome numbers in selected animals
COMMON/ SCIENTIFIC DIPLOID HAPLOID

NAME (2n) (n)
Man (Homo sapiens) 46 23

Horse (Equus caballus) 64 38
Ass (Equus astrus) 62 36
Eurepean Cattle(Bos 60 30
taurus)
Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) 60 30
American Bison (Bison 60 30
bison)
Water Buffalo (Bubalus 50 25
bubalis) riverine
Water Buffalo (B. bubalis) 48 24
swamp type
Reindeer (Cervus cervus) 70 35
Sheep (Ovis aries) 54 28
Goat (Capra hircus) 60 30
Swine(Sus domesticus) 38 19
Dog (Canis familiaris) 78 39
Cat ( Felis catus) 38 19
Rabbit 44 22
Mouse 40 20
Rat 42 21

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REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture Notes in Animal Science 1a. Introduction to Animal Science. IAS,
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna.
PEPITO, J.E. 2008. Lecture Learning Guide in Animal Science 21 (Principles of Animal Science). Department of Animal
Science. Colllege of Agriculture. Central Mindanao University.
SORIANO, M.L. 2004. Lecture/ Review Notes in Animal Breeding and Genetics. IN Preparation for the Agriculturists
Licensure Examination held at the CEC, CMU and NIA Conference Hall, Valencia City, Bukidnon. April-June 2004.
"I CAN DO ALL THINGS THROUGH CHRIST, WHO STRENGTHENS ME" PHIL 4:13
END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS

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ANIMAL NUTRITION
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ANIMAL NUTRITION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Nutrition-is the study of the various physical and chemical processes that transform food
elements to body elements and the influence of various feed additives to various processes in
the body. It involves the ingestion, digestion and absorption of various nutrients, their
transport to all body cells, its metabolism and the removal of unusable nutrients and waste
products of metabolism.
2. Food/ Feed- term given to any material that embraces naturally in both plants and animals
including its by products prepared from them. Example : corn, rice bran, fish meal, soybean
meal, etc.
3. Feedstuff- term given to any materials both natural in origin and synthetically prepared that
when properly used have nutritional value in the diet. Example : Corn, DL-Methionine, Feed
supplement, some vitamin premixes, ect.
4. Nutrients- are substances or elements found in feeds that are very necessary to support
normal life process of the animals. These are the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins and water.
5. Ration- the food given to the animals with balance of all nutrients needed by the animals
within 24 hours requirement / food allowance.
6. Diet- it is the kind of food given to animals regardless whether balance or unbalance
of nutrient requirements needed by the animals.
7. Digestion- is the process of breaking down of food particles through mechanical,
enzymatic and /or microbial process in the preparation of nutrient absorption.
8. Absorption- is the transport of all digested nutrient to all parts of the body tissue and cells.
9. Metabolism- is the next process of nutrient utilization in the body after it is digested and
absorbed in the cells. It is the sum total of all physical and chemical changes occurring in the
body where nutrient are metabolized into energy in the form of ATP, carbon dioxide and
water(metabolic water).
10. Metabolic water- is the water produced from the nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins) when metabolized in the cells.
11. Enzymes- a complex protein produced in living cells that causes changes in other
substances within the body without being changed itself (organic catalysts)
GROSS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Proximate Composition of Both Plant and Animal Tissues
NUTRIENT PLANT ANIMALS

Carbohydrates Very High- 75%
Fats Low 3-10% High 20-75%
pseudofats
Proteins Low High
Minerals Low High
Vitamins High High
Water High 60%
ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION FOR BOTH PLANTS AND ANIMALS
CARBOHYDRATES
 Made up of C (40%), H (7%) and O (53%) by molecular weight.

 Includes sugar, starch, cellulose and gums
 Very little occurs as such in the animal body.
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 CHO make up approximately ¾ of plant dry weight and thus the largest part of animals
feed supply.
 Formed by photosynthesis in plants
 Structure consists of C atoms arranged in chains to which H and O are attached.
 May contain an aldehyde or a ketone group in their structure.
Classification (based on number of sugar molecules)
 Monosaccharides- simple sugar that are utilized in the body without undergoing hydrolysis.
o Hexose- glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose
o Pentose- arabinose, xylose and ribose
Disaccharides- these
are carbohydrates
containing two simple
sugars that should
undergo hydrolysis with
specific enzymes before it
is absorbed and utilized
by the body.
Maltose-contains
2 moles of
glucose from malt
sugar
Lactose –
contains 1 mole
of glucose and 1
mole of galactose
from milk sugar.
Sucrose-
contains 1 mole
of glucose and 1
mole of fructose
from fruit sugar.
 Polysaccharides – these are carbohydrates containing several simple sugars that should also
undergo hydrolysis with specific enzymes of the particular substrate before it is absorbed and
utilized by the body. The examples are :
o Starch- the reserved energy in plants. This consists of several glucose units linked
together in α 1-4 linkage.
o Glycogen- the reserve energy in animal tissue found in liver. This consist of
several glucose units linked together in a α 1-4 linkage similar with that of starch.
The only difference is the number of glucose units which consists only of 12
glucose.

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o Cellulose- these are carbohydrates that are found in the cell wall of the plant tissue
which consists of several glucose linked together in β 1-4 linkage. No digestive
enzymes that could digest cellulose. Only bacteria, protozoa in ruminant animal which
produce/ secretes enzymes cellulose that digests cellulose and utilized in as source of
energy.
o Hemicellulose- it is a complex, heterogeneous mixture of a number of different

polymers of monosaccharides including:
 Glucose, galactose, mannose, arabinose, and xylose} the principal
components of cell wall. A β 1-4 linkages of D-glucose units with terminal
branched of α 1-6 linked with xylose units.
o Gums-are substances (compound) formed at the site of injury or by deliberate
incision on the bark of the plant which are viscous fluid that becomes hard when dry.
They are not utilized as food nutrient but used commercially as thickening agent or
stabilizer for emulsion and paste.
o Pectins-is a polymer of α 1-4 linkage of D- galacturonic acid units found primarily in
space between plant cells at middle lamella. It can be extracted with hot or cold water
and will form into gel.
o Lignin- a group of substances which are not chemically fully understood. They are
found in the woody parts of the plant which gives structural support to plant cell walls.
It is indigestible and often lignification takes place around cellulose fibers thereby
reducing the digestibility by cellulose. Only termites have the enzymes that can digest
lignin as source of their energy.
o
Functions in the animal body
a. Source of energy
b. Source of heat
c. Building stores for other nutrients
d. Stored in animal body by converting to fats
Deficiencies of abnormal metabolisms

a. Ketosis
b. Diabetes mellitus
FATS (LIPIDS OR ETHER EXTRACT)

Made up (molecular weight) of C (77%), H (12%), and O (11%)
Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
Fats will yield 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins.
Functions
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 Dietary supply
 Source of heat, insulation, and protection for animal body
 Source of essential fatty acids- linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acid
 Serves as a carrier for absrption of fat soluble vitamins
Deficiency and Abnormal Metabolism

 Skin lesions, hair loss and reduced growth rate
 Ketosis- catabolism of body fat
 Fatty liver- abnormal metabolism of the liver.
Location and Natural Body Sources of Fat

 Animal Body
o Subcutaneous
o Surrounding internal organs
o Marbling and milk
 Natural Sources- most feeds have less than 10% fat except oil seeds 20%
Classification
 Simple lipids- esters of fatty acids and alcohol

o Fats and oils-ester of fatty acids and alcohol
o Waxes- esters of long chain sterol or monohydric alcohol
 Compound Lipids-esters of fatty acids and alcohol in combination with other compounds
o Phospholipids- fatlike compounds containing phosphoric acid and a nitrogen base.
Examples – lecithins, cephalins, sphingomyelin
o Glycolipids- compounds containing a fatty acid a carbohydrates a complex alcohol
and nitrogen base but no phosphorous.
o Lipoproteins
 Derived Lipids
o Fatty acids
o Sterols
Structure of Fat
 Glycerol and Fatty Acids

 Saturated Fatty Acids
 Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids Found in Lipids
NAME FORMULA SOURCE
Saturated Fatty Acids

Butyric C3H7COOH Butter
Caproic C5H11COOH Butter
Caprylic C7H15COOH Coconut
Capric C9H19COOH Palm Oil
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Lauric C11H23COOH Laurel and

Coconut
Myristic C13H27COOH Nutmeg Oil
Palmitic C15H31COOH Palm Oil and
Lard
Stearic C17H35COOH Tallow
Arachidic C19H39COOH Peanut
Behemic C21H43COOH Bean Oil
Lignoceric C23H47COOH Peanut
Cerotic C25H51COOH Waxes
Meleissic C29H59COOH Waxes
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Oleic C17H33COOH Olive Oil
Linoleic C17H31COOH Corn Oil
Linolenic C17H29COOH Linseed Oil
Arachidonic C19H31COOH Lecithin and
Caphalin
Clupanodonic C21H33COOH Fish Oil
 Saturated Fatty Acids- are those fatty acids wherein all the carbon skeleton are filled up
with oxygen
 Unsaturated Fatty Acids- are those fatty acids wherein not all of the carbon skeleton are
filled with hydrogen, it contained double bond. Chemically, these are not stable products and
cause rancidity. To make these fatty acids stable on storage the carbon is being filled up with
either hydrogen or halogene.
o Hydrogenation- is filling up of hydrogen at the double bond.
o Halogenation- is the filling up of halogen at the double bond such halogen as iodine,
chlorine, or bromine.
PROTEINS
Principal constituents of the organ and soft structure of the animal body.
Made up (by molecular weight) of Carbon (53%), H (7%), O (23%), N(16%)and P(1%)
Dietary requirements (%) is highest in the young growing animals and decline gradually to maturity.
Proteins are basically large molecules
Structure of Proteins
 All proteins have one common property; their basic structure is made up of single unit, amino
acids.
 Twenty two amino acids are commonly found in proteins, they are linked by peptide bonds.
 The arrangement of amino acids in the chain helps determine the composition of the protein
 The classification of amino acids depends on the number of acidic and basic group that are
present.
The end product of protein when digested or hydrolyzed are amino acids which are classified into:

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 Essential Amino Acids- are amino acids that are necessary in the animal body which cannot
be synthesized in the animal body and should be supplied in the diet. These are the following
o Phenylalanine, Histidine , Isoleucine
o Leucine, Lysine , Methionine, Threonine
o Valine, Aginine, Tryptophan
Lysine is considered the limiting amino acid in swine nutrition while Methionine is considered the
limiting amino acid in poultry.
 Non-essential amino acids- those amino acids that are necessary in the animal body but it
can be synthesized by the animal and which are not necessary be supplied in the diet.
 These are the following
o Proline, Hydroxyproline, Aspartate
o Citrulline, Glysine, Alanine, Tyrosine
o Asparginine,Cystine, Glutamine, Ornithine

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Classification of Protein
 Simple Proteins- contains only the ordinary amino acids without organic or
inorganic structures. Examples :
o Albumin- egg white and blood serum
o Globulins- seed protein, myosin in muscle and antibodies
o Glutelins- cereal grain proteins
o Prolamines-common in most seeds
o Histones-globin and hemoglobin
o Protamines- nucleic acid, sperm of fish
o Scleroproteins or albuminoids-fibrous proteins like hair/ nail protein
 Conjugated Proteins- those in which simple proteins are combined with non-protein radical.
o Phosphoproteins-casein and pepsin- contain phosphorous
o Glycoprotein- gonadotrophic hormones-contains carbohydrates
o Lipoproteins-animal tissues in blood, egg and brain contain lipids
o Chromoproteins-pigments and enzymes
o Nucleoproteins-contain nucleic acid
o Hemoproteins, lecithoproteins, metalloproteins
 Fibrous proteins- constitute about 30% of total protein in animal body, connective tissues.
Examples- collagens, elastin, keratins.
Protein Terminology
a. True Protein- composed of amino acids

b. Non-Protein Nitrogen (NPN)- compounds that are not true protein in nature but contain N
and can be converted to protein by bacterial action, i.e. urea
c. Crude Proteins- composed of true proteins and any nitrogenous products; crude protein =
N% x 6.25
d. Protein Quality- refers to the amount and ratio of essential amino acids present in proteins.
Functions
1. Basic structural unit of the animal body, i.e collagen, elastin, contractile protein and blood
proteins
2. Body metabolism- enzymes, hormones, immune antibodies, hereditary transmission.
Deficiency and Abnormalities
a. Symptoms of protein deficiencies : reduced growth rate and feed efficiency, anorexia,
infertility
b. Amino acid deficiency- a lack of an important amino acid which result to deamination.
MINERALS
 Inorganic solid, crystalline chemical elements

 The total mineral content of plants or animals is often called ash
 Make up to 5% of animal body on dry weight basis.
General Functions
 Skeletal formation and maintenance- Ca,P,MG,Cu, Mn,

 Function in protein synthesis- P, S, Zn
 Oxygen transport- Fe, Cu
 Fluid Balance(Osmotic pressure)-Na, Cl, K
 Regulating acid-base balance of the entire system-Na, Cl, K

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 Activators and /or components of enzyme system- Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn
 Mineral-vitamin relationship- Ca,P, Co,Se
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MINERALS
Macro / Major –Minerals-Normally present at greater level in animal body or needed in relatively
large amounts in the diet. Includes Ca,P,Na,Cl,K,Mg, S
Sodium and Chlorine
Functions:
1. Formation of digestive juices
2. Control of body fluid concentration
3. Control of Body fluid pH
4. Nerve and muscle activity
Deficiency-Under ordinary feedlot conditions, there are no specific deficiency symptoms- just
unthrifty appearance and impaired performance. With heavy perspiring animals, an acute salt
deficiency may develop resulting in disrupted nerve and muscle function and possible nervous
prostration.
Calcium
Functions:
1. Bone and teeth formation-99% of body calcium in the bones and teeth
2. Nerve and muscle function
3. Acid-base balance
4. Milk production-also egg production
Deficiency symptoms
1. Rickets in young animals. Joints become enlarge. Bones become soft and deformed.
2. Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals. Bones become porous and weak
Phosphorous
Functions:
1. Bone and teeth formation- about 80% of body phosphorous is in the bones and teeth
2. As a component of protein in the soft tissues
3. Milk production-also egg production
4. In various metabolic processes
Deficiency
1. Rickets in young animals similar to that of calcium deficiency
2. Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals similar to calcium deficiency
3. Poor apetite, slow gain, lowered milk production, low blood phosphorous and general
unthriftiness. Animals may eat soil and chew on nonfeed objects, but this is not specific
for phosphorous deficiency.
Magnesium
Functions:
1. Necessary for many enzymes system
2. Plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism
3. Necessary for proper functioning of the nervous system
Deficiency-Hypermagnesemic tetany- hyperirritability of the neuromuscular system producing
hyperexcitability, incoordination and frequently death

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Potassium
Functions: -Required by livestock for a variety of body functions such as osmotic relations, acid-base
balance, rumen digestion, and the primary intracellular cation in neuromuscular activity.
Deficiency-Most unlikely under ordinary conditions. Symptoms of deficiency rather nonspecific

such as decreased feed consumption, lowered feed efficiency, slow growth, stiffness and
emaciation.
Sulfur
Functions:
1. As a component of the amino acid cystine and methionine and the vitamins, biotin and
thiamine
2. In the synthesis of sulfur containing amino acids in the rumen
3. In the formation of various body compounds
Deficiency-Seldom experienced under ordinary conditions. Deficiency will express itself as a

protein defiency – a general unthrifty condition and poor performance.
Micro/ Trace – minerals-Normally present at low levels in animal body or needed in very small
amount in the diet. Includes Cu, Zn, Co, F, I, Mn, Se, and are toxic at large amount.
Iron
Functions:
1. Necessary for hemoglobin formation
2. Essential for the formation of certain enzymes related to oxygen transport and utilization.
3. Enters into the formation of certain compounds which are serve as iron stores in the body-
specifically ferritin, found primarily in the liver and spleen and hemosiderin, found primarily
in the blood.
Deficiency:
 Most livestock rations are more than adequate in iron content, and an iron defecincy
seldom occurs with older animals
 Iron deficiency in the young pig is characterized
o Low blood hemoglobin
o Labored breathing
o Listlessness
o Pale eyelids, ears and nose
o Flabby, wrinkled skin
o Edema of head and shoulders
Iodine
Functions- In the production of thyroxine by the thyroid gland.
Deficiency:
1. Goiter at birth or soon thereafter
2. Dead or weak at birth
3. Hairlessness at birth
4. Infected navels-especially foals
Cobalt
Function :
1. As a component of the vitamin B12 molecules
2. In the rumen synthesis of vitamin B12

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Deficiency:-General malnutrition symptoms- poor appetite, unthriftiness, weakness, anemia,

decreased fertility, slow grow growth, and decreased milk and whool production.
Copper
Functions:
1. In iron absorption
2. In hemoglobin formation
3. In synthesis of keratin for hair and wool growth
4. In various enzyme systems
Deficiency
 Symptoms not specific and may include of the following :
o Low blood and liver copper
o Bleaching of hair in cattle
o Abnormal wool growth in sheep
o Abnormal bone metabolism
o Muscular incoordination
o Weakness at birth
o Anemia
Flourine
Functions:
1. Reduced incidence of dental caries in humans and possibly other animals
2. Possibly retards osteoporosis
Deficiency: In children- excessive dental caries
Manganese
Function- in enzyme system influencing estrus, ovulation, fetal development, udder development,
milk production and growth and skeletal development
Deficiency symptoms take the form of:

 Delayed estrus
 Reduced ovulation
 Reduced fertility
 Abortions
 Resorptions
 Deformed young
 Poor growth
 Lowered serum alkaline phosphate
 Lowered tissue manganese
 “Knuckling over” in calves
Molybdenum
Functions:
1. As a component of enzyme xanthine oxidase –specially important to poultry for uric acid
formation
2. Stimulates action of rumen organisms
Selenium
Functions :
1. In vitamin E absorption and utilization

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2. Essential component of enzymes- glutathione peoxidase, which functions to destroy toxic

peroxidases in the tissues thereby having a sparing effect in the vitamin E requirement.
3. Other compounds of selenium seem to work in concert with vitamin E in the maintenance of
normal cell functions and membrane health.
Deficiency
The following selenium deficiency symptoms in many respect are similar to those of Vitamin E
deficiency
 Nutritional muscular dystrophy(white muscle disease) in lambs and calves
 Retained placenta in cows
 Heart failure
 Paralysis
 Poor growth
 Low fertility
 Liver necrosis
 Pancreatic fibrosis in chicks
Zinc
Functions
a. Prevents paraketosis
b. Promotes general thriftiness and growth
c. Promote wound healing
d. Related to hair and wool growth and health
e. Deficiency impairs testicular growth and function
Deficiency
 Seldom occurs in cattle and sheep in normal rations. Frequently experienced in growing and
fattening swine being fed on concrete with rations containing recommended levels of
calcium
 Deficiency include:
o Paraketosis
o General unthriftiness
o Poor growth
o Unhealthy looking hair or wool
o Slow wound healing
VITAMINS
 Organic component of natural food but distinct from carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water
 Present in foods in minute amounts and effective in the animal body in small amounts
 Essential for development of normal tissue necessary for metabolic activity but do not enter
into structural portion of body.
 When absent from the diet or not properly absorbed or utilized, results in a specific deficiency
disease syndrome
 Cannot be synthesized by the animal
 Related substances
o Provitamins or precursors, i.e. carotene
o Antivitamins, vitamin antagonists or pseudovitamins
Classification and structure
a. Fat soluble- Vitamin ADEK

b. Water soluble Vitamins- thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, biotin,
chlorine, folic acid
Functions and Deficiency

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1. Play role as regulators of metabolism; necessary for growth and maintenance

2. Vitamin requirement may also increase in old age due to difficulties in absorption and
utilization.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin A (Retinol)-Promotes the development of visual pigments.

.
Indispensable for the formation and protection of epithelial tissues.
Improves resistance to infection
Vitamin D (Calciferol)-Regulates the incorporation of Ca and P into the bone matrix and Ca
absorption from the intestinal lumen.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)-Works as a biological antioxidant, as a detoxifying agent, and participates

as a component of the respiratory chain. Functions in nucleic acid metabolism and in endocrine
glands
Vitamin K (Menadione)-Functions in the blood coagulation system. Acts in the maturation of the
bone structure
WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)-Participates in the process of carbohydrate metabolism
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)-Acts in the respiratory chain as a constituent of the flavin enzymes

concerned with hydrogen transfer
Vitamin B6 (Pyriodoxine)-Active in amino acid metabolism as a coenzyme of several enzyme

systems
Vitamin B12 (Cyanobalamin)-Essential in the reduction of one-carbon compounds in the fat and
protein metabolisms
Biotin (Vitamin H)-Necessary for gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis where it acts in
carboxylation reactions.
Folic Acid-Acts in one carbon metabolism where it is indispensable in the formation of amino acid and
nucleic acid
Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)-Acts as an active group of different coenzymes which are related to the citric
acid cycle.
Pantothenic Acid-Part of coenzyme A, which occupies a central position in the intermediary

metabolism by activating weakly active acids
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)-Essential in the formation and maintenance of skeletal tissues;

participates as an oxidation-reduction system in cellular oxidation processes. Involved in defensive
mechanisms.

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WATER
 Cheapest and most abundant nutrient

 Makes up to 65%-85% of animal body weight at birth and 45-60% of body weight at maturity.
 Percentage of body water decreases with animal age and has an inverse relationship with body
fats
 Accounts for 90-95% of blood and many tissues containing 70-90% water.
 Found in the animal body as :
o Intracellular water- mainly muscles and skin
o Extracellular water- mainly interstitial fluids, blood plasma, lymph, and synovial and
cerebrospinal fluids
o Water present in urinary and gastro-intestinal tract.
Functions
a. Treatment of nutrient and excretion
b. Chemical reactions and solvent properties
c. Body temperature regulations
d. Maintain shape of body cell
e. Lubricates and cushion joints and organs in the body cavity.
Deficiencies and Restrictions

1. Reduced feed intake and reduced palatability
2. weight loss due to dehydration
3. increased secretions of nitrogen and electrolytes such as Na and K.
Sources of Water in the Animals

a. Drinking water- consumption affected by many factors
b. Water contained in or on feed- about 8 to 30 % water
c. Metabolic- may account for 5-10% total water intake.
Water Losses from the Animal Body

a. Urine
b. Feces
c. Vaporization from lungs
d. Sweat from sweat glands
C6H12O6 ATP + CO2 + H2O

Metabolized
Carbohydrates 60% metabolic water

Produced
Protein 40% metabolic water
Fats 100% metabolic water
Water requirement for maximum tolerance in feeds for storage
Feeds % Water Required
Ground Feeds 11% water

Small Grains 13% water
Shelled corn 15% water
Grass hay 20% water
Molasses 40% water
Silage 70% water

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ANIMAL DEFICIENT OF THE FOLLOWING NUTRIENTS
 Marasmus- diseased caused by carbohydrates deficiency

 Kwashiorkor- disease caused by protein deficiency
 Avitaminosis- complete dietary lack of vitamin.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND METABOLISM
 Digestion- Involves the process used to prepare food for absorption. Absorption indludes the
processes that move small molecules through membranes of the gastro intestinal tract into
blood so the molecules may be used for their specific function.
 Digestion includes mechanical and chemical processes. Mechanical forces includes chewing
(mastication) and muscular contractions of the GI tract, and enzymatic activity from enzymes
produced in the GI tract or enzymes produced by microorganisms located in various parts of
the GI tract.
 There are three types of GI tracts in animals. Three types, non-ruminant, ruminant and
avian are common in farm animals
NONRUMMINANTS
Nonruminants- nonruminants include the pig, horse, rabbit, dog and cat. Humans also have a non
ruminant type of digestive tract. The following is a description of the functions of the various parts of
the nonruminant GI tract.
 Mouth- the mouth is composed of 3 accessory organs
o Tongue- grasping food
o Teeth- mastication of food
o Salivary glands- produce saliva which contains
 Water to moisten food
 Mucin to lubricate food for easy swallowing
 Bicarbonate salts to buffer (regulate pH)
 Salivary amylase to start carbohydrate digestion
 Esophagus- the esophagus, a muscular tube, allows passage of food from mouth to stomach.
 Stomach- the stomach is a muscular digestive organ that has 3 major functions.
o Storage of ingested feed
o Mechanical breakdown
o Production of HCl, enzymes and mucus.
 The stomach has three major regions
 Cardiac region- cells produce mucus that protects the stomach lining
 Peptic gland region- cells produce HCl, Pepsin(proteolytic
enzymes), and mucus
 Pyloric region- primarily mucus producing cells.
 Small Intestine- the small intestine has 3 subdivisions

o Duodenum- an active site of digestion that receives secretions from the pancreas,
liver and intestinal walls
o Jejunum- middle section that is involved in nutrient absorption
o Ileum- last section- also involved in nutrient absorption
 Large Intestine- the large intestine also has 3 sections

o Cecum-first section which is relatively large in the horse and rabbit- when well
developed as in the horse contains many bacteria which produced enzymes that
digest fibers
o Colon- middle section which is involved in reabsorption of water- length is related to
the amount of water reabsorption i.e. the colon is very long in the desert rat.
o Rectum- the last section

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RUMINANTS
Ruminants- such as, cattle and sheep also have only one true gastric stomach, but with additional
compartments which involved for fiber digestion.
 Rumen- the rumen is a large muscular compartment which fills the left side of the body
cavity. The muscular walls secrete no enzymes and are covered by projections called papillae
which are required for absorption of nutrient. Function of the rumen include the following
o Provide favorable environment for protozoa and bacteria. A millimeter of rumen
fluid contains 25-50 billion bacteria. These bacteria are responsible for a significant
pregastric fermentation which produces
 Enzymes that breakdown fiber as well as starch and protein. The
digestion which occurs volatile fatty acids( propionic, butyric, and acetic)
which are absorbed via the papillae and used as a source of energy for
the animal
 Water soluble vitamins and vitamin K
 Bacterial synthesis of amino acids and proteins- the bacteria will pass out of
the rumen and become a source of amino acids for the host animals. Thus, low
quality dietary protein may become high quality protein which is high in the
dietary essential amino acids during rumen digestion.
Favorable Conditions which are provided in the rumen

 Anaerobic environment
 Constant warm temperature
 Moisture
 Constant food supply
 Mixing
 Removal of toxic end-products
Additional functions of the rumen

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 Storage
 Soaking
 Physical mixing and breakdown
 Reticulum- the reticulum and the rumen are not completely separated; they are not 2
distinctly separate compartments. But they do have different functions. The reticulum has two
functions. (1) to move food into the rumen or omasum and (2) collection of dense particles of
food and in regurgitation of ingests during rumination (the process of movement of ingesta
back up the esophagus to the mouth for additional mechanical breakdown- “chewing the
cud”)
 Omasum-the omasum is a round muscular organ which contains many muscular laminae
(sometimes called manypiles). The function of the omasum is not clearly understood. Possible
functions include : (1) controlling passage of ingesta to lower tract i.e. acts as pump. (2)
reduce particles size of ingesta and (3) reabsorption.
 Abomasum- the abomasum is considered to be very similar to the true gastric stomach which
was describe for nonruminants. In general the characteristics of the abomasums are identical
to the gastric stomach of the nonruminant i.e. gland regions of the abomasums correspond to
the gland regions of the non-ruminant stomach
 Small intestine and large intestine- these areas in the ruminant are very similar in
form and functions as in the nonruminants
Additional Unique Features of the Ruminant
 Esophageal groove-the esophageal groove begins at the base of the esophagus and when
stimulated by sucking forms a tube which empties into the abomasum. The function of the
esophageal groove is to direct the milk obtained from sucking to escape microbial digestion in
the rumen.
 Rumination- the rumination can be described as controlled vomiting. In rumination, a
controlled set of contractions of the esophagus, reticulum, and rumen allow ingesta to be
regurgitated back up to the esophagus where fluid are swallowed again and additional
remastication and reswallowing of the solids occur.
 Eructation- Eructation (belching of gas) allows removal of large volumes of gas produced
in the rumen. In eructation, contractions of the upper part of the rumen force the gas up
the esophagus and from there the gas penetrates into the trachea and lungs.
AVIAN GI TRACT- the avian GI tract is very different from non ruminants and ruminant tracts

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 Mouth- does not contain teeth, but the birds beak is used to collect particles of feed and to
break some large particles into smaller pieces- a tongue and salivary glands are present
and the saliva does contain salivary amylase.
 Esophagus- the esophagus of most birds include an enlarged area called the crop.
Functions of the crop includes : (1) temporary storage and moistening of food, (2) place for
salivary amylase to work and (3) microbial fermentation in some species.
 Proventriculus- the proventriculus corresponds to the true stomach as described for the
nonruminant and the abomasums for the ruminant. Therefore, the proventriculus is the site of
HCl and pepsin production in the bird. It is very interesting to note that ingesta passes
through the proventriculus very rapidly- 14 seconds.
 Ventriculus- the ventriculus commonly called the gizzard is a muscular area which contains
grit. The muscular contraction which are involuntary aid in the mechanical breakdown of food-
similar to the mastication by the teeth in the nonruminant and ruminant.
 Small intestine- the small intestine of the bird is similar to the small intestine of the
ruminant and nonruminant.
 Large intestine- the large intestine of the bird contains 2 areas which are very similar in
form and function to the cecum of nonruminants and ruminants. In the bird these are called
ceca.
Nutrient Digestion
 For digestion to occur, nutrients must be broken down to very small molecules. The basic unit
of a nutrient is the form of the nutrient which may be absorbed. The following is a list of the
nutrients and their basic unit.
NUTRIENT BASIC UNIT
Protein Amino Acid

Starch Glucose (nonruminant)
Volatile Fatty Acid and Lactic Acid
(ruminant)
Cellulose Volatile Fatty Acids
Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
Lactose Glucose and Galactose
Lipids Fatty Acids and Glycerol
Minerals Any Soluble Form
Vitamins Any Soluble Form

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Following mechanical breakdown, the action of enzymes is required to break nutrients down to their
basic units. Enzymes are organic catalysts which produce changes in the structure of nutrients which
result in the reduction to basic units. The following outline summarizes the site of production and the
end-products of the key enzymes.
Saliva
 Salivary amylase- starch to maltose
Rumen
 Microbial cellulose- cellulose to volatile fatty acids
 Microbial amylase- starch to volatile fatty acids and lactic acids
 Microbial proteases- protein to amino acids and NH3.
 Microbial urease- urea to CO2 and NH3
Stomach, Abomasum and Proventriculus

 Pepsin- protein to polypeptides
Pancreas (enzymes produced by pancreas are secreted into the duodenum)

 Trypsin- protein to peptides and amino acids
 Chymotrypsin- protein to peptides and amino acids
 Carboxypeptidase- protein to peptides and amino acids
 Amylase- starch to maltose
 Lipase- lipids to fatty acids and glycerol
Small Intestine
 Aminopeptidase- protein to peptides and amino acids
 Dipeptides- peptides to amino acids
 Maltase- maltose to glucose
 Lactase- lactose to glucose and galactose
 Sucrase- sucrose to glucose and fructose
 Absorption- absorption occurs primarily in the small intestine and large intestine. The villi
(very small projections which line the small intestine) are essential for absorption. A large
amount of absorption of volatile fatty acids occurs in the rumen and depends greatly on many
healthy papillae(projections which line the rumen). In general, absorption occurs as the result
of diffusion or active transport. Diffusion involves the movement of the basic units from areas
of high concentration (the GI tract) to area of lower concentration (the blood)
 Metabolism- metabolism can only occur after the basic units of the nutrients have been
absorbed into the blood. Metabolism involves all the chemical reactions performed by the
cells to use the basic units of the nutrients for their specific functions i.e. glucose for energy
or amino acids for protein synthesis. Generally, the reactions function in series and are
described as pathways or cycles i.e. the Embden-Myerhof pathway of glucose metabolism or
the Krebs cycle.
DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDSTUFF
 Concentrate Feeds- are feed materials usually having low moisture and fiber content (less
than 18%) with relatively high digestibility. Concentrates are classified into :
o Basal Concentrate- those feed materials rich in energy
 Examples- Cereal Grains- yellow corn, rice bran D1, sorghum, barley, oats,
wheat pollard
 Root crops- cassava, gabi and camote
 Oils/ Fat- coconut oil, fish oil, tallow
 Molasses- sugarcane molasses

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o Protein concentrate-those feed materials either pure or mixed rich in protein

either plant and animal origin (more than 18% CP). Examples :
 Plant Protein- soybean meal, peanut meal, cotton seed meal, copra meal, ipil-
ipil leaf meal, sunflower seed meal, rubber seed meal, etc.
 Animal Protein- meat and bone meal, blood meal, feather meal, tankage,
skim milk
 Marine protein- fish meal, shrimp meal
 Other non-protein nitrogen- urea, biuret
o Mineral and Vitamin Supplements- Examples

 Minerals- (Macro)- Limestone, Oyster shell, Bone meal, Dicalcium phosphate,
Tricalcium Phosphate, Mono Dicalcium Phosphate, Calcium Bicarbonate, salt ;
(Micro)- are either pure or synthetic preparation which are commercially
available in premixes.
 Vitamins- are either pure or synthetic preparations which are available
commercially in premixes
 Feed additives (non-nutritive feed)-feed ingredients with no nutrient value
added usually in small quantity to the basic feed mix for the purpose of
fortifying to improve its digestion and utilization. Examples: antibiotics,
anti- oxidants, hormones, enzymes, mold inhibitors, flavoring, coloring,
toxic binder, pellet binder and acidifier.
 Roughage- are feed material with higher proportion of fiber or non-digestible material (more
than 18%) with relatively poor digestibility. Roughage are classified into :
o Succulent roughages- high in water content and more digestible
 Soilage- green fodder that are cut by human and feed to the animal fresh
 Pasture- green fodder/ grass that are graze by the animal in the field.
 Silage- grass or crop residues that are being process thru fermentation before
being fed to animals
o Dry Roughages-contain less water content.

 Hay- are either grasses or legumes consisting of the leaves, flowers and
stems being cut and cured either by sun or air drying
 Straw- are mostly from cereal crop residues which contain high percentage
of indigestible fiber and low in digestible carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and
minerals.
RATION FORMULATION
 Ration formulation is a process which different feed ingredients are combined in a

proportion that will give the animals the proper amount of nutrients needed.
Requirements for balancing a ration:
1. Feeding standard or nutrient requirement of the animals. Nutrient requirements of the

animals are dependent upon a number of factors : body size, levels of production or growth,
stress conditions, temperature and sex.
2. Nutrient composition of the feeds
3. Economical- price per unit basis
4. Availability of the feedstuff
5. Palatability- measured by the amount consumed
6. Fiber content- the lower the fiber, the better
7. Toxic substances in the feed
Common Toxic substances found in feeds
 Cassava tubers- hydrocyanic acid

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 Camote- solanin
 Ipil-Ipil- Mimosine
 Cotton seed meal- gossypol
 Sorghum / cassava leaves – Prussic acid
 Gabi- prussic acid/ hydrocyanic acid
 Peanut- aflatoxin, goitrogens
 Soybean- trypsin inhibitor/ phytic acid/ oestogen/ saponins
METHODS OF FORMULATING RATIONS
Methods of formulating ration
1. Pearson Square- this method is not so efficient because it is only two feedstuffs. Mixing
several feedstuffs available can not be applied anymore in this method. However, this is very
useful because aside of being so easy to formulate, there is no problem in looking for the
ingredients to use. In addition, the ration formulated is also complete with nutrients that are
needed by the animals
Example : A concentrate protein desired in the combination of 2 ingredients in the center of a square
and the percent protein content of each ingredients at the left corners
(27.0/34.5) X 100=
Corn 8.5% 78.3% Corn
16%CP
Soybean oil meal (7.5/34.5) X 100 =
43% 21.7 SBOM
If the ration to prepare is intended for 150 pigs consuming 2 kios per day and be good for 15
days feeding. Compute how many kilos each you needed
Total feeds needed=150x2=300Kg/dayx15days=4,500 kg
Corn 4,500X78.3% = 3,523.5 kg

SBOM 4,500 x 21.7% = 976.5 kg
4,500.0 kg
What would be the price per kilogram of the mix feed if the price of the following are:
Corn = PhP 8.00/ kg x 78.3= PhP626.40

SBOM = Php 14.0/kg x 21.7 = PhP 303.80
PhP 930.20
Price per kg mixed feed= PhP 930.20/ 100= P9.30
2. Trial and Error Method- this method is used when there are several feedstuffs available to
mix. It is quite tedious and difficult to compute but the ration is complete of its nutrients
needed by the animal because the deficiency of one feedstuff is supplied by other to
complete its requirement.
Steps
a. Refer to feeding standard and list down the nutrient requirements
b. Select suitable combination that could supply the nutrient requirements. Set down an arbitrary
value considering acceptable levels of the various feed ingredients used and making sure that
the total is either 1000 for easy computation. Compute for the total nutrients contributed by
each of the ingredients using the feed composition table. This is done by multiplying the
amount of feed ingredients by the amount of nutrient present in one kilo of the same feed.

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Example : Broiler finisher ration using ground yellow corn, SBOM, Fish meal, Rice bran D1, Ipil-Ipil
leaf meal, Molasses, Limestone and vitamin-mineral premix.
Steps
a. List down the nutrient requirement of broiler finisher

b. List down the nutrient composition of the ingredients to be used
Ingredients ME/Kc %Ca %P

%CP al/g
Ground yellow 8.5 3,400 0.02 0.29
corn
Rice Bran D1 12.5 2,400 0.06 1.43
Soybean meal 44.0 2,340 0.53 0.64
Fish Meal 60.0 2,800 4.37 2.53
Ipil-ipil leaf 22.0 1,000 1.98 0.27
meal
Molasses 3.0 1,960 0.75 0.08
Vegetable / 8,800
coconut oil
Limestone 38.00
DiCalcium 22.00 18.0
Phospahte 0
Vitamin-
mineral
premix
c. Make your own proportion on the different ingredients and calculate first for the CP and ME
content of each of the feed ingredients
Ingredients Amt. %CP Comp ME/kc

kg uted al/kg
CP
Ground yellow 48.0 8.5 4.08 1,632
corn
Rice Bran D1 16.0 12.5 2.16 389
Soybean meal 17.0 44.0 7.31 398
Fish Meal 6.0 60.0 3.60 168
Ipil-Ipil leaf 4.8 22.0 1.04 48
meal
Molasses 4.0 3.0 0.12 78
Vegetable/ 2.0 176
Coconut oil
Limestone 1.5
Salt 0.5
Vit-Min Premix 0.2
TOTAL 100.0 18.31 2,889 OK
d. Look for ingredients of energy source with low protein and protein source with high protein
and the difference is use for dividing the difference of the computed ration above
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Ground Yellow corn- 8.5 %CP

Fish Meal - 60.0
Difference 51.5
(.31/51.5) add 0.6 to corn to become 48.6 and subtract 0.6 to fish meal to X 100= 0.6 become 5.4
Ingredient Amt. %CP Comput ME/

kg ed Kcal
CP /kg
Ground yellow 48.6 8.5 4.13 1,63
corn 4
Rice bran D1 16. 12.5 2.16 389
Soybean meal 17.0 44.0 7.31 398
Fish Meal 5.4 60 3.24 167
Ipil-ipil leaf 4.8 22 1.04 48
meal
Molasses 4.0 3.0 0.12 78
Vegetables/ 2.0
Coconut oil
Limestone 1.5
Salt 0.5
Vit-Min Premix 0.2
TOTAL 100.0 18 OK 2,889 OK
e. Calculate the Ca and P levels. If Ca is deficient and P is sufficient, add limestone or oyster shell
to meet the requirement. If P is deficient add tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate or
bone meal.
Ingredients Amt. kg Ca % P%
Ground yellow 48.0 0.009 0.139

corn
Rice Bran D1 16.0 0.009 0.229
Soybean meal 17.0 0.090 0.109
Fish meal 5.4 0.262 0.152
Ipil-Ipil leaf 4.8 0.094 0.013
meal
Molasses 4.0 0.030 0.003
Veg./ 2.0
Coconut oil
Limestone 1.5
Salt 0.5
Vit-Min 0.2
Premix
TOTAL 100.00 1.064OK 0.545 OK

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IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture Notes in Animal Science 1a. Introduction to
Animal Science. IAS, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna.
RIVAS, E. 2004. Lecture/ Review Notes in Animal Nutrition. IN Preparation for the Agriculturists
Licensure Examination held at the CEC, CMU and NIA Conference Hall, Valencia City, Bukidnon. April-
June 2004.
PERSEVERANCE IS NOT A LONG RACE; IT IS MANY SHORT RACES ONE AFTER ANOTHER”
END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION

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ANIMAL SCIENCE
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BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES OF BEEF PRODUCTION
1. Increasing demand for beef, income elasticity of demand for beef is higher than other meat
2. Ability to transform low quality fibrous feed materials into high value protein food product
3. Abundant supply of crop residues especially in small farms
4. Favorable climate for fodder production
5. Cattle production and meat processing technologies are available for increased productivity
CONSTRAINTS IN THE CATTLE SECTOR
1. Low feeding base

2. High financing cost for breeding operations
3. High cost of inputs
4. Lack of infrastructures
5. Competition for use of land
6. Changing policy guidelines
7. Import substitutes particularly carabeef
8. Policy to unify and integrate the beef industry
TYPES OF CATTLE RAISING
Cow-Calf Operation
Cows and bulls are raised to produce calves. Calves are then raised until they are weaned from their
dams at seven to eight months of age. After weaning, they can be sold right away, or raised for a few
months for use as replacement stocks or sold for fattening.
The cow-calf operation is considered the most challenging because the producer needs to be familiar
with the reproductive phenomena, as well as the breeding and feeding systems. He should also be
well-informed on the management practices involved in the production and maintenance of cows, bulls
and calves. A good animal health program should also be observed to minimize mortality and ensure
the productivity of the animals.
It has the following characteristics.

 Uses of grade Philippine cows and purebred of high-grade bulls
 Involves selling calves at weaning as stockers, or as feeders stocks after grazing them out on
the range or as slaughter cattle after feeding them out ; or selling heifers to other ranchers
for breeding purposes
 extensive use of native pastures and minimum outlay for supplemental feed/
concentrates and
 may be integrated with orchard or coconut
Extensive System-The extensive system is also popularly known as ranching. In this system, the
animals are maintained in a vast tract of open lands. These areas are usually public lands which the
government offers for lease where the animals are allowed to graze freely. However, the enactment
of the Agrarian Reform Law limits the use of these pasture areas. The peace and order situation in the
countryside is another reason why many cattle raisers are now shying away from cattle ranching.
Despite these limitation, however, the idea of going into ranching still offers a good prospect.
Integration into Crop or Plantation Agriculture
A cow-calf project may also be done in combination with crop or plantation agriculture. Small vacant
lots or spaces between agricultural crops plantations such as corn, rice, sugarcane, etc. may be
utilized as feed sources. The animals can also be maintained by feeding them by-products of
agricultural crops or industrial wastes.

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Under plantation crops like coconuts or forest trees are open spaces where grasses can be grown
as feeds. For maximum benefits, however, both the cattle and the trees should be managed
properly.
Intensive System
In this system, the animals are confined and are fed on a cut-and-carry basis of zero grazing. A good
pasture is developed and maintained to ensure the regular supply of feeds. Supplemental feeding with
concentrates is also practiced.
In all these schemes, the cow-calf operation has a long gestation period of about 5 to 8 years. A cow-
calf project is important because it regularly supplies the calves for replacement or fattening.
Purebred program / breeder farm operation

 The calves are raised until they are ready for breeding provided they passed the
selection criteria
 The aim of the purebred program or breeder farm operation is to produce breeder stocks to
be sold to other ranchers. It uses purebreds cows and bulls and requires large capital for
animal/equipment, better feeding and salesmanship.
Feedlot Fattening Operations
 Feedlot fattening of cattle has become important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for
three main reasons;
a. provides the farmer with extra income
b. it gives him year round work and allow the use of cheap, plentiful, farm-by-products
such as corn stover, hay, silage, rice straw, copra meal, rice bran and sugarcane
tops which might otherwise wasted
c. it helps the demand for high-protein food in the diet
 Objective of feedlot fattening add weight to the animal and increases its value.
 Characteristics
a. returns from cattle feeding comes from the differences between the buying and selling
prices, and gain in weight
b. turnover of capital is faster
c. use high-energy feeds in order to give the cattle a better “finish” and appearance
d. requires a little area
e. located in areas where large quantities of livestock feed are raised
f. may also be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises or any set-up
which produces large quantities of by-products.
Backyard cattle raising or semi- subsistence or small holder
The background sector constitute 92% of the total cattle population. It is characterized by the
following
a. one or two head of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a spares time
b. farmers usually tethers animals to gaze around the home lot and then supplements this
with farm wastes like rice straw or corn stover/ stalks when back in the pen.
c. Other practice soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil as a source of proteins, and rice bran,
corn bran or copra meal at 1-2 kg/ animal and,
d. In Batangas, force feeding (supa or supak) or feed mixture is a common practice among
backyard cattle raisers.
Breeder Farm Operation
This type of project also falls under the cow-calf operation except that the main interest of the
raisers is to produce animals for breeding purposes. Thus, the calves are raised until they are ready
for breeding provided the passed the selection criteria.

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Running a breeder farm project is not easy and those engaged in it have long years of experience
in the business. The breeder farm operation is also backed up by people who have gained expertise
in various fields of cattle raising.
Since the main output of a breeder farm is quality breeding animals a large herd is necessary for
the selection of the replacement stocks. Purebred animals are usually utilized in this projects. The
breeder farms can be maintained in the ranch (extensive), in complete confinement (intensive), or
integrated with plantation and forest trees. The farm requires a number of animal stock, a big farm,
and a big capital.
Growing –Fattening Operation
This type of cattle raising is the most popular in the Philippines. It simply involves the raising of
newly weaned calves or culled mature heifers until they are ready for slaughter.
The growing-fattening projects requires simple facilities and level of management. The project period
is shorter and the return on investment (ROI) is relatively higher than the cow-calf operation.
It is suggested that the animals at the growing stage (seven to 12 months) be separated from
those at the fattening or finishing stage (three to five months). Growing cattle need simple care
and management. They can be raised either extensively (grazing) or intensively (cut-and-carry
feeding). Raising growing cattle needs little capital, thus they can be handled even by smallhold
cattle raisers.
On the other hand, the fattening or finishing stage is usually done intensively or in confinement
where the animals are kept with minimum movement so that the feeds given to them are utilized
to develop their tissues. At present, this is best handled by well-organized farms involved in
feedlot operations.
SELECTION AND BREEDING
Cattle breeding is the application of the selection and breeding systems. These are two basic tools
available to a breeder to improve the genetic makeup if the cattle herd. The tools must be used
together since the breeding system maintains whatever gains that the selection made. Otherwise, the
overall performance will be minimal and separate for each tool.
Selection
Selections is the process of deciding which animals will remain in the herd to become parents of the
next generation.
For a single trait, selection may be done on the basis of any of the following:
 The animal’s own phenotypic merit (external features). This is determined by visual
appraisal and performance test.
 Pedigree information and collateral relatives ( brothers, sisters, cousins, uncle, etc.)
information. This is used when early selection is desired or when a trait is limited to
one sex, e.g., milk yield.
 Progency test. This involves the selection based on the performance of the individual’s
progeny offspring. The accuracy depends on the number of progency and the
heritability of the trait selected for.
In general, selecting the animals as parents of the next generation should be based on
the following:
 Comparable production records.
 Physical characteristics (e.g., conformation, structural soundness, health and freedom
from hereditary defects, etc.)
 Weaning weights of calves of the respective dams
 Weaning weights and yearling weights for bulls and heifers
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 Weight and size of the breeding stock at two years of age

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The initial selection of bull calves should be based on the weaning weight at about
eight months of age. The final selection, on the other hand, should be based on the
yearling weight is preferred over the weaning weight or birth weight especially when
the assessment of potential is being taken for a given environment. The weaning
weight is a composite character being dependent partially on the maternal qualities
of the dam and partially on the growth potential of the calf. Selecting for increased
weaning weight should therefore, result in improving the character based on
contributions of genetic potentials form both the dam and the calf. Selection based
on birth weight is not commonly practiced although it minimizes calving difficulties.
The breeder can use specific measures of growth rates to monitor the overall performance of the
animals in his herd. The values are particularly needed in routine selection and culling decisions. The
important data to record and evaluate are the weaning weight at seven months ( ranges from six to
eight months) and the yearling weight ( at not less than 330 days). If the producer prefers to develop
his animals slowly at lower feeding regimes, he may use 452 or 550 days long yearling weight. The
values of cattle should be compared in a constant weight. The values of cattle should be compared on
a constant weight or age basis and separately for each sex category. The period between the
weaning and final yearling weights should be at least 160 days.
The equation used are the following:
Adjusted 210- day weight = (actual weaning weight – birth weight) x 210 + birth weight
Age in days at weaning weight
If an individual animal has no birth weight record, the average birth weight (28 kg) in the
herd (if Zebu crossbreeds) may be used.
Adjusted 365 –day weight = ( actual final weight – actual weaning weight) x 160 + adjusted 210 wean weight
Number of days between weights
Based on the adjusted weights, the animals can now be ranked separately for each sex category in
terms of weight ratios. The ratio is calculated by dividing each animal weight by the average of its
sex group and expressing is as a percentage of its sex group average or contemporaries (similar in
age and exposed to the same environmental conditions). The average weight is 100%; good animals
are those above 100%.
Breeding Systems
Breeding systems constitute several types of mating where desirable genes are made to combine in
different ways by adopting one or more of the system of nonrandom matings.
Inbreeding-Inbreeding involves the mating of animals that are more closely related than the
average of the population from which they belong. Most cattle raisers are familiar with the
unfavorable effects of inbreeding, thus they reduces the animal’s vigor. It also affects the growth
rate, fertility, and viability of the offspring.
Limitations- decline in vigor that almost always follows or accompanies its use. The traits affected
most adversely by inbreeding are those of the greatest importance from the economic standpoint,
such as size and fertility.
Effects of Inbreeding
 Marked decrease in fertility

 Reduces vigor
 Decrease in growth rate of offspring
 Reduces viability of the offspring
 Close Breeding- mating of close relatives. Ex- father-daughter, son-mother, sister-brother

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 Line Breeding- breeding of not so close relatives e.g. cousins. This is a form of mild
inbreeding designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor of the genetic constitution
of the progeny.
 Strain Breeding- a very mild form of inbreeding which leads to increase homozygosity
within the strain in the long term.
Crossbreeding-Crossbreeding is the mating of animals from two or more established purebreds.

Commercial breeder use crossbreeding in their herds to take advantage of complimentarity and hybrid
vigor (heterosis).
Crossbreeding may be classified into two types, namely: upgrading and systematic
crossbreeding.
Upgrading. This is the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native females and their female
offspring generation after generation. The first generation will have a breed composition of 50%
exotic; the second generation, 75% exotic, etc. The percentages of exotic breed increases as
grading up progresses. The animal is genetically similar to that of the exotic breed at the fifth or
sixth generation of mating. The usefulness or success of grading will mainly depend on the choice of
the exotic breed of sire in relation to its adaptability to the conditions where the offspring will be
raised. Grading up to 75% exotic is suitable in terms of retention of heterosis and infusion of exotic
genes.
Systematic crossbreeding. This type of crossbreeding is classified into terminal crossing and
rotational crossing.
1. Terminal crossing. The crosses produced are not used for breeding and are sold as
slaughter animals.
Types of terminal crossing are as follows:
 Single cross-The simplest crossbreeding system where two purebreds are

crossed to produced the F, (first filial generation) crosses. The amount of
heterosis is maximum in the F, s. The continued use of the system beyond the
first generation is operationally difficult since large base herds of two
purebreeds have to be maintained under natural matings. If artificial
insemination will be used, a large base herd of purebred females will also be
maintained.
 Three-way cross and backcrossing
The F,s are mates to a third breed (three-way)or back to one of the sire
breed (backcross). In the three-way cross, 100% of the heterosis in the F, is
retained while in the backcross, 50% is retained. The F, heifers are kept in
the herd as long as they are productive. When bred to sires of a third breed,
they produce highly-productive and acceptable market-quality calves.
2. Rotational crossing. This requires the retention of selected crosses for use in
subsequent rotational breeding in each generation.
Types of rotational crossing are as follows:
 Crisscrossing (reciprocal backcrossing)-The two purebreeds are

alternately used in each generation and at equilibrium (about five to six
generations), two-thirds of F ‘s hybrid vigor is retained. The system is flexible,
such that one can stop at any generation for the desired breed composition.
 Three-breed rotation
A third breed is used as in the case of the three-way breed crossing, except
that the use of the three purebred sires is rotated in subsequent generations.
The offspring produced at equilibrium will have retained 87.5% of the amount
of heterosis in the F s. The rotational use of purebred bulls from three breeds
results in higher degree of hybrid vigor in females and their calves.
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Production of synthetic breeds. Synthetic populations are produced by inter se mating (or mating
among themselves) or backcrossing the F crosses to the superior breed. The process is repeated in
subsequent generations by using selected F crosses. Fifty percent of heterosis is retained in the mating
of the second generation, and 37.5% in the third generations. The F crosses are stabilized at
50:50breed composition to produce the synthetic population.
Things to Consider in Crossbreeding
In choosing a breed to be crossed, consider not only the animal’s strong attributes but also its
weaknesses. For example, if a breed is large, fertile, high- milk yielder, and has a good mothering
ability, but the growth rate is not outstanding, choose a bull from another breed superior in
postweaning rate of gain and carcass quality.
Crossbreeding will produce good, well-nourished calf crop at weaning, with excellent growth rate as
slaughter animals.
Choice of Breeding Systems
No best breeding system is universally applicable at all times to a beef cattle herd. Decisions on the
selection of breeding system must be based on the following factors: functions of the operation, size
of the operation, feed resources, and maintenance of heterosis.
Functions of the Operation-If the operation is on commercial basis, then grading up or

crossbreeding would be most appropriate. Production of F slaughter animals can be achieved by the
continuous single crossing or systematic crossing, to take advantage of heterosis in the crosses. For
breeders of purebred stock, continuous outcrossing or linebreeding is preferred.
Size of Operation-This is especially important for small-sized herds, such that intense inbreeding
may occur. The harmful effects of inbreeding could affect the overall performance of the herd.
Feed Resources-Environmental constraints especially on available feeds must be considered in

relation to the genetic potential of the crosses. If feed resources are limiting, continuous upgrading up
to 75% exotic may not be successful due to the poor performance of the local stock. Crossing large
beef breed with local cows for beef production may have limited values in the low-feeding
environment.
Maintenance of Heterosis
Crisscrossing and rotational crossing can maintain as much heterosis as in the F crosses. However,
problems of maintaining several purebreeds and herds must be considered.
In the tropic, systematic crossbreeding is the best breeding system for beef cattle. The simplest
crossing system is a terminal cross between the temperate and tropical breeds. Terminal crossing and
crisscrossing systems can also be combined by crisscrossing two tropical breeds to produce the cow
herd. European purebred bull is used in the first system.
The important aspect in crossbreeding is the use of crossbred dams. Selected crossbred females
provide an excellent base for the production of meat when sired with bull of known excellent growth
traits. Progency of the crossbred dams would be good beef animals if adequate feeds and proper
management are provided to develop their potentials.
Controlled Breeding
Controlled breeding means keeping the bull with the cows for a specific period, for instance, 2-3
months, and then removing the bull completed for the rest of the year. The advantage of this practice
are:
 Bulls will be kept in good conditions since they will have time to recover after the breeding
season.
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 Calving can be timed with the season that is most advantageous in terms of having adequate
feed for he nursing cows, so that milk flow from the cow can be maintained at an optimum
level. The resultant growth potential for a calving having an optimum supply of milk from its
mother can be fully realized.
 Cows will calve in relatively short intervals, thus, calves will be most of the same age. This
fascilitates ranch activities such as weaning, branding, marketing.etc. uniform size calves may
command premium prices.
 Shy breeders among the breeding sows and heifers in the herd can be easily be identified
and promptly culled.
 Performance of the herd bull can also be easily evaluated.
In controlled mating, the choice of the calving period is a critical mgt decision. It greatly depends
on the following factors:
1. Animal- its growth rate and reproduction performance

2. Pasture- expected availability and quality of feed
3. Market to be supplied.
4. Management practice-stocking rate and supplementary feeding
5. Season of maximum fertility.
In general, the basic consideration in planning a controlled breeding scheme is the availability of feed.
The scheme requires an analysis of the rainfall pattern on the farm or its immediate vicinity. Actual
rainfall varies even within a given climatic region. If the rainfall pattern of the ranch area is known, it
would be easy to time the following activities
 Fertility testing of bull- 2 months before the breeding season

 Flushing period of the cow and bull-1 month before the breeding season.
 Mating- to start 60 days after mating
 Pregnancy diagnosis of breeding herd- 3 months after end of the breeding season.
 Culling of “empties” and poor breeders- after the clan up breeding period
 Identification of calves
 Weaning of the calves-6-8 months after calving
 Branding and castration- 1-3 months after weaning
 Growing the replacement stocks-6 months after calving
 Pasture improvement- 6 months after calving
 Fulfilling feed conversion requirements
 Performance testing of weaned stocks for rate of gain.
 Random Mating- this means each possible mating in a population has the same
probability or occurrence
 In hand mating ,a cow in heat is brought to the bull or the bull is brought to the cow in
heat. After breeding, the two are separated. In this system the service of the bull is fully
controlled.
 Pasture mating- the bull is brought in and goes with the herd of breeding heifers and cows
even during the breeding season. This system gives the bull full freedom to detect and breed
a heifer or cow in heat or his won.

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BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE
Breeds of beef cattle differ significantly in many features and traits. No breed is superior to other
breed, however, some breeds are more popular than the others. The true value of a breed can be
determined through careful evaluation of the environment. There are breed specialized for beef alone,
others are dual-purpose types (milk-beef or beef – milk), and some are triplets types ( draft-milk-
beef). The breed points are the practical guide to distinguish a breed. These are specific details of the
breed’s distinct standards, e.g., color, horn formation, length and shape of ears, color of switch (tail-
end), white-faced, etc, that identify the breed.
There are as many as 195 breeds and types in the world but some may not qualify as distinct breed if
the biological definition of a breed is considered. Breed is a close or semiclosed population with a
common gene pool which is more or less different from the gene pool of the breed population instead
of definite genetically determined traits.
There are two types of cattle and their sources or origin can be identified by the presence or absence
of the hump. The humped cattle (Bos indicus) include the Zebus from India, Pakistan, Southeast
Asia, and some islands in the pacific. They are also known as tropical breeds. The humpless cattle
(Bos Taurus) are temperate breed of Europe and Northern Asia.
BREEDING AGE
Properly grown breeding heifers are usually bred at two years of age. Calves at about 3 years of
age. However, an 18 to 20 months old heifer can be bred and calve at 28 to 30 months of age
provided that she is well developed. Grades should weight at least 250- 300 kg when bred.
Properly grown bulls on the range should be allowed to breed when they are 2 year old. Purebred
American Brahman bulls should weight at least 300 kg before they are allowed to breed.
Popular Breeds of Beef Cattle
Temperate Breeds
 From France: Charolais, Limsousin, Maine- Anjou, Tarenaise

 Switzerland: Simmental. Brown Swiss Italy: Chianina, Marchigiana, Ramagnola
 United Kingdom: Beef Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, Devon
 Germany: Gelbvieh
Tropical Breeds
 From India: Guzerat, Gir, Kankrej, Hariana, Krishna Valley, Ongole (Nellore)
 Pakistan: Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Bhagnari, Sahiwal
 Africa: Boran, Tuli, Nguni, Ankole, Fulani, Africander
Stabilized Breeds and Strains from Crossbred Foundations
 Santa Gertrudis - -5/8 Shorthorn,3/8 Brahman; developed in the King ranch, Texas U.S.A.
 Brahman - - a mixture of four principal breeds of Bos indicus of Guzerat
(predominant), Nellore, Krishna valley and Gir; developed in Texas, U.S.A
 Indu-Brazil - - Zebu admixture, principally by crossing purebred Guzerat and Gir and
other Zebu breeds, especially Nellore; developed in Brazil, South America.
 Beefmaster - - ½ Brahman, ¼ Hereford, ¼ Shorthorn; developed in Texas U.S.A
 Brangus- - 5/8 Angus, 3/8 Brahman; developed in Louisiana, U.S.A
 Red Brangus - - 5/8 Red Angus, 3/8 Brahman.
 Braford - - 5/8 Hereford, 3/8 Brahman; developed in Texas U.S.A
 Charbray – ¾ - 5/8 Charolais, ¼-3/8 Brahman; developed in Texas U.S.A
 Droughtmaster- - ¾ - 7/8 Shorthorn , ¼ - 1/8 Brahman ; developed in Australia.
 Murray Grey - - Angus bull by roan Shorthorn cow; developed in Australia.
 Belmont Red - - ½ Africander, ¼ Hereford, ¼ Shorthorn; developed in Australia.
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 Mandalong Special - - Five base breeds, Charolais, Chianina, Poll Shorthorn, British
white, and Brahman. Stabilized at 58.33% Continental, 25% British and 16.67% Brahman
bloodlines; developed in Australia.
 Simford - - ½ Simmental, ½ Hereford; developed in Australia.
 Simbrah - - minimum of 3/8 Simmental and ¼ Brahman and not over 3/8 maximum of
other breeds; Simmental registered male or female is referred to as Percentage Simbrah.
 Purebred Simbrah: 5/8 Simmental, 3/8 Brahman ( results of mating American Simmental
Association- registered male and female); developed U.S.A
 Beefalo- -3/8 Bison 3/8 Charolais, 2/8 Hereford; developed in California, U.S.A.
BREEDS OF CATTLE
PHILIPPINE BREEDS
BATANGAS BREED-The Batangas breed is low set of medium length, unusually deep at the chest,
but somewhat light at the hindquarters. The head is long and of medium width between the eyes.
The horns are thick and short, the direction of growth being sideways, upward and forward. The ears
are small and held horizontally from the head. The neck is proportional to the length of the sides.
The abdomen is low, not paunchy. The back is short and could be more straight. The loin is wide and
a little low. The thigh is fairly muscled, wide and deep. The legs are big boned. The front legs are
relatively straight with feet that are small and upright. The hind legs are straight. The color is
generally red. Other colors are fawn, yellow, and black. Mixed colors of white and other colors are
also seen.
THE LARGE-TYPE ILOCOS STEER-The large type Ilocos steer is rather upstanding, tall and long.
The head is long and of medium width, the horns are likewise long and slender. The neck is in
proportion with the length of the body. The chest is deep and the body is broad and long. The rump
is slightly drooping but broad. Both hip and thigh are wide and well-muscled. The common color is
red, followed by brown. Some are of mixed colors of brown, black or yellow with white.
THE SMALL-TYPE ILOCOS-The small-type and large-type Ilocos cattle differ from each other
mainly in size and body built., the large-type being upstanding, long but heavier in weight, while the
small- type is of lighter weight, somewhat blocky and low-set. The color is usually red. A dark line
runs on the back. Dark shades appears on the face below the eyes. The head is long and of medium
width.
The horns are directed upward and to the sides. The face is straight. The body is wide and low, the
barrel capacaious, the back is straight and the chest is deep. The hip is fairly long and well-muscled,
the thigh is fairly broad but lacks depth and the lower thigh is flat. The legs are relatively straight and
strong.
THE ILOILO TYPE-The Iloilo bull, in general appearance, is relatively low in height, long of body,
with neck that is short and muscular. The head is course but well carried. The horns are short, pointed
and generally directed to the sides and upward. The chest is deep, the hip prominent , the barrel is
somewhat flat on the sides, the abdomen capacious and the hindquarters light. The forelegs are well
placed and the fore shank are fine. The forefeet are medium in size and stand at 45 degrees with the
ground. The back is straight and the rump is slightly drooping. The tail is long and the switch is
bushy. The hip and the thigh lack depth, width and muscularity. The hind legs are straight but sickle-
hooked. The hind shanks are fine, the hind feet are small, slanting and narrow. The usual color of the
animal is balck. Some individuals are fawn, others are chestnut in color.
In the Philippines, Brahman and its derivatives are recommended because of its adaptability under
local conditions ( e.g., heat tolerance) and resistance against pests and diseases.

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IMPORTED BREEDS
ABERDEEN ANGUS-The Aberdeen Angus is one of the most popular breeds of beef cattle in the US.
They originated in Aberdeenshire and Angusshire, two countries in Northern Scotland. The first
importations of these Scottish cattle to play an important part in the US were made in 1873.
The Aberdden Angus cattle are black-white is not permitted except to a moderate extent on the
underline behind the navel. The breed is polled (nor horns), which has contributed to Angus
popularity among many breeds. They are somewhat cylindrical, smooth, broad, low set compact and
well muscled. Angus breeders have always stressed the characteristics that contribute toward making
a good carcass. Angus bull possess a high degree of ability to transmit the black color and polled
characteristics to their offspring in grading-up and cross breeding programs. Angus cattle are good
rustlers and adapt themselves to varied grazing conditions. They show considerable resistance to
certain eye diseases, particularly cancer eye and pink eye. The resistance is thought to be due to the
black pigment in the skin.
AFRICANDER-It was developed from cattle of the Hottnetot in the cape of Good Hope of South
Africa. The Africander cattle is believed to have descended from the longhorned Zebu( Bos Taurus
indicus, sive Africanus Epstein and Thornton). The standard color is red of varying shades and white
spots are tolerated on the underside. The breed possess a characteristic head, which is long but wide
between the eyes. The forehead is sloping , tapering to a rounded poll. The eyebrows are prominent
, the eyelids thin. The horns are long, directed downward, backward, then downward again to form
a twists. The hump is prominent in the bull, smaller in the cow. The back appears low because of
the ascending line towards the withers. The rump is sloping , the tail head prominent. The legs are
small and clean but strong. Animals of the breed are good rustlers on the range
BEEFMASTER-The beefmaster breed of beef cattle has ist beginning on the ranch of E.C. Lasater at
Falfurrias, texas. Mr. Lasater was interested in developing a breed of beef cattle capable of
withstanding the hot, humid climate, the pests and diseases of his area. Beefmaster has no specific
color. They may be dun, brown, reddish brown, red ands red with white extensions and spots. They
are large and horned and have rapid growth rates. The breed can withstand a wide variety of
climatic conditions and are good rustlers. Although they do not have the smoothness and
compactness of the British breeds, they produce a very good carcass.
BELMONT RED-The Belmont Red was developed in Australia by the Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial research Organizations (CSIRO). Division of Animal Genetics. Its genetic backgroundis
approximately 50% Africander, 25% Hereford and 25% Shorton breeding.
The breed, s by product of research was developed in an attempt to improve the Bos indicus fertility
while retaining its characteristics of heat and tick tolerance. Its fertility has been shown in trials to be
better than those of Bos indicus , Bos Taurus crosses. Heat tolerance has remained remarkably good
and tick resistance is proving most satisfactory. They are predominantly red in color although some
color differences are occasionally still evident and acceptable. The breed has been exported to the
Philippines whwre the progeny are highly regarded by feedlot operators. Numbers are increasing
rapidly as the breed becomes established and the benefits of high fertility are recognized.
BRAFORD-The Braford breed has been developed in the US and later in Australia. The purpose od
development was to combine excellent respective traits of Brahman and Hereford into one breed in
order to establish a suitable breed. The modern Braford is s fixed breed which may vary in emphasis
from 3/8 to 5/8 Brahman and 5/8 to 3/8 Hereford blood. The breed as abundant coats, they are in
colour and sleek. In addition to this, the breed has the similar white hair part to Hereford.The Braford
may be polled or horned, is a good forager and performs well under harsh conditions. Being heat
resistant and relatively very tick tolerant, it is very popular on Queensland and northern New South
Wales tropical coastal areas. The breed is highly fertile and noted for its fast growth rates. Carcass are
of good quality with high dressing percentage.
BRAHMAN-The Brahman breed originated in the US in the early 1900's where it was developed from
the progeny of four Indian cattle breeds with some infusion of British cattle breed.Brahman was
introduced because of the need for a beef which would adapt to the harsh tropical climate and

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environmental conditions. The Brahman resistance to the cattle tick is of great economic value in the
tick areas
Brahman are tolerant to heat. Their highly developed sweating mechanism together with their sleek
coat and dark pigment skin equips them well to graze in the hot weather and walk long distance for
feed and water.
Their low maintenance requirement and efficiency of feed conversion allows them to survive on poor
quality grasses and during periods of food shortage.Brahman cows are renowned for their mothering
ability. They produce small calves and have a minimum calving difficulties
They are good milk producers which has a strong influence on pre-weaning growth and they are
renowned for protecting their calves from predators.
Brahman cattle produce excellent carcasses. Their superior yield of saleable meat together with their
ability to fatten evenly without an excess fat means they are in demand from butchers and
processors.
CHAROLAIS-They originated from France and is one of the most important breeds of French cattle.
The Charolais varies from white to cream or light wheat. The pigmentation of the skin and mucous
membranes is of reddish-pink color, especially the nose, around the eyes and under-belly. They are
one of the largest and heaviest of all beef breeds. The typical Charolais are very muscular, possess
bulging hindquarters and have heavier bone and more length of body and leg. The Charolais' major
characteristics as a producer of beef are their rapidity of growth , gain-per-day potential in the
feedlot, high dressing percentage , and a maximum yield of lean beef.
HEREFORD-Hereford cattle are native to England. They originated in the county of Hereford. The
first breeding herd of Herefords to play an important part in the establishing the breed (1840) in the
US was that of William H. Sotham and Erastus Corning of Albany, NY. Hereford cattle are easily
distinguished by their red-colored bodies and white faces . The accepted color is a rich with a white
face. The white is found on the flank, underline, breast, crest, tail switch and below the hocks and
knees on both fore and hind legs. They are often referred to as white-faced cattle. Hereford cattle
are muscular, moderate to long in length of side, adequate in length of legs, large in size, trim and
smooth. They are well developed in the regions of valuable cuts-the back, loin, and hindquarters or
round. The Hereford breed is well known for its vigor and foraging ability. These characteristics have
made them popular with ranchers.
STA. GERTRUDES-The Sta Gertrudes breed of cattle was developed on the King Ranch in southeast
Texas. The breed gets its name from the Santa Gertrudis division of the famed King Ranch. The
Santa Gertrudis is approximatley three-eights Brahman and 5/8 Shorton. It is a large beef animal,
when its mature cows attaining weights of 1,600 pounds and mature bulls 2,000 pounds on pasture.
It is a solid cherry-red in color and horned. The ears are somewhat pendulant. It is smoother and
more compact than the Brahman, but it retains the loose hide and under-line skin fold
characteristics of its Brahman ancestry. The breed is especially adapted to subtropical climates and
semiarid grazing conditions.
REPRODUCTION
Breeding Age and Target Weight
Properly- grown breeding heifers are usually bred at two years old to calve at three years of age.
However, a well-developed 18 to 20 month old heifer can be bred to calve at 28 to 30 months (
two and half years old). Properly-grown bulls on the range should be allowed to breed at two years
old.
Puberty is closely associated with live weight, thus, the term " target weight” in breeding practices.
Grades, for example, should weigh at least 250-300 kg when bred. Exotic breeds like American
Brahman bulls should weigh at least kg before breeding.

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Reproductive Physiology
Estrous Cycle
Bull and heifer calves reach puberty or age of sexual maturity at six to eight months. Cows and
sexually mature heifers normally undergo periodic heat cycles ( estrous cycle) which run from 18 to
24 days or an average of 21 days.
The cow, shortly before the heat period ( estrus), isolates herself from the rest of the herd. She
mounts other animals irrespective of sex (mounting heat). Also, she stands to be mounted by her
herdmates ( standing heat). An “in-heat” or sexually excited animal is sick and has no appetite to eat.
Later on, however, she becomes sociable again and she mixes with the herd.
Other signs of heat include the following:
 Reddening and swelling of the vulva accompanied by a clear mucous discharge. Strings of
thin, watery mucus hang from the vulva during or shortly before estrus. The mucus is watery,
then becomes cheesy as the heat progresses. The hair on the upper part of the tail, below the
rear, and at the sides of the pin bones should be checked as vaginal discharges are frequently
smeared over these areas.
 Restlessness and sometimes bellowing/mooing.
 Frequent urination in small amounts.
Estrus normally lasts from 14 to 18 hours in exotic breed. Indigenous and zebu grades have shorter
estrus period which usually lasts from 10 to 12 hours
Ovulation or release of oocytes (egg cells) from the ovary takes place ten hour after the end of
estrus.
Pregnancy-Gestation period in cows is about 283 days. Progesterone, secreted by corpus luteum, is
the essential hormone supporting pregnancy. Progesterone inhibits the action of estrogen (which is
also secreted during pregnancy) and dominates pregnancy until just before calving when estrogen
predominates again.
Visible signs of approaching calving are as follows:

 Relaxation of ligaments around the tailhead and pelvis.
 Swelling of vulva and thick mucous discharge.
 The cow’s udder becomes congested with milk.
Labor and Calving
Initial mild contractions last about 4 to 20 hours. As the uterine contractions becomes severe,
voluntary abdominal muscle contractions begin. The calf is pushed against the cervix and then
gradually forced out of the birth canal.
The fetal membrane breaks as the forelegs pass the vulva. As the calf leaves the vulva, the umbilical
cord breaks; this time, the calf must start to breathe.
Uterine contractions continue after calving to expel the placenta. In some cases, the placenta
retains for 12 hours or longer after calving.
Postpartum Physiology
Studies show that the uterus of a healthy cow returns to its normal size ( uterine involution) about 26
days after calving. New evidence indicates that, for optimum fertility, a much longer interval between
calving and insemination is necessary. A minimum interval of 60 days between calving and first
insemination after calving (postpartum breeding) is recommended.

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Mating Systems
Natural Mating
The two systems of natural mating are hand mating and pasture mating. In hand mating, an in-heat
cow is brought into the bull or vice versa. After breeding, the two are separated. In this system, the
service of the bull is fully controlled.
In pasture mating, the bull is brought in and let loose with the herd of breeding heifers and cows
during the breeding season. This system gives the bull the full freedom to breed an in-heat heifer or
cow.
Bull-to-cow ratio greatly depends on the age of the bull, the mating system employed, paddock size,
the topography of the farm, quality of available feed, the number of watering points, etc. The rougher
the pasture area, the greater the number of bulls required. Age must also be considered, since very
young or old bulls can severe fewer cows. If feed conditions during mating are poor, the cows will
scatter all over the grazing area and more bulls will be needed to find them. Thus, it is difficult to
recommend a fixed ratio of bulls to cows.
In general, if hand mating is practiced, the following ratio should be considered: for two to three
months, an 18-month old bull can sire 12 to 15 cows; a two-year old bull, 20 to 25 cows; and a
three- year old bull or older, 40 to 50 cows. Of pasture mating is followed, the aforementioned
figures should be reduced by one-third. In a single-sire herd, a mature bull in good breeding
condition will serve up to 35 cows on improved pasture in a three to four months breeding.
However, when several bulls are allowed to run on the same pasture, one bull should not be allowed
to sire more than 20 cows, otherwise, a lower calf drop will result.
A bull below 15 months old should not be allowed to breed. In hand mating, an excellent bull
should be allowed only five to seven services per week or one cow per day at most.
The fertility of a bull usually starts to decrease at five years old; the decrease is quite significant a
year older. Consequently, if bulls are used for breeding at two years of age and culled at six years,
they have an effective four-year reproductive life. If 4 % of the breeding bulls are raised to a
paddock or pasture, then 100 cows would require four bulls. Moreover, if the effective reproduction
breeding life is four years, the replacement rate is one bull yearly.
Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination or Al is putting the bull’s semen in the female genitalia by an instrument instead
of the natural service by the bull. A good proven bull can breed hundreds of female cattle with only
one ejaculate. When properly employed, Al has a little effect on normal breeding efficiency. It can be
accepted as a fundamental breeding principle that, in general, females which did not conceive when
served by a normal bull will not perform any better when artificially inseminated.
Artificial Insemination Requirements
Estrus detection. As discussed earlier, visible signs are exhibited by in heat cows and heifers. These
signs are best observed when most animals are at ease resting, ruminating, or just browsing in the
pasture or corral.
Some animals have silent heat, thus estrus signs are not visible.
Heat symptoms should be observed carefully. More observations made, the better the conception.
The in-heat cows should be watched over four times a day - - early morning, late morning, early
afternoon, late afternoon, and as often as possible in- between hours. At least 15 minutes or more
should be spent for each visit. Frequent visits to the cows could spot more easily their individual heat
behavior. However, watching is difficult to do for the range animals. Estrus detection should be done
properly for Al to succeed.

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Handling liquid nitrogen tank and semen.
a. Liquid nitrogen tank. Frozen semen are stored in a special container with liquid nitrogen. The
semen are placed in six canisters totally or partially submerged in the refrigerant. The storage tank
should be stored in a cool place. If evaporation occurs under normal operating conditions, the
container is most probably damaged. In extreme cases, sweating and freezing of the outside casing
may occur especially at the bottom of the container. Keep the refrigerant at safe levels. The
refrigerant level can be determined by inserting at safe levels. The refrigerant level can be determined
by inserting a dip stick, is used. A slender rod of low thermal conductivity, e.g., a wooden calibrated
stick, is used. The rod is introduced until the lower end touches the bottom of the container. After five
to ten seconds it is withdrawn in the air for the frost to appear. The frost length is measured in
inches. Liquid nitrogen evaporated at the rate of ½ inch a day depending in the atmospheric
temperature, and size, type, or make of the container. For example, a container with 15- inch level
liquid nitrogen will last for 30 days. Refilling is done, however, if the liquid nitrogen level reaches 5
inches to give enough time for the shipment of the liquid nitrogen from its source.
b. Removing the semen from the storage tank. Each time the semen is raised beyond the neck of
the tank to permit removal of individual straws, it is exposed to damaging temperature. As a rule, the
canister with the semen should not be lifted higher than the frost line within the neck of the tank.
Beyond the frost line, it is higher than - 130®C. The best storage temperature for frozen semen is -
130 C or lower. Above this temperature, the semen will be damaged. Thus, the canister holding the
semen should not be raised higher than necessary. Also, the removal time and frequently of lifting the
canister from the tank should be kept to an absolute minimum. The straws from the goblets in the
canister must be removed as quickly as possible. This can be done in three to five seconds with
practice. Not more than 11 seconds should transpire form the time the semen is removed until it is
placed in the thawing box.
c. Thawing techniques. Frozen semen in 0.5 ml straws should be held for about 17 seconds at 37
C water bath. Frozen semen in 0.25 ml straws should be thawed at the above temperature for about
seven seconds and must be used as soon as it is thawed. Semen straws should not be returned in
the tank once they are taken out.
Insemination Time
Under the more or less ideal condition, in-heat cows in the morning should be inseminated in
the afternoon of the same day; those in the afternoon, early in the morning of the
following day. Of the animal is still in heat six hours later, the animal may be re-inseminated.
Under the backyard condition, however, when Al service call is made, higher conception rate is
obtained when the cow is served immediately. In the absence of aforementioned recommendation,
the best time for Al service in cattle can be determined by inserting a gloved hand into the rectum,
grasping and pressing the cervix, and allowing the mucous discharged to flow out from the vagina.
To know whether or not the cow is ready to be inseminated, a drop of the discharge should be
placed between the thumb and the index fingers. If the discharged should be placed between the
thumb and the index fingers. If the discharge can be stretched at a distance of about 10 cm without
breaking, the cow is in heat and ready.
Cattle have an average number of services per conception of 1.6% or 62.5% based on the first
service. The success, however, depends primarily on the quality of semen used, technician’s
efficiency, cow fertility, and heat detection certainty.
Other Requirement for AI
 Only heifers in good condition and weighing 250 kg or more which have shown at least
two regular heat cycles must be included in the program.
 Cows must be bred on the first heat 60 days after calving.
 Cows should be gaining and not losing weight at the time of breeding.
 The farmer should have the skill in detecting estrus and in recognizing breeding observations.
 A reliable and quick means of transmitting request for Al services to the Center is necessary.

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 The herd should e free from reproductive diseases such as brucellosis, trichomonosis, and
vibriosis which can cause failure even if all other factors are ideal.
 A breeding chute or a provision must be made available for restraining the cow to
prevent unnecessary movement during semen deposition and pregnancy diagnosis.
 Al must be handled by an expert technician both in theory and in practice to ensure a high
conception rate. Special skill is required for insemination and exacting conditions must be met
in handling the semen.
Estrus Synchronization
Estrus synchronization (ES) is a management tool usually used in combination with Al. In this
approach, the technician manipulates the physiological conditions of the animals to allow
predetermined occurrence of estrus and insemination.
ES is highly desirable when inseminating since the estrus occurrence of a cow is not easily detected
unless close observation is made during the expected date of estrus. The observation becomes more
difficult when animals are raised in big group, thus, using special estrus-detecting system, e.g.,
androgenized female, or bull with deflected penis equipped with mounting-marking device is required.
Using ES, it is possible to inseminated large number of cows at one predetermined time.
In cyclic cows, estrus is generally controlled by the presence of progesterone, a hormone exerts a
negative effect on the secretion of gonadotropins from the pituitary gland that regulates the growth of
ovarian follicles responsible for the estrus manifestation. In effect, ES is a way of manipulating the life
of the CL to regulate the progesterone levels in the blood.
Methods of Synchronizing Estrus in Cows
The most common way to synchronize the cow is to regress the CL with the use of the luteolytic
agent, Prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2alpha). Estrus is expected from three to five days after
administering appropriate doses of commonly available PGF2alpha preparations. Before administering
the PGF2alpha, the animals should be properly diagnosed for pregnancy because this preparation is a
very potent abortifacient in cow. Pregnancy is supported by the progesterone from the CL. Thus, if
the CL function is ablated by the administration of PGF2alpha, pregnancy is terminated.
To reduce the ES cost, a well-trained technician should do the palpation of ovarian structures as well
as the pregnancy diagnosis. Only those animals with active CL and are not pregnant should be
treated with luteolytic prostaglandin. Cows with inactive ovaries will not respond to prostaglandin
and therefore, will not come to estrus.
Since PGF2alpha is only effective on CL older than five days, of the 100 cyclic cows for
synchronization, only 75 cows are expected to respond to the treatment. For higher synchrony of
estrus occurrence PGF2alpha should be administered two consecutive times, 11 to 12 days apart.
Normally, this is done for non-pregnant cows in the absence of a well-trained technician. Another
method of ES is the use of slow-release progesterone preparations applied either as an ear implant
or as intra-vaginal device. In both preparations, the progesterone is released slowly form the device
inhibiting the secretion of gonadotropins and thus controls the animals from exhibiting estrus.
The device is administered to cyclic cows and is allowed in situ for 12 days. During this period, any
active CL in the ovary will regress following the natural course, however, the animals will not show
any estrus symptoms. This is because the progesterone level in the blood supplied by the device is
high enough to stop the secretion of gonadotropins from the pituitary gland. Withdrawal of the
device is followed by precipitous decline in the progesterone. Gonadotropin in the blood will also
increase allowing the cows to develop follicles and consequently estrus. Normally, estrus is observed
three to four days after the withdrawal of the device. Al is done based on the observed estrus.
When desired, fixed insemination following ES is done about 84 hours after the last administration of
PGF2alpha or after the withdrawal of the progesterone-release device.

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Estrus Synchronization Postpartum
A major factor that affects the reproduction efficiency in cow is the ability to come to fertile estrus
and become pregnant postpartum. Thus, a shorter period between parturition and subsequent
pregnancy is desired. For this purpose, the proper nutritional management can be complimented
with hormonal treatment when necessary.
In general, the cow should be allowed to recover from pregnancy and parturition stress for about
60 days. This rest period is sufficient to permit the uterus involution to its non pregnant condition
and become ready for the subsequent pregnancy. Therefore, any attempts to induce ovarian
activity postpartum, to include estrus synchronization, should be carried out only after two months
postpartum.
To induce the early resumption og ovarian activities, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analog
have been used effectively in cattle combined with estrus synchronizing agent. This treatment
combination has been effective since a good number of cows remained anestrus even after 60 days
postpartum.
Embryo Transfer
Embryo transfer technology involves superovulatory treatments to induce the donor cows to develop
several follicles and multiples ovulations followed by insemination and collection of embryos.
Collected embryos are transferred to surrogate dams treated to synchronize their physiological
status to be ready to receive the embryos. In effect, the desired genetic make-up of the prospective
calves would come from superiors donors and siren but will develop in an ordinary surrogate dams.
NUTRITION
Nutrition is often understood as simply feeding the cattle with roughage and concentrate. However,
nutrition comprises all processes in the collection and utilization of feed to maintain life or produce a
product. In the animal, nutrition involves eating behavior or prehension, digestion, absorption,
circulation, respiration, metabolism, and excretion. Nutrition is very important as it affects the animal
performance.
Nutrients and Their Functions
Nutrients are chemical compounds used by the animal for maintenance and production. The basic
classes of nutrients are water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
Water-The body is composed of 50%-75% water. The water content of the body varies with age and
condition ( degree of fatness). Water is the cheapest but the most important of all nutrients. Its
function are as follows:
 Water in the form of saliva in the mouth helps in preparing dry feeds for swallowing,
passage, digestion, and excretion
 Helps in the formation of milk and new tissues during growth and pregnancy
 Regulates body temperature
 Acts as reactant of many metabolic reaction in the body
The three water sources for the animal are drinking water, water contained in the feed, and metabolic
water. A mature cattle can consume an average of about 45 liters water a day. However, water
consumption varies with the size of the animal, environmental temperature, and type of feed.
Carbohydrates-Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Substances of this group

include simple sugars, starch, and cellulose. Carbohydrates make up about 75% of plants’ dry weight
either stored in the form of starch ( in cereal grains) or cellulose ( fiber portion of plants).
In ruminants, carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen by micro-organisms to yield fatty acids
(acetic, propionic, and butyric) are the major source of energy in the ration.

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Lipids-Lipids are a wide variety of substances which vary from simple short chain fatty acids to very
complex molecules. All lipids are insoluble in water and soluble in either or similar organic compounds.
Fatty acids and triglycerides (fats and oils) are two most important lipids in animal nutrition.
Fats in the ration provide 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates. However, the fat level in cattle
ration should be limited because of its harmful effect on fiber digestion. Besides providing a
concentrated form of energy, fats and oils supply essential fatty acids to the animal.
Protein
All proteins are composed of subunits called amino acids. Protein have varied function in the body: a)
structural, as a component of soft tissues, muscle, collagen, and elastin; b) enzymatic, e.g., digestive
enzymes; c) hormonal, e.g., insulin; d) transport, e.g., hemoglobin; e) defense, e.g., immune bodies;
and f) genetic material, e.g., genes.
The body needs amino acids as nutrients rather than protein. Amino acids are derived from dietary
proteins and used by the body to synthesize its own protein. For ruminants, the dietary proteins can
be broken down in the rumen and be converted to microbial protein resulting in a change in amino
acid profile. However, there are some proteins which escape rumen degradation and called “by-pass
protein” or “ escape protein”. They remain intact until they reach the abomasum and small intestines
where they are digested to yield amino acids.
Besides digesting dietary proteins, microorganism in the rumen can convert non protein nitrogen
(e.g., urea) to microbial protein. Therefore, the total protein reaching the abomasum and small
intestine is a combination of “by-pass protein” and microbial protein. During maintenance and early
gestation, the microbial protein can supply amino acids need of the animal. However, during growth,
and late gestation and lactation, supplemental dietary protein especially those that can provide “by-
pass protein” must be supplied to the animal.
Minerals-Minerals are inorganic compounds in the body. Mineral elements are generally divided
into two categories: macrominerals (required in relatively large amounts), and microminerals or
trace minerals (required in very small amounts). Macrominerals include calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium. Microminerals include copper, iron, selenium,
cobalt, manganese, iodine, zinc, molybdenum, etc. In the body, minerals function as components
of bones and teeth ( particularly calcium and phosphorus); component of organic compounds (
coenzymes in metabolic reactions); and regular of acid-base balance and osmotic pressure.
In general, forage-based diets are good sources of calcium but poor sources of phosphorus. In
practical feeding, supplemental source of phosphorus should be given to the animal.
Vitamins-These are organic substances needed by the animals in small amounts. However, they
play an important role in maintaining vigor, health, and productivity of the animal. Vitamins are
divided into two large sub-groups: fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) and water-soluble vitamins ( B
complex).
For ruminants, vitamins A,D, and E should be provided either in the feed or as injectable. Water-
soluble vitamins and vitamin K can be synthesized by microorganism in the rumen. Upon digestion of
these microorganisms, water-soluble vitamins are obtained by the animal.
 FEED is a key to profitable cattle raising. Cattle need food nutrients for maintenance, growth
and production. The animal raiser must formulate feeds based on his animal's age, sex,
weight gain desired and the moisture content of available roughage and feeds.
 FEED RATION should be adjusted to the requirements for fattening cattle based on the
availability of feed materials in the locality. Cattle can be fattened on all roughage ration or on
roughage-concentrate ration. Give good quality grass-legumes mixture in the form of pasture
herbage. It is best to restrict animal movement at all times, so that it uses less energy and
gains weight quickly.
 THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF FEED IS IMPORTANT. There is maximum dry matter
intake if the ration has only about 34% moisture content. Cattle becomes fatter during
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summer eating dry grass than during the rainy season when the animals are allowed to eat
large

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amounts of young, fresh grass. Cattle will consume feed at a rate of about 2.5 % of its
body weight. The animals need the following nutrients.
 DRY MATTER that satisfies the animals appetite and promotes good digestion;Protein in
amounts based on age, sex, body weight and desired productivity. Energy from
carbohydrates, fats and excess protein ;essential mineral salts, calcium and phosphorus. Salt
intake increases the water intake of the animals. The daily intake should be about 0.045 g per
45.45 kg of body weight; Vitamin A, D, and E
 WATER IS A MOST IMPORTANT NUTRIENT. Its intake by cattle depends on the
temperature, humidity , moisture content of the roughages, dry or wet feeding and
salt content of feed nutrients.
 To estimate the daily feed requirement, young fatteners consume about 3% of their body
weight in air-dry feed. A fresh grass has about 75% moisture content. Therefor, a 250
kgs feeder cattle will require 7.5 kgs of grass with a 12-14% moisture.
 ROUGHAGE-CONCENTRATE RATION is the combination of forage or farm by-products and
concentrates. Some common concentrates are rice bran, copra meal, ipil-ipil leafmeal and
corn by products, including meat and bone meal and salt. The farm by products could be
utilized as concentrates mixtures and given to cattle at least twice a day.
 UTILIZATION OF FARM BY-PRODUCTS TO CATTLE FEED-Rice-straw-chopped recipe straw
can be fed to growing-fattening cattle up to 40% of the total ration. If baled or stacked and
adequately protected from weather, rice straw can be used as additional source of energy
anytime to the year when feed supply is short. It contains 3-4% protein, 0.04-
0.08%phosphorus and 0.20-0.30% calcium.
 CORN COBS(w/o kernels) can be coarsley ground and fed to cattle up to 45% of total
ration. It contains 45% total digestible nutrients and 3% crude proteins. Although containing
higher crude fiber, it is more digestible than rice straw.
Nutrient Requirements
The kind and amount of nutrients required by an animal are determined by its physiological
activities.Description of several physiological activities and the nutrients required are as follows:
maintenance, growth, reproduction, and lactation.
Maintenance-This involves all body processes required to keep the animal alive and healthy - no
loss or gain of weight, no work, developing no fetus, or producing no product. In maintenance, energy
is required to support basal metabolism, maintain body temperature and normal activity to obtain food
and water. Protein is required for the repair body tissues, while mineral are needed to replenish lost
ones. All vitamins are needed for maintenance due to their involvement in most metabolic activities.
Growth-Growth is generally measured in terms of the amount of weight gained and is divided into
two stages: growing, and finishing or fattening. In the growing stage, a rapid increase in muscle,
bone, organs, and connective tissues is observed. During the finishing stage, production of fat tissue
increases.
Protein is the major nutrient required during the growing stage. Energy is required to support protein
synthesis from amino acids. Minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, are needed for bone
formation. Vitamins are required in metabolic processes related to nutrient utilization for muscle,
bone, organ, and connective tissue growth.
Finishing of fattening is the deposition of unused energy in the form of fat within the body tissues.
Fattening makes the meat juicy and tasty because of the deposition of intramuscular fat or marbling.
Fat represents the most costly form of fain in cattle. Relatively large amounts of abdominal,
intermuscular (between muscles), and subcutaneous fat must be deposited to have an adequate
marbling. Energy is the major nutrients for fattening. Requirement for other nutrients above the need
for maintenance are relatively small.
In cattle production system, it is possible to maintain young animals with no weight gain for short
periods of time. Following a period of subnormal growth due to energy restrictions, most young
animals will gain faster than normal when given additional energy. The increased weight gain
following the energy restriction is called compensatory growth.
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Reproduction-Nutrients supplied to the animal before and after breeding have an important effect
on its overall reproduction efficiency. Nutrient deficiency before breeding would result in sterility, low
fertility, and failure to establish or maintain pregnancy. After breeding, nutrient restrictions are more
damaging in late pregnancy than in early pregnancy. Energy needs are more critical during the last
one third of the pregnancy stage.
Protein deposition in the fetus and fetal membranes increases similar to energy increases with stage
of pregnancy; protein is more critical for the fetus development in the late stage of pregnancy.
Similarly, minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus are required for reproduction and the
requirement increase with stage pregnancy. Vitamin A is important in maintaining the lining of the
reproductive tract; its deficiency at breeding decreases conception rates.
Lactation-High levels of milk production are normally associated with dairy cow. Adequate milk
production, on the other hand, is essential for economic production in beef cattle. Nutrients required
for milk production should be proportioned to the amount of milk produced. Energy is required for
milk fat and lactose formation, as well as milk protein synthesis. Cattle with low-level protein
produce little amount of milk; those with relatively high-level protein produce more milk. Minerals
such as calcium and phosphorous, and vitamins are essential components of milk and must be
supplied in the diet of lactating animals.
Nutrient requirement of beef cattle include the amounts of dry matter, energy (total digestible
nutrient of TDN), total protein, calcium, and phosphorous required daily for maintenance, growth,
reproduction, and lactation. However, an easy to remember “rule-of-thumb” may also be used to
determine the amount of dry matter consumption of an animal. The amount of dry matter that can be
consumed is equal to 2 % of the body weight of mature cattle; 2.5% of the body weight of a two-
year old steer, heifer, or bull; and 3% of the body weight of a yearling or younger animal.
Feed Resources
Pasture, Crop Residues, and Agro-industrial By-Products
For cattle production, the feed-resource base is made up of grasslands, cultivated pastures, weeds
and crop residues from croplands, areas under plantation, and agro-industrial by- products.
Grasslands and cultivated pastures play significant role in providing feeds for a ranch-type cattle
production. The backyard-type of operation usually depends on a few hectares of pasture grasses, but
the bulk of feeds is supplied by crop residues and weeds form croplands.
The availability of crop residues depends on the cropping pattern in the regions. On the other hand,
the availability of agro-industrial by-products depends on the location of processing plants utilizing
different agricultural products. Agro-industrial by-products with high-feeding value include wet
brewer’s grain, pineapple pulp, soya pulp, tomato pulp, and banana rejects.
Cattle producers can develop feeding systems that take advantage of these available feed resources
in their locality.
Silage-The Philippine climate is generally characterized by distinct dry and wet seasons. The climatic
variation brings about excess herbage during rainy months and undersupply during dry months.
Silage-making offers a solution to the problem of erratic feed supply brought about by wet and dry
seasons. Extra feed during the wet can be preserved in a silo to supplement scarce feed during dry
months. However, only improved grasses or grass-legumes combinations can be used to make a
good silage. Native pasture grasses such as cogon or bagokbok are not good materials for silage-
making.
Urea in Cattle Rations
Nonprotein nitrogen (NPN). All animals require protein for normal growth and body tissue
development. Beef cattle belong to a class of animals called ruminants. This group has the unique
ability to utilize dietary NPN to meet part of their protein requirements. Cattle have a four-
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compartment stomach, the largest of which is the rumen, which is inhabited by billions of bacteria,
fungi, and protozoa. These microorganisms enable the animals to utilize dietary NPN. In the rumen,
the NPN is broken down (hydrolyzed) to ammonia nitrogen which the microorganisms uses to build
their own bodies that produce (synthesized) microbial protein. The microbes pass from the rumen
to the lower gastrointestinal tract where they are digested by the host animal. When the microbial
protein is digested, amino acids are released. Amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream of
the animal.
Commercial sources of NPN. In other countries, urea, biuret, diammonium phosphate, and
ammonium chloride are the most common sources of NPN to incorporate into cattle ration. However,
in the Philippines, only fertilizer grade urea is available as the main source of NPN.
Calculating crude protein content of urea. Commercial fertilizer grade urea contains 45%
nitrogen. To convert nitrogen in urea to crude protein equivalent, simply multiply the percentage of
nitrogen in urea by 6.25 (average protein contains 16% nitrogen).
Example: Urea (45% nitrogen) 45x6.25=281 crude protein equivalent

This means that 1 kg urea provides 2.81 kg crude protein equivalent.
Balancing ration with urea. When using urea to replace expensive protein sources in cattle (or
ruminants, in general) feed formulation, the following may be used as guides:
 Add urea at levels of about:

- 1% of the total air-dry ration or
- 2%-3% of the concentrate mixture or
- 25%-30% of the total dietary nitrogen
The urea level in the concentrate mixture can be increased from 3% if palatable
ingredients, such as molasses is included, and that the mixture is fed in rather small
proportion to roughage.
 Cattle should be provided with adequate amounts of readily available carbohydrates or
energy, minerals, and vitamins for proper and efficient use of urea. These nutrients are
needed by microorganisms in building body proteins from the nitrogen supplied by
urea. Molasses is a good source of both energy and minerals.
 During summer months where molasses is readily available, a water-urea-molasses
mixture with a maximum of 10% urea may be used as a lick, with proper precaution. To
regulate animal intake of water-urea-molasses mixture, a rotary licker is recommended.
The suggested liquid-urea mixture is as follows:2.5 kg urea, 4.5 kg molasses, and 18
liters water.
 Crude protein supplements with urea is cheaper than those without urea.
Precaution when feeding urea. Urea should be thoroughly mixed with the ration. The ration must
be free of any lumps of urea; if not, the animal will have ammonia toxicity when he consumes a
large amount of it. Harmful effects of urea toxicity range from drowsiness to excess salivation, going
off- feed, or even death.
In utilizing urea as feed, strictly observe the following: animals below one year old and those that are
sick should not be given, energy feed must be adequate, urea intake must be controlled, and an
adaptation period must be provided. Urea is quite risky to use as feed, therefore, one is advised to do
some reading before using it.
Feeding Systems
In cattle feeding, two systems can be utilized: all-roughage, or combination of roughage and
concentrate. The availability of roughage, cost of concentrate, type of production system, and
productive stage of the animal are factors influencing the choice of the feeding system.

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All-Roughage Feeding System
Roughage is defined as feed which is relatively high in fiber and low in total digestible nutrients. It
includes forages of either grass or legume in the form of pasture herbage, soilage, silage, hay; and
crop residues such as rice straw, corn stover, sugarcane tops, and the like.
In the extensive cattle production system (ranch-type), cattle are usually fed all-roughage ration in
the form of pasture grasses with or without legumes particularly during the wet season when grasses
and legumes are abundant.
In intensive or backyard production system, roughage is usually supplied in the form of soilage or
green chop or by tethering the animals. During summer months when pasture grasses or green chop
are scarce, roughage is fed in the form of silage, hay, or whatever crop residues available.
A good quality grass-legumes mixture can support maintenance and moderate growth of cattle.
However, during the periods of rapid growth, late gestation, and early lactation when the protein need
is high, an all-roughage feeding is not enough during the fattening stage when energy requirement is
high.
Roughage-Concentrate Feeding System
Concentrates are feed which contain high digestible energy. Low fiber, and high or low protein. They
include grains (corn,sorghum), oil meals (soybean meal, cottonseed meal, copra meal), some root
crops (cassava), and grain by-products [rice, wheat or corn bran, corn gluten feed corn gluten meal,
brewer’s spent grain]. Concentrates are usually included in cattle rations to increase the energy
source. Protein-rich carbohydrates, on the other hand, increases the protein content of the ration.
The amount of concentrate to be incorporated in the ration depends on the availability and quality of
the roughage, price of the concentrate, and production level of cattle to be fed. High-level concentrate
in the total ration is recommended during summer months when grasses are scarce and crop residues
are often utilized as feed. Similarly, concentrate supplementation is needed by fast-growing animals
and those in early lactation. Fattening or finishing cattle require high amount of energy, thus, a
combination of energy-rich, concentrate supplement and roughage is necessary.
Concentrates can be fed separately from the roughage. The feeding should be gradual. The amount
of concentrate should be increased gradually until the desired level is reached. If the given abruptly,
microorganisms in the rumen will not have time to adjust to the new ration. This could result in
acidosis – a condition often encountered when the concentrate contains feed grains high in starch.
Acidosis could lead to an “off-feed syndrome” and in sever cases, death of the affected animal.
When feeding concentrate to growing-finishing cattle, the production economics should also be
considered. Evaluation should consider the cost of feed as well as the overall production efficiency.
PASTURE MANAGEMENT
Pasture management is the control of pasture grazing by all animals. Pasture should be grazed lightly
enough to keep the mature grass growth down but not so much that it is cropped to the ground. If
some grasses are not touched by the grazing animals, pull them up before they flower and produce
seeds. The livestock should then be moved off the pasture and it is rested to allow the growth of fresh
grass.
It may be necessary to move herds some distance to find new grazing. Buffalo and cattle can travel
up to 3 km.
PASTURE ROTATION-Pasture can be fenced or hedged to make protected enclosures. This allows
animals to be confined to an area while the neighbouring pasture is rested. In this way land can be
grazed for 1 to 2 weeks and then rested for several weeks to allow grass to regrow. This is pasture
rotation.

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WHY MANAGE THE GRAZING OF PASTURES?
When the grazing of pastures by livestock is controlled it brings several berefits:

 Herding animals allows them to be watched and any problems such as bloat will be
quickly noticed.
 By preventing animals from overgrazing pasture the fertile top soil will be held in place by the
plants and their roots. It will not become eroded and the soil is not washed into streams and
irrigation channels causing problems for farmers.
 Pasture rotation allows fresh growth of feed plants for the animals. It allows pasture to be left
long enough for grasses to produce good roots and seed.
 Fencing areas to keep animals out allows the growing of special feed crops which can later be
cut and fed to the animals.
 Pasture rotation helps in the control of both internal and external parasites. Do not always
keep young animals on the pasture near the water supplies. It is here that large numbers of
parasite eggs build up.
 Pasture rotation increases the fertility of the soil through the animals depositing dung.
COMMON PASTURE AND GRASSLAND PLANT SPECIES
Grasses
Scientific Name Common Name
Brachiaria mutica- Para grass

Brachiaria decumbens Signal grass
Brachiaria humidicola Koronivia grass
Panicum maximum Guinea grass
Pennisetum purpurium Napier grass
Decanthum arsitatum Angleton grass
Setaria sphacelata syn Anceps Setania
Sorghum halepense Johnson grass
Cynodon plectostachyus Star grass
Legumes
Leucaena leucocephala Ipil-ipil

Centrosoma pubescens Centosoma
Colopogonium muconoides Calopo
Macroptilium atropurpuruem Sirato
Pueraria phaseoloides Puero, Kudzo
Stylosnathes guianensis Common Stylo
Stylosanthes hamata Verano stylo
Stylosanthes humilis Townsville
Philippine Grassland Community
Saccharum spontanuem Talahib

Imperata cylindrical Cogon
Themeda triandra Bagokbok
Capillipedium parviflorum Misamis grass
Chrysopogon aciculatus Amorseco
Weeds
Lantana camara Lantana

Blumea balsamifera Sambong
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Amorphophallus campanulatus Pongapong

Pteridium aquilinium Bracken fern
Chromolaena odorata Hagonoy
Mimosa invisa Giant mimosa
Solanum ferox Wild eggplant
HERD MANAGEMENT
Herd management’s goal is to produce a crop high-quality, heavy-weight calves. Various factors
which contribute to the accomplishment of this goal are early sexual maturity of females, high
conception rate, high calf crop, early rebreeding after calving, excellent milk production of the cow,
availability of a year-round feed supply and others.
Quality management, plane of nutrition, and farm infrastructures are important determines of profit or
loss.
Herd Division
Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age groups of the herd. Nutritional
requirement of beef are directly related to age. If the herd consists of animals of varying ages,
feeding will always be to the disadvantage of the young animals. With the one-herd management
system, adult animals, with bigger built and higher feeding capacity, often deprive the calves of
feed.
Certainly, they will eat the more digestible and palatable feed, and what is left for the calves is the
less digestible and less palatable feed.
Management problems, e.g., premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and
heifers, are very hard to check if the herd is of mixed ages. Moreover, a higher rate of abortion may
occur as a result of butting and fighting of animals.
Animals may be divided into the following herds:
 Pregnant herds – composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding
herd during the breeding season.Breeding herd – consist of dry cows and heifers
ready for breeding. After the breeding season, pregnant animals are transferred to
the pregnant herd.
 Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifers calves are
included in this herd after weaning.
 Steer, feeder, or fattener herd – consists of growing cattle and those to be fattened
for the market.
 Bull herd- consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeding cows.
Management of Breeding Females
Lactating and Pregnant Cows
Once the cows are determined pregnant, they should be separated from the herd. This prevents injury
and possible abortion of cows which are results of riding, butting and fighting with other animals.
A small grass paddock is necessary to keep pregnant cows expected to give birth within two weeks.
The paddock should be accessible to the cowboy’s quarter to help the cow during parturition.
Signs of pregnancy. The gestation period of the cow is about 283 days although this varies from
breed to breed (usually 275-298 days). Some breeds have a gestation period shorter by about one
week, others like the Brahman gestates for about a week longer.

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Some signs of a pregnant cow are as follows:

 Cessation of estrus or heat. After a bull served a cow, record it and determine when estrus
should again occur. If the cow does not come in heat again or show estrus after 24 days, it is
likely that she is pregnant.
 A noticeable enlargement of the abdomen and udder are usually good signs of pregnancy,
however, these are not necessarily foolproof. As calving time approaches, the cow’s udder fills
and teats firm up. First-calf heifers usually exhibit development earlier than mature cows.
Palpation. Cessation of estrus or heat and enlargement of abdomen and udder are signs of
pregnancy but are not foolproof.
A more reliable pregnancy test is through palpation 60-90 days after breeding. Palpation is the manual
examination of the reproduction tract by the way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in
cattle. This method needs training and experience. A hand-in rubber glove is inserted into the rectum
towards the colon. When gently pressed by the hand, the fetus slips away, but returns immediately to
its original position when pressure is removed.
During the later stage of pregnancy (five to six months), the uterus is pulled down into
abdominal cavity because of the weight of the fetus and accompanying fluids. At this stage, it is
difficult to feel the fetus and doing it may cause abortion. Pregnancy testing by palpation should
be done during the second or third month of pregnancy. Cows that failed to get pregnant during
the regular breeding season should be exposed to the bull for another three months in the
breeding herd (clean-up breeding).
Open Cows and Replacement Heifers-Open or nonpregnant cows and replacement heifers
should be given proper care in such a way that they get the right amount of feed daily. They
should be kept in good body condition to ensure that they are in right physiological status.
Animals with reproductive problems and those which failed to settle after the clean-up breeding
period should be culled.
Management of Calves, Growers, and Fatteners
Calves-Calves should suckle colostrum milk from their mother within three hours after calving. A
calf that has not suckled five to six hours after calving should be led to his mother’s udder.
During bad weathers, calves borned weak should be taken to the barn with the mother. However,
orphaned calves may be raised to cow’s milk or milk replacers.
Calves should be given concentrates at an early age for faster growth.
Growers-Growers are weaners and yearlings which are not to be fattened immediately. They are
handled in such a way that maximum growth is achieved at the lowest possible cost. The growing
period starts from weaning to fattening or replacement stage. Growers are usually maintained in
the pasture with very little attention; they are given salt and mineral supplement. If raised in
confinement, concentrates should be given in addition to grass/roughage.
Fatteners-Fatteners require a shorter feeding period to reach slaughter weight. They are
generally bigger, mature, or nearing maturity. However, one and a half to two year-old animals
weighing 200-300 kg are preferred. They may be fattened in a feedlot, on pasture, or in both
areas.
Management of Breeding Bulls
Breeding bull should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of the genetic make-up of
the offspring. Bulls should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season. Thus, regular
exercise should be given to the bulls to keep their aggressiveness. Selected bulls should be
allowed to breed when they are at least two years of age.
Bulls should be given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60-90 days before and after
the breeding period depending on their condition.
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A breeding bull should be kept in the herd as long as he aggressive enough to mate. However, to
avoid inbreeding, a bull should be kept out of the herd after two and a half to three years when its
offspring reached the breeding age.
Recent findings showed that one criterion in selecting a good breeder is measuring the
testicular circumference of the young bull. A minimum measurement of 30 cm for a yearling
bull would greatly contribute to a bull’s fertility index, as well as that of its female progeny.
Grazing Management
Pasture-based cattle production system is a complex system (plant-soil-animal). Cattle productivity

depends primarily on how the balance among the components is manages and sustained over a
long period.
The ultimate goal of grazing is to attain the highest possible beef weight (secondary productivity)
within the shortest possible time. Sound pasture management, on the other hand, ensures that
herbage yield (primary productivity) persistence (both in terms of quality and quantity) is maintained
over a long period without sacrificing the nutritional requirement of the animals.
Sound Stocking Management
In tropical countries like the Philippines, the primary productivity is determined by rainfall pattern.
This is characterized by herbage surplus during rainy months and deficit during dry months, although
herbage productivity is high on an annual basis.
To even-up the seasonality in herbage distribution, two major approaches have been introduced:
 Pasture management
 Stock management
The first approach consist mainly of the establishment and maintenance of desirable pasture crops
supplemented by fertilization, if necessary.
Stock or grazing management simply implies varying or manipulating grazing pressure to suit
available herbage at any given time. Grazing intensity or pressure is expressed either as stocking
rate (animal unit/hectare per year) or stocking density (animal unit/unit area per unit time).
Stocking rate is usually employed in relatively homogenous and stable pastures where pasture
productivity is predetermined. Stocking density is used in pastures with unstable and variable
vegetational mix which could be the result of difference in soil fertility.
The combination of the two approaches proves more desirable by both the pasture and the
animal. In both approach, the grazing tips are as follows:
 Application of grazing pressure or intensity should be based on the herbage availability and
not on the nutritional (DM) intake of the animals.
 Animal performance (beef yield) is determined not by one grazing alone but by a series
of grazing over long periods of time.
 Pasture reserves (residual) determine the rate of pasture regrowth, and the frequency
and intensity of the succeeding grazing.
 Pasture yield persistence is the difference between the capability of the soil to sustain
growth and the
 animal’s dry matter intake.
Stocking Rate-Production per unit of land is an important measure of efficient use of pastures,
particularly in the more intensive beef-producing areas where land values are high. The rate where
grazing animals are stocked (stocking rate) is a major factor affecting production per unit area of
pasture. The stocking rate is usually measured in terms of animal unit (a.u.) per hectare.

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Therefore, if the feasible stocking rate pasture is ½ a.u./ha, a total of 63 ha pasture land is needed
to maintain 48 head of cattle with the herd composition aforementioned.
A frequently quoted rule of thumb in the management of native imperata (cogon) pastures in the
Philippines is that a 3-4 ha can support one mature animal throughout the year. On flat agriculture
land with high and well-distributed rainfall as in the Bukidnon plateau, the 1:1 stocking rate maybe
close to the actual carrying capacity of the pasture. However, the majority of grasslands in the
country have undulating steep slopes. They are usually in areas characterized by rainfall patterns
with three to six months of dry season ( average monthly rainfall: 60 mm or below). In these areas,
a stocking rate of 0.25-0.5 a.u./ha would be more realistic.
A study proved that under the Bukidnon conditions in Mindanao, stocking rate can be increased to
2.0 a.u./ha on improved pasture of grass-legume (para-centro) with fertilizer. At a stocking rate of
2.0 a.u./ha, an improved grass-legumes pasture can produce 340% more beef than native (cogon)
pasture even under drought conditions. The study further implied that a tremendous increase in beef
production can be attained by improving pasture through proper use of fertilizer.
General Management Practices
Cattle identification
This practice is necessary for management purposes and to denote ownership. Branding with a hot
iron is the most common method of identifying cattle. The animals should be legally branded. The
brand must be properly registered by the owner with the livestock identification office of the
municipality concerned. The owner’s brand is placed on the animal’s left foreleg. The municipality’s
and the owner’s brands must be 6.4 cm long and 5.0 cm wide. The desirable size of branding iron is 1
cm wide. For easy handling, the branding iron’s handle should be at least 65 cm long.
Dehorning
Dehorning has the following advantages:

 Dehorned cattle requires less space in feedlots
 They occupy less space in transit or shipment
 They are more uniform in appearance
Dehorning is a sophisticated practice in beef cattle raising. It is recommended only in large-scale

operation to facilitate the handling and management of the animals. Dehorning also lessens the
danger of injury to herdsmen.
Dehorning instruments or chemicals are seldom available on the market; they are usually imported
and expensive. However, considering the number of cattle involved and the ease of managing
hornless animals, the investment in dehorning is worthwhile in large-scale beef cattle operations.
Cattle should be dehorned while still young because they are easier to handle. The process has slight
after-effect to the animal, however, if done properly, dehorning does not need to be repeated.
Very young calves whose horn buttons grow a little can be dehorned by applying caustic soda or a
commercial dehorning paste on the horn button. When applying, the hair around the base of the
horn should be clipped first. Vaseline should be applied around the horn button to prevent the
caustic soda to flow into the eyes of the animals. Calves with horn buttons or horns not over 1.5-2.0
cm long can be easily dehorned with dehorning irons.
However, older animals are dehorned with either a metal spoon, Barnes dehorner, a dehorning
clipper, or hand or electric saws. Pine tar should be applied on the horn sores to prevent maggot
infestation.
Polled or hornless cattle, however, are now preferably produced through breeding.
Castration-Bull calves can be castrated any time, but preferably when they are a few weeks to seven
months of age. As in dehorning, there is less hemorrhage and setback with younger animals than with
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older ones. The slit and the cap method are both effective ways of surgically removing testicles.

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Bloodless castration can also be done with Burdizzo pinchers or emasculator. However, because
castration tends to decrease the rate of liveweight gain by 15%-20%, it should be resorted to only
when there is difficulty in separating male from females, e.g., inadequate fencing or limited
availability of pasture paddocks.
Selection and Culling
Progressive livestock raisers select beef animals on the basis of physical appearance substantiated by
records of production. In the Philippines, however, performance records are seldom available. Thus,
selection is based solely on the animals’ physical appearance which in most cases does not reveal its
real value as a breeder or fattener.
As mentioned earlier, records are very useful in the selection and culling of animals in the herd.
Breeding stock with poor performance should be culled for slaughter. These are as follows:
 A cow that calves every one and a half to two years.
 A cow that produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good feeding and
management.
 Small, weak, and unhealthy animals which are susceptible to diseases and may become the
source of infection of the herd in not removed on time.
 Heifers in the breeding herd that do not settle despite three to four repeated mating with
a proven bull.
 Heifers that do not come in heat in spite of proper age, good size, healthy condition, vigor and
strength.
 Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd.
 Bull and cows which have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats, hernia,
dwarfism, bull dog, cryptorchidism (failure of one or both of the testes to descend normally),
and the like.
Weight Approximation
Knowledge on the weight of the animal is important in many aspects of beef cattle production. The
weight of the animals at different growth stages can be used effectively to measure feed requirement,
medications and similar activities. When marketing or procuring animals, weight determination can be
used to an advantage.
In the absence of a weighing scale, the liveweight of cattle can be estimated by correlating the body
weight to its heart girth and body length. The heart right is the circumference of the body which
passes over the withers and just behind the elbows. In measuring, the tape measure is applied just
tight enough to lay the hair down. The body length is measured from the point of the shoulder to the
pin bone. The tape should the contour of the body when measuring the body length.
With this information, the approximate weight of an animal can be determined with the use of the
following equation:
2
Approximate LW = (HG) x BL
10,840
Where: LW= liveweight, kg
BL = body length, cm
HG = heart girth, cm
Because of the variations of the conformation of the different breeds of cattle, the suggested
measurement procedures can only be aptly applied for Brahman-type cattle.
Age Determination-In selecting or purchasing stocks, the age of an animal is not available because
record-keeping is not yet widely practiced. Problems to determine the right age of cattle arise in
livestock markets. However, the animal’s age could be determined through dentition. After four years
of age, the approximate age of the animal can be determined by the amount of wear in the
masticatory surface of the teeth.

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Night Corralling-Generally, this practice is not recommended to beef cattle raisers because the
animals do most of their grazing in the late afternoon, early evening, and early morning hours.
However, in places where availability of a good breeding bull is a problem, night corralling is necessary
where the breeding females are kept with the good breeding bulls. Likewise, night corralling maybe of
the help in areas where cattle rustling is rampant cattle in corrals should be provided with enough
feed for the night.
PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Common Facilities
Fences-Fencing helps distribute properly livestock particularly in ranges grazed by cattle. Fences,
eliminate overgrazing due to rough topography, peculiar grazing habits of animals, or limited water
supply. They are also used to control drifting animals, fence poisonous plant areas, and shut out stray
or trespass stock. They help establish system of deferred or rotation grazing, too.
Factors to consider in construction fences include the movement of animals, system of grazing used,
sizes of herds, natural obstacles such as swamps and steep hills, as well as the present and the
future land utilization. Deep valleys should not be fenced, as the structure will either be damaged by
water during heavy rains, or trampled down by moving cattle, and covered with soil. Cattle prefer to
graze by walking up or along a slope rather than downwards. Fences should never be built across a
steep slope.
Wide hillsides should be fenced at the top and bottom. Subdivisions should rum from top to bottom,
on a ridge, and not in a gully. Fences at the base of a hill should be far enough from the base to allow
easy passage of animals or machines. Gateways, too, should be located far enough from the base to
allow the herd to stand on easy ground. This provides a comfortable area for working on the stock and
room for a herd so slow down before hitting the fence if they stampede down the hill when
assembling.
Fence posts should be 5.0 m apart and 1.5 m above the ground. The top wire should be 1.4 m above
the ground. The wire should be spaced downwards at 50, 50, and 40 cm intervals on a three-wire
strands-fence.
If the distance is more than 5 m between post, it will be necessary to fix battens (also called
droppers) at intervals between posts to keep the wire spacing rigid. Smaller staples should be used on
battens. These should be driven in tight to prevent the battens from moving from side to side. Live
fence posts, such as ipil-ipil or madre cacao, can be also used. Battens which are not intended to grow
should have their tops leveled with the top of the posts, and should have a bottom clearance of about
7.5 cm from the ground. Battens can either be sawn or split timber 5 cm x 5cm x 5 cm thick and 1.2
m long.
Handling Facilities
Working Corral
Corrals are highly specialized facilities and should be properly managed during planning and
construction. A well-constructed corral is economical because the shrinkage resulting from sorting and
handling cattle is reduced.
The corral should be built in the center of ranch operation to minimize the movement of the stock.
If possible, a site should be put on well-drained, sandy textured soil.
For fence boards, 5 cm x 5 cm unsurfaced lumber should be used; hold them in place with 1 or 1.5-
cm bolts. Fences should be 168-184 cm high.
Lumber or other decay-resistant wood should be treated first before using as corral posts; these
should be set 183 cm apart, and at least 75cm deep. Posts should be tamped solid.

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Coal tar or creosote should be used as preservatives. Posts should not be set in concrete because they
may rot. Also, if they break, it would be difficult to replace them.
Gates are very important in working corrals. It is best to place them in the corners of corrals or other
convenient places where cattle go.
Wherever possible, the gates should be open in the direction in which cattle are being driven.
Materials may not be of processed lumber. For practical purposes and economic reasons, it is
advisable to use whatever available material are on the farm. Wooden poles, trunks of ipil-ipil,
madre de cacao, and other small tree species can be used and will satisfactorily serve the purpose
Race
In corral a race (single passageway/ pathway) is usually constructed to facilitate segregating animals
into individual pens. Essential parts of the race are the squeeze, dipping vat, weighing scale, and
loading chute.
Squeeze. A squeeze for handling cattle can be used effectively on any farm for deworming, branding,
castrating, testing for tuberculosis, vaccinating, or in performing minor surgical operations. Such
arrangement saves a great deal of labor in catching and throwing animals. An ideal cattle squeeze is
durable, can thoroughly restrain the animal, and is convenient for the operator. Cattle squeeze is
normally a part of the pen arrangement in cattle corrals.
Dipping vat. This is essential for the mass-control of ticks, lice, flies and other external parasites.
The vat should be built on one side of the corral system where water supply is abundant. It should be
as near the center of the grazing area as possible to avoid long travel to and from it; and should have
approaches on hard ground.
A simple roof over the vat prevents the rain from diluting the dipping solution. It may also prevents
excessive evaporation which increases the concentration during sunny days.
A herd of 200 animal units (a.u.) or more justifies the construction of a dipping vat. initial cost is high,
however, in the long run, it is more economical in controlling external parasites. Dipping is more
economical than spraying because the chemical solution prepared for dipping can be used for several
times within a year. Spraying, on the other hand, needs one chemical solution per treatment.
However, with small herd of animals of 50-100 head or even less, spraying with the uses of a
portables sprayer is more practical and maybe more economical than dipping.
Weighing scale. One of the basic tools and an important piece of equipment in the cattle business is
the weighing scale. This is used for measuring the progress and attainment of production and
marketing goals, usually expressed in terms of weight. Birth weight, weaning weight, daily weight
gain, feed efficiency, and carcass data are some important parameters in measuring the profitability
of the enterprises. Moreover, a weighing scale also determines the total animal unit of the herd.
Knowing this, the total number of animals to graze in a given pasture lot can be determined, based
on the feasible stocking rate of the said pasture area. This way, overstocking, which is harmful to the
growth of forage in the pasture will be avoided.
If possible, a weighing scale should be built within the corral system with some kind of housing or
shelter over it. The only time the cattle should cross the scale is when the animals are being weighed.
Loading chute. The extensive use of trucks and trailers in cattle farms necessitates the use of a
chute for loading and unloading stocks. The main essentials are proper height for the truck
commonly served, adequate width to accommodate the animals, and sufficient slope and cleating to
the platforms approach to prevent slipping.

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Feeding and Watering Facilities
Feeding Facilities
 In construction feeding, factors to be considered are labor efficiency, good drainage, and
protection of both feed and animals from bad weather.
 In the feed corral, arrangement must be made to facilitate bringing the feed to the animals and
hauling away the manure with minimum labor. Gates and yards should be large enough to
allow mechanical equipment like tractors, trucks, etc. to go through them with ease.
 Whenever possible, the feed yard should be placed on a slope with natural drainage, away from
the lot. If not, mounds of dirt should be constructed in the corrals away from the feed bunks
where cattle can lie down.
 Feeding troughs should be placed along the sides of the feeding corral to fill them with feed
without entering the area. Troughs should be strong, tight, and with right shapes and proportion.
Animals should have access to only one side of the trough. The following space allowance should
be observed: 76cm/dehorned animal, 107 cm/horned animal and about 61 cm/calf.
 Feeding troughs can be made of wood or concrete. Concrete feeding troughs, although expensive,
are more durable and a lot easier to clean.
 A concrete slab about 3.0 – 3.65 m wide may be constructed the full length of the feeding trough.
This structure keeps cattle out of the mud and facilities cleaning.
 Feed troughs built inside a barn or shed should be adjustable in height to accommodate cattle of
various ages. It maybe necessary to raise the troughs from time to time if the manure and
bedding are allowed to accumulate in the shed.
 In many semi-commercial and commercial feedlots, feed bunks or mangers maybe a part of the
building’s floor design. They are usually built along an elevated central alley or driveway. Both
roughage and concentrate feeding are accommodated with these feed bunks. They reduce losses
from wind and permit the animals and the operator to be comfortable. Moreover, they allow
feeding of more than one group of animals on a rotation basis.
 Feed bunks or mangers should provide sufficient space for the animals. Too deep mangers result
in feed wastage; in concentrate feeding, too much heat may develop at the bottom resulting in
caked/ stale feeds. Feed bunks need not be expensive to satisfactorily accommodate cattle of all
sizes.
Salt Boxes/Containers-In cattle operations, an open-top salt box/ container should be provided at
all times. The salt is placed under the shed and fastened to a stand high enough preventing the
cattle to step on it. A small roof may be constructed over a salt box if left in the open.
Watering Facilities-Water is as essential as feed, thus, it must be made available at all times. On
the average, a mature cattle consumes about 45 liters of water/day. The consumption varies with the
size of the animal,season, and types of feed. Cattle produce about 13.25-75.7 liters of saliva daily
needed for digestion and maintenance of pH balance in the rumen, thus, it necessitates
replenishment. Common sources of water include reservoirs, springs, wells, and streams. Water from
streams maybe undesirable because it may harbor parasites and act as carrier if diseases. Spring beds
or mountain streams that originates under sanitary conditions maybe excellent sources of water. On
the other hand, slow-flowing streams that drain large watersheds populated with livestock are
potential sources of diseases, and therefore, must be avoided.
If surface water is not available, labor can be saved by reliable power for pumping and by piping
water under pressure to tanks or troughs where it will be available at all times. Water troughs may
be made poured concrete, either round, or rectangular, or round galvanized metal tanks. Water level
can be regulated by a float-activated valve. Concrete watering trough should be provided with
concrete approaches to improve sanitation and keep the water clean.

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Housing Systems
Cow-Calf Operation
Small-scale/backyard level. Cow-calf operation in smallhold farms is done using simples methods
and facilities. The animals are usually tethered during the day and kept inside the shed during the
night. The shed is built from native materials like wood and bamboo for frames and enclosures; nipa
and cogon for roofing. Feeding and watering troughs can also be made of locally available materials
such as used tires, used and halved drums, etc. The shed is usually built near the house of the
farmers.
Ranching. In a ranch, the presence of trees could already provide shade to the animals. In its
absence, however, a suitable fixed shed for the herd can be provided. Cattle sheds usually open
preferably opposite the direction of the prevailing winds and toward the sun. they are enclosed on
the ends and sides. Sometimes, the front is partially closed, and during severe weather, drop doors
may be used. To keep the bedding dry, sheds should be placed on high, well-drained ground.
Semi-intensive and intensive systems. Under semi-intensive system, animals in groups are
allowed to graze in the pasture enclosed by a perimeter fence as in ranching. At noon or late in the
afternoon, the herd is sheltered in a barn and fed using cut-and-carry system. The barn is usually
provided with stalls or pens for housing each group of animals, e.g., suckling calves, growing calves,
heifers, milking cows, dry cows, steers, and breeding bulls. Box stalls or maternity pens for pregnant
cows and pens for sick animals should also be provided. Feed bunks and waterers are common
facilities in the barn.
Under intensive system, similar housing and facilities are provided except that zero-grazing (cut-and-
carry feeding) solely practiced.
Fattening operation
Small-scale fattening/feedlot farm. In this type of operation, the animals are raised in individual
stalls with a space of about 1.5 m x 4 m/head. Each stall can accommodate one animal during the
entire fattening period. The shed is built 3 m high to allow good ventilation. Bamboo, lumber, or ipil-
ipil poles can be used for frames; nipa or cogon for roofing materials although G.I. roofing may also
be used for durability. Concrete and sand should be used as flooring to prevent mud from
accumulating. This will also facilitate cleaning.
Semi-commercial and commercial feedlots. A pen-barn type of housing can be employed where
animals can be grouped according to age, sex, or weight, and may be confined in group pens. The
size of the pens may vary to accommodate from 10-80 head of cattle. Group pens may be subdivided
with wooden or G.I. pip pen enclosures built with pen doors/ gates.
The barn may be designed such that pens are built on both sides of the building. Roofing may be
built with ventilation monitors. The general floor plan may consist of an elevated central alley
(driveway) which extends the full length of the building. Feed bunks or mangers are usually placed
along the alley. Pens can be surfaced with concrete to minimize slipping and possible injury to both
the cattle and the feedlot operators. Floors should also be constructed with sufficient slope for
adequate drainage. Sawdust could be scattered over the concrete floors as bedding so that cattle
feces and urine could be thoroughly mixed to facilitate scraping. This waste mixture makes an
excellent natural fertilizer for crops and improved pasture.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Traditional cattle husbandry practices still existing in the Philippines contribute to the persistence of a
disease in a particular region. There is a need to establish a preventive health program designed for
specific situations to prevent and control cattle diseases prevalent in an area.
The concept of a preventive veterinary medical care has gained acceptance among livestock owners
in the Philippines. It implies a comprehensive program on the treatment of individual animals
including the care and management of the entire herd in an area. This scheme must consider the
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environmental factors; social and economic conditions of the farming communities; and closer
collaboration with other disciplines such as nutrition, animal breeding, physiology, etc. to maintain
a healthy and profitable cattle population.
The demand for herd health management schemes is increasing in cattle production. To be successful,
the program must be closely coordinated between the veterinarian and the cattle raiser. It must be
applicable within the framework of the current mode of cattle operation in an area.
The herd health management scheme consists of six important aspects of the general disease
prevention procedure, namely : strict quarantine program; process of early diagnosis of disease;
sanitation; good recording system; provision of physical facilities for isolation, examination, and
treatment; and judicious use of drugs and biological.
Strict Quarantine Program-Strict quarantine program includes proper disinfection of vehicles,

individuals, and animals; immediate isolation of sick animal to break the cycle of the disease; proper
disposal of waste, dead animals, and other contaminated materials; and rigid inspection of newly
introduced animals.
Early Diagnosis of a Disease-This is an important principle in any veterinary medical program. Most
often, cattle raiser find it hard to detect the presence of an infection in its early stage. Indigenous
animals also have an inherent degree of resistance to some infections, showing no clinical
manifestations until the advanced stage of the disease. A regular, thorough inspection once a day is a
must, particularly in 100-200 multiple sire-herds.
Provision of Physical Facilities- handling chutes and isolation corrals for cattle are necessary to
facilitate easier work-up with animals. They lessen the stress for follow-up therapies and
implementation of mass-vaccination and deworming programs.
Judicious Use of Drugs and Biologicals – a rule-of-thumb for drug usage is to strictly follow
veterinary prescriptions and dosage rate. In using biological, always consider the recommendation on
the label
Sanitation-Sanitation is considered the core of the health program. No drug can substitute for proper
hygienic measures.
Plant Poisoning-In some parts of the country, there are well-recognizable poisonous plants that
form parts of the herbage accessible to grazing animals. It is difficult, however, to differentiate
certain plant poisoning from cattle diseases through the symptoms (syndrome) the animal exhibits.
Reason for death or syndrome, herd history, feed familiarity, and climate are important in diagnosis.
Effects of poisonous plants on animals vary depending on the toxin content. Some poisonous plants
cause sudden death; others cause prominent gastrointestinal disorder or locomotory syndrome
(abnormal body movements), photosensitization (sensitivity to light), skin lesions or urinary
disorders.
Plant poisoning can be treated only if the toxin is identified. Antidotes should be given as early as
possible if the toxic element is well-established. A cardinal rule to follow is to remove the herd from
the place in which the suspected plants are growing. The movement of the animals should be done
quietly under all circumstances.
A healthy animal is alert and active , has bright eyes, smooth haircoat and moist noozle. Avoid
animals with rough skin and toe which are blind and lame. Make sure that the animals have been
properly vaccinated against common diseases before bringing them to the feedlot.
Some suggested disease preventive measures
1. Start with a healthy stock

2. Work-ups for parasites and disease control such as deforming, deticking and
immunization must be done during the isolation period
3. For the unconfined stock or pastured herds, maintain a similar program with emphasis on the
proper application on a continuing basis
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4. Provide adequate quality ration since well nourished cattle do not perform better but
are resistant to infectious and parasitic agents.
5. Give optimum protection from environmental stress by providing proper housing and
clean water supply
6. When individually confined or herd quartered, practice sanitation in the pens. Promt waste
disposal should be done to rid houses an pens of pests and insects which thrive on manure
and other wastes
7. Graze in pasture relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites particularly
liverfluke. For the latter snail control and pasture management should compliment regular
deworming
8. Deworm regularly for other internal or gatsroenteric parasites. Mature stocks may serve as
carriers of parasites. When parasitism with nematodes is high, deworm 3 to 4 times year
or as recommended.
9. Detick with effective chemicals with due consideration on proper concentration and frequency
as recommended by the manufacturers.
10. Unproductive breeding stocks must be culled out of the herd and replaced with tested
or potentially good breeders.
11. Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic diseases.
12. During disease outbreaks or when the animal is visibly ill, segregate it immediately and seek
immediate veterinary assistance.
13. immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area.
14. segregate cattle from other animals like carabaos, goats and sheep to avoid
intertransmission of the disease among these species.
COMMON DISEASES OF CATTLE
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD)
 Cause- Enterovirus of major strains-A, O and C

 Transmission- direct contact with sick animals excreting the virus; Indirect transmission by
ingestion of contaminated feeds. Contact with infected products and animal excretion by
inhalation
 Symptoms- high fever, depression, appearance of vesicles and blisters with fluid on tongue,
gums, udder and interdigital spaces; flowing saliva; animals refuses to eat, becomes lame and
refuses to stand
 Control- regular FMD vaccination every 6 months in areas where the disease is common.
HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA
 Cause-common bacterial disease characterized by hemorrhage (escape of blood from the

vessels) and septicemia (a condition manifested by the generalized presence of
pathogenic bacteria and the associated poison in the blood). The disease is rapid in onset
and runs a relatively short course.
 Transmission- direct contact with infected animals. Ingestion of contaminated feedstuff
 Symptoms- sudden increase in body temperature (41-42C), profuse salivation, sever
depression, development of hot, painful swelling on the throat, dewlap, difficulty in breathing
and development of signs in pulmonary alimanetary involvement in the later stages.
 Control- isolate and quarantine infected premises. Promptly dispose of carcass of dead
animals by burning or burying in soil. Segregate sick animals and treat them with antibiotics.
Vaccinate apparently healthy and unexposed animals. Sterilized and disinfect used instrument
and equipment.
ANTHRAX
 Description-Bacillus anthracis is a gram-positive , nonmotile , spore-forming bacterium of

relatively large particles. The bacilli grow in chain formation in vitro, but usually occur singly
or in pairs or short chains in vivo. After discharge from an infected animal or when opened
carcass exposes the bacilli to free oxygen , they form spores that are resistant to extremes of
temperature, chemical disinfectants, and desiccation. The spores may persist for long period
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dry products such as feed, animal-by-product, stored contaminated objects , or in soils.

Anthrax is a preacute disease characterized by septicemia and sudden death with exudation of
tarry blood from the natural body openings. It is a disease virtually of all warm-bloodied
animals, including man.
 Transmission- Direct Contact- spread from one animal to another, wherein the bacilli are
excreted in the urine, feces, saliva and from the natural body openings contaminating the
area. Ingestion. Indirect Transmission-through airborne via respiratory tract (inhalation)
or vector borne through stable flies and mosquitos
 Cause- caused by large gram positive, aerobic spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria known as
Bacillus anthracis.
 Symptoms (Preacute form 1-2 hours)- sudden death, unclotted blood comes out from
the natural openings (Acute form 24-48 hours) –depression, fever, difficulty in breathing,
loss of appetite, swelling in hind quarters, hemorrhagic in many parts of the body, death,
diarrhea stained with unclotted blood coming from the natural body openings. (chronic
form- 48 hours or more)- swelling (ventral muscles, thorax and shoulder)edema, difficulty
in breathing, death
 Prevention/ Control- control by immunization, proper disposal of dead animals by
burning or deep burial. Quicklime should be used to cover the body before covering with
soil. The depth should be 2 meters. Decontamination of all contaminated pens, feeding
materials, beddings, etc. avoid contact with infected animals and contaminated animals by
products. Reduced movement of animals, quarantine infected areas, practice
environmental and personal hygiene , control of insect and flies and notify proper authority
in case of outbreaks
IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture Notes in Animal Science 1a. Introduction to
Animal Science. IAS, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna.
IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture Notes in Animal Science 2. Introduction to
Livestock and Poultry Production. IAS, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los
Banos, Laguna.
INTONG, R. 2004. Lecture Notes in Large Ruminant Production and Management for the Review for
Licensure Examination for Agriculturist 2004 at CEC, CMU Musuan, Bukidnon and NIA Conference Hall,
Valencia City
“COMMIT THY WAY UNTO THE LORD; TRUST ALSO IN HIM; AND HE SHALL BRING IT TO
PASS”
PSALM 37:5
END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN CATTLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

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POULTRY PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 POULTRY-collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic service to man.
 FOWL- term applied to all poultry species specifically, applied to designated mature
domestic cocks and hens. Poultry can refer also to the dressed carcass of fowls.
 BEAK- the projecting mouthparts of the chickens and turkey, consisting of upper and lower
mandible ; organs of prehension
 BILL- the projecting mouthparts of waterfowl, consisting of upper and lower mandibles
 BREED- a race of domestic fowls which maintains distinctive characteristics shape,
growth, temperament, and shell color of egg produced.
 BROILER- meat type chicken commonly grown up to 35-42 days and weighting 1.5-2.0
kgs liveweight.
 BROODER-a place where young chicks / ducklings are cared for after hatching until they
have grown to a point where they no longer need additional heat.
 CAPON- caponized cockerels; usually grown up to 4 months and weights up to 3 kgs with
more improved quality of meat.
 CHICK- young domestic chicken while at the downy stage
 CLUTCHES- groups of eggs layed for successive days
 COCK/ ROOSTER- a male fowl one year old or over
 COCKEREL- a male fowl less than one year old
 COMB- made of vascularized tissue growing on tops of fowls head. This serves as an
ornamental function signs of status and conditions of the male and for heat dissipation. The
standard varieties are single, rose, pea, V-shaped, strawberry, cushion and the buttercup.
 CROP- the receptacle in which s fowls food is accumulated before it passes to the gizzard.
 CULLS- old hens that had passed their usefulness for commercial egg production
 DOWN- the first covering of a chick whose major function is for insulation
 DRAKE- the male of the duck family
 DUBBING-cutting of the comb, wattles, or earlobes, so as to leave the head smooth
 DUCKLING- the young of the duck family in the downy stage of plumage
 FEED CONVERSION RATIO-volume of feed necessary to produce a kilogram gain in weight
 HARVEST RECOVERY- the number or volume of chicken sold marketed based on the number
of days old chick raised
 INCUBATION- period (in days) where embryonic development takes place outside the body
of the hen.
 LAYER- egg type or dual type 6 months old female that lay eggs.
 OVIPOSITION- act of laying eggs
 PLUMAGE- the feather of the fowl
 POULT-the young of a domestic turkey; the term is properly applied until sex can be
distinguished, when they are called cockerels and pullets
 PULLET- female fowl 5-6 months of age intended for egg production
 PRIMARIES- the longest feathers of wing, growing between the pinions and secondaries,
hidden when wings is folded, otherwise known as flight feathers
 QUILL-the hollow horny , basal part of the stem of a feather
 SECONDARIES- long, large quill feathers that grow between the first and second joints of the
wing, nearest to the body, that are visible when the wing is folded.
 SHANK- the portion of the fowls legs below the hock, exclusive of the foot and toes
 STRAIN- family of any variety of poultry that possesses and reproduces with mark regularity,
common individual characters which distinguish it from other families of the same variety
 VARIETY- a subdivision of a breed, term to use to distinguish fowls having the standard
shape and other characteristics of the breed to which they belong, but differing in colors
of plumage, shape of combs, etc. from the other groups of the same breed.
ECONOMIC POULTRY SPECIES
a) Chicken- Gallus gallus, Gallus domesticus

b) Ducks- Mallard ( Anas platyrynchos), Muscovy (Cairina muscata), Pekin and other varieties

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c) Turkey- Meleagris galapavo

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d) Geese- Anser waser

e) Pigeon- Columbia livia
f) Guinia Fowl- Numida mileagris
g) Pea fowl- Pavo cristatus
h) Pheasants- Phasianus colchicus
i) Swan- Cygnus oler
j) Ostrich- Strauthus camilos
k) Quails- Coturnix coturnix or C. japonica
TRENDS IN POULTRY PRODUCTION
SPECIALIZATION
1) BREEDER FARM-a poultry breeding farm in the real essence of the field is a system of
researching or discovering the best combination of genes of parents stocks that will be
the source of commercial chicks for the poultry producers.
2) EGG FARM-egg farming can readily split into two phases of operations. The first phase can
be strictly for raising pullets. The second phase is the keeping of the layers per se when they
are in the stage of production. In the present set-up being practiced by egg producers, they
do both the raising of pullets and the production of eggs.
3) BROILER- this is the growing of meat-type chicken essentially for meat production. Stocks
are used for this purpose are so-called broiler type chickens which are known for their fast
growth, meaty conformation, and good feed conversion. Broiler chicks are grown for a period
of only about 6 to 7 weeks. At this stage they are marketed and slaughtered for feed.
Other specialized areas that contribute to the success of the three major areas.
1) FEED MILLING INDUSTRY-most poultry raisers are dependent totally or partially for their
feed supply from the feed miller. The set-up has been very successful to the point that the
feed milling industry is halted, the entire poultry industry will also stop. This industry has done
a great job in the development and achievement of the poultry industry as a whole.
2) MEDICATION, FEED SUPPLEMENT AND BIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS- this group inputs
for poultry production is very vital to the poultry industry. Without these segments, poultry
diseases can not be controlled and production can be uneconomical.
3) POULTRY PROCESSING, STORAGE AND STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTS-
this segment of the poultry industry is very important since without the proper processing and
marketing channels of poultry products , the producers may not be able to dispose off all their
products. Proper marketing is the ultimate area in order to faciltitate more production at
profitable levels.
4) FARM EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES- the facilities needed in poultry operation has come
to the point of sophistication that contributes to economic production. Feeders, waterers,
feed mixers, crates, autonomic devices to ease labor have been contributing to better poultry
production at present. The poultry raisers can depend on such facilities.
FARMSITE LOCATION
1) Land availability and costs

2) Topography of the area
3) Neighbors and human populations
4) Acceptability of the poultry business
5) Availability of electricity
6) Water supply
7) Feed supply
8) Market relationship
CLASSIFICATIONS OF BREEDS AND VARIETIES OF CHICKENS
1) BREED-a group of chickens (fowls) possessing certain conformation or shape of body

that distinguishes them from other chickens
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2) VARIETY-a group of chickens within the breed which possesses the same plumage color and
type of comb
3) STRAIN- a group of chickens within a variety of a breed which has been under constant
specific selection for certain traits by a specified breeder for periods of about 5 to 8
years.
4) STRAIN CROSSES
5) LINE CROSSES OR FAMILY LINES
UTILITY CLASSIFICATION
1) EGG CLASS-the breed belonging to this class is characterized by their comparatively small
size. They lay large white-shelled eggs, very active and nervous in temperament. They are
non-sitters. Examples- Leghorns, Anconas, Minorcas, Mikawa
2) MEAT TYPE/ BREED- to this class belong the breeds that are large, slow in movement,
quite, gentle in disposition. They are generally poorer egg layers and generally lay brown-
shelled eggs. Examples- Brahmans, Cochin, Langsans, Comish, Jerseys, White Rocks.
3) DUAL PURPOSE/ GENERAL PURPOSE- breeds of chicken in this class are medium-sized,
good layers and the young are fast growers. They are not nervous as eggs but much more
active than the meat class. Examples- Rhode Island Reds, New Hampshire, Polymouth Rock,
Lancaster, Nagoya, Cantonese.
4) ORNAMENTALS/ FANCY- the breeds under this class may be characterized as possessing
desired beauty of plumage or form having a rare ununsual appearance. Most of them are
raised chiefly as ornamentals or pets by hobbyist, regardless of the value as a source of
food. Examples- Silkies, Frizzles, Chinese Bantams.
5) FIGHTING CLASS- these are groups of this kinds of chicken now developed by national and
international aficionados in this game. Examples- Rubie, Hulsay, Claret and Oasis
STANDARD CLASSIFICATIONS-under this classifications, breeds and varieties are grouped to their
geographical origin
1) AMERICAN CLASS-breeds and varieties that were developed in American continent.

Polymouth Rocks, Jersey, Wyandothes.
2) ASIATIC CLASS- these breeds were developed in Asia. Examples- Cantonese, Mikawas,
Nagoya
3) MEDITERRANEAN CLASS- developed in the Mediterranean regions. It is related to its utility
grouping since most of the Mediterranean origin are of the egg type breeds. Examples-
Leghorn, Anconas, Minorcas
4) ENGLISH BREEDS- developed in England. Examples- Cornish, Australorps,
Orpington, Dorkings
5) Other classes by origin of development are Polish, Hamburg, French and Oriental classes.
CHICKEN BREEDS/ STOCKS TO RAISE
1) Stocks should only be purchased from a reliable hatchery or franchised dealer where the
parent stock are well-housed and well-managed
2) The kind of stock to buy depends upon the purpose for which it is going to be raised
3) Chicks should be free from diseases and deformities.
4) Chicks should have uniform size and color and in the case of the broiler chicks should not
be less than 33 grams at day-old
5) For a start, a popular strain is raised in the community can be selected as it is an indication
of the bird good performance under existing farm conditions
6) For broilers, choose those that have high livability and are fast growers
7) For layers, choose those that have good egg size, high egg production and long
productive life.

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Major Traits to Consider
1. Sexual maturity or age, at first egg production. A pullet is said to be sexually matured
when she lay her first egg. Approximate h2 30%. Sexual maturity can be greatly advanced
or delayed by environmental, especially by the lighting program followed during rearing
2. Intensity or rate of egg production- this refers to the number of eggs laid by a hen during
a given period of time. Intensity as an approx h2 of 10%
a. Hen day average/ANOL=
Total number of eggs
no. of hen days
Hen days average egg production is the percent day production from the time birds
reach 50% production to end of a given period of time
b. Hen Housed Egg production =

Total Number of Eggs
No. of hens originally housed
Hen housed egg production is the number of eggs per pullet housed computed from
time of housing to the end of a given period.
3. Egg size- this trait has an approximate h2 of 50%. Size of egg is correlated with a number
of factors , among them : 1) hatching date, 2)body size 3) Age at maturity 4) age of pullets
5) weather 6) second year 7) period of time within the clutch- those last at the beginning of
the clutch are larger than those at the end, 8) total eggs laid
4. Egg Quality – h2 = 20 – 50%
2 groups :
 Exterior quality- shell, color, texture, strength and shape
 Interior quality- freedom from blood spots, height of thick albumen
5. Body weight- h2 of 55%
Large body weight is primary important to broiler and chicken breeders. On the other hand, egg
laying strains of chickens, small or intermediate body size is preferred.
6. Growth rate- about 30% h2
This is important in broiler and turkey production. Rapid growth means a saving in time, labor, feed
consumption and overhead cost in the production of meat
7. Feed conversion
a. FC of egg production is the kg of feeds required per kg of eggs produced
FC of egg production = Total kg of feed

Total kg of eggs
FC of egg is 15% h2
b. Feed conversion of broiler production is the kg of feeds required per kg of broiler

produced.
FC of broiler production =Total kg of feeds

Total kg of broilers
FC of broiler is 50% h2

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8. Viability and disease resistance- viability or livability is influenced greatly by feeding

and management practices
 Growing mortality is the percentage of birds that died on or before they were 150
days old or subsequent age at housing
 Laying mortality-is the percentage of layers that died after they were 150 days old
or subsequent age at housing. Mortality has an approx of 10% h2.
9. Fertility- this is the fraction of eggs set in the incubator which are fertile
% Fertility = total fertile eggs x 100

Total eggs set
10. Hatchability- the fraction of fertile eggs set in the incubator which hatched h2 = 15%
2 METHODS OF SELECTION
1. Individual Selection- a bird may be saved or culled depending on the desirability of its
individual records. The effectiveness of individual selection is determined by the heritability of
the character for which individual selection is practiced. In general individual selection would
be quite effective for traits that are 20% more h2, e.g. body weight, egg weight, shell quality,
rate fo feathering and sexual maturity.
2. Family selection- in poultry breeding “ family” originally refers to a group of full sibs and half
sibs. A group of full sibs means birds from the same sire and dams. While a group of half
sibs means birds from the same sires but different dams.
 Average performance is the average or percent performance of the members of
the family
 Egg production, hatchability, fertility and viability are fairly low heritability and
could be effectively improved by family.
Selection and Culling of Breeding Stocks
Selection of males and hens for the breeding flocks is very important. The first step in poultry
breeding work is the selection of male and females to be used as breeding stocks. The selection is
based on 1) health 2) breed and strain characteristics, 3) production characteristics
Culling standard for Breeding Stocks

CHARACTER BREEDING STOCKS
Health condition Disease birds, too fatty
Head Bad color of combs,
irregularity of the pupil of
the eye, silver or blue color
of eye, deformity of beak
Neck Crooked neck
Body Curved backbone
Vent Vent diphtheria
Legs Weak legs, perosis
Feather Delayed feathering
Growth Poor growth
Egg production Non layer and low producer
Egg size and quality Small and large size poor
quality
Molt Heavy molting

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Separating Layers and Non-layers

CHARACTER LAYER NON-LAYER
Comb Large, smooth bright Dull, dry,
red, and glossy shriveled, scaly
Face Bright red Yellowish tint
Vent Large, smooth, Shrunken,
moist puckered dry
Pubic bones Thin, pliable, spread Blunt, rigid
apart closed together
Abdomen Full, soft, pliable Contracted, hard,
fleshy
Skin Soft, loose Thick, underlaid
with fat
Separating High and Low Producers

CHARACTER HIGH PRODUCER LOW PRODUCER
(CONTINUOUS (BRIEF LAYING)
LAYING)
Vent Bluish white Yellow or flesh
color
Eye ring White Yellow
Ear lobe White Yellow
Beak White Yellow
Shanks White, flattened Yellow, round
Plumage Worn, soiled Not much worn
Molting Late, rapid Early, slow
CULLING POOR LAYERS
Consider the following pointers in culling poor layers
CHARACTERISTICS DESCRIPTION
Comb, Wattles and Small, pale, cold,
Earlobes shrunken and dry
Pubic Bones (2 small Close together, only one
bones extending along the finger can be placed
sides of the vent) between them, thick and
hard
Vent Small, dry puckered and
round
Abdomens Hard with thick skin,
contracted
Span(distance between About 1-3 fingers in width
end of breast bones and
ends of pubic bones)
Pigmentations Remains yellow even after
months in laying pen
Methods of Mating
1. Pen Mating- in single mating pen, a pen of 8-12 hens in one male. The birds are trap-nested
and the hen’s wing ban number is recorded on the egg. This system makes it possible to know
the parent stock of every chick hatched from pen mating
2. Artificial insemination- this system of breeding works, hens are kept in cages

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3. Flock mating- means that a number of males are allowed to run with the entire flock pof hens.
It is to use one male for 10-15 hens. Young males are more active than older males.
EGGS FOR HATCHING
If hatchability percentage of above 65% of all eggs set are to be obtained and this is generally
considered to be satisfactory percentage, then care must be given in the selection of suitable fertile
eggs, in their handling before and during incubation
Fertility depends very largely on the number and viability of the sperm produced by cock, and on the
time relationship between mating and ovulation. Fertile eggs can be laid within 30 hours of mating.
Sperm may retain their viability in the female tract for as long as 32 days but the usual range is 11
to 14 days. Newly laid eggs should remain fir for hatching for up to 7 days provided that they are
kept at a temperature of 12.8C (55F) and at a RH of 60-70%. If eggs are not to be incubated
immediately then some provision must be made for their storage at lower the normal ambient
temperatures and preferably within the range of 10 to 21C (50-75F)
Care must be exercised in the selection of eggs for incubation. Too small (<50 g) or too large (> 71
g) eggs should not be used, neither should poor-shelled, dirty or cracked eggs
INCUBATION
Eggs may be naturally or artificially incubated. The incubation period for fowls is 21 days
1. Natural Incubation- the principal requirements for a setting hen are a plentiful supply of clean
drinking water, subsistent feed supply, protection against pest diseases. Nest should be
placed in some quite, cool corner at ground level and should be enclosed, so that hen can
leave it only when permitted. Hens should be fed with grains and provided with fresh
drinking water and a sand bath in which to dust herself
2. Artificial incubation- large scale commercial hatcheries equipped with various types of
automatic or semi-automatic artificial incubators
During incubation the essential air conditions are that there should be sufficient oxygen in circulation
to supply the needs of the growing embryo, carbon dioxide resulting from embryonic metabolism
should not be accumulated, relative humidity should be such as to allow not more than 10% of the
water content of the egg to be lost, and that temperature should be such that life within the eggs is
maintained at an optimum level.
th
Incubating eggs should be preferably be turned at least six times daily up to 18 day. During the
th
fourth and seventh day and 14 day of incubation it is customary to check and remove all infertile
eggs and those with dead embryos. This is done by candling which is accomplished by passing a
beam of light through the egg. Infertile eggs show up as “clear”, dead embryos are seen as a dark
spot of varying size and degree of density, live embryos casts a cobweb like structure from which
radiates blood vessels.
BROODING
During the last stages of incubation the chicks absorbed sufficient nutrients to last it for at least 48
hours of life (yolk materials) that’s why day old chicks can be transported in boxes for long distances.
The basic requirement for brooding is 1) sufficient heat to keep the chicks warm without crowding
themselves together 2) brooder should be well lighted and ventilated 3) sufficient floor space should
be available to allow for uniform growth of chickens.
The initial temperature below the hover should be 35C (95F) and should be reduced by 2.8C 95F) per
week till it equals the mean daily ambient temperature. Good light is desirable as it encourages the
chick to start feeding. Good ventilation is also desirable for the exchange of gases.

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Litter- this should be placed in the house of litter brooder is used. the entire floor should be covered
by at least 2 inches of litter which are perfectly dry. The purpose of the litters is to absorb moisture,
damp litters should be replaced or adding some litters as the birds grow.
Floor space- the amount of space required varies with the type and age of birds
st
1 6 weeks old .5 sq ft/ bird Egg type
6-10 weeks old 1 sq ft/ bird Egg type
Meat Type / Broiler

st
1 8 weeks old - .75 to 1 sq ft
8 weeks onward – 1 to 1.5 sq ft
Feeder space
1 to 3 weeks old one linear inch / bird

3-6 weeks 2 inches/ bird
6 weeks onward 3 inches/ bird
Rule of thumb- at least 80% of the bird utilizes the feeder space at feeding time
Watering requirement – two (2) one galloon size water fonts are adequate for 100 birds and
increases after one week old. For automatic waterers is used provide at least 1 inch/ bird for water
space
Lighting Requirement – amount of light provided for birds during brooding varies with the type of
chicks raised
Broilers- 24 hours lighting

Egg type- 12-14 hours is sufficient
SPACE REQUIREMENT
LAYERS
Day old chicks to four 15 sq. in / chick
weeks
Four to Eight Weeks 30 sq. in / chick
Nine weeks to laying age 50-60 sq. cm/ bird
BROILERS
Day old to three weeks 0.3 sq. ft/ chick
3 weeks to 4 weeks 0.5 sq. ft/ chick
5 weeks to market age 1.0 sq. ft/ bird
Recommended minimum feeding space requirement

Day old to 4 weeks 2.5 to 5 cm / bird
4 weeks to 8 weeks 5 to 6.5 cm / bird
9 weeks to near laying 7.5 to 9 cm. / bird
age
Layers 10 cm / bird
Recommended minimum watering space requirement

Day old to 4 weeks 0.5 cm/ bird or two 1 gal.drinking fountains /

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100 birds
4 weeks to 8 weeks 0.6 to 1 cm. /bird or two
2 –gal drinking fountain/
100 birds
9 weeks to near laying 1 to 2 cm/ bird or four 2-
stage gal drinking fountain/ 100
birds
Layers 2 to 2.5 cm/bird or six 2
gals drinking fountains/
100 birds
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS-Birds must be protected from poor ventilation and extremes in

temperature. When the land dimension allows it, the poultry houses should be constructed with their
length parallel to the wind direction. This set-up will expose to the wind only in southern or the
northernmost portion of the houses. If it were the other way around, that is, the length of the house
facing south, all the pens with the birds therein would be exposed to draft and heavy rain during
typhoons and bad weathers
Discarded feed sacks when available, can be utilized as wind and sun breakers. Planting trees will also
serve as windbreaks
SANITARY PROVISIONS IN THE POULTRY HOUSE-In planning the construction, due

consideration should be given to facilities cleaning of the poultry house. Thus, in the case of brooders,
the floor sides and partitions should be detachables. This will permit their removal for thorough
cleaning and disinfection after every batch. There should have good water drainage from the house
site.
Due consideration should be given to the aspect of poultry diseases prevention and control. When
there is ample land area, the breeding, growing and laying house should be reasonably spaced from
one another as a health safety measure.
PROVISION OF EASY EXPANSION-Consider future expansion plans. The buildings that are to be
constructed should consider the setting up of additional new houses that may be needed later.
HOUSING EQUIPMENT
1) FEEDING TROUGHS OR FEEDERS- can be placed inside or along the front of the cages.
When making feeders, considers the ease in cleaning and avoided by placing metal or wooden
strip along the inner mouth of the feeding trough
2) WATERS- to facilitate cleaning, the shape and size of the waterer should be semi-circular.
Fairly wide and supported by an adjustable bracket to permit easier adjustment. It may have
a removal stopper at the drainage end to allow for easier cleaning. For chicks the waterer are
usually one-gallon plastic jars. The most common water are the plastic waterer because they
do not rust therefore they will last longer. Backyard poultry raisers usually use bamboo
waterer. They are cheap but there is a great tendency for slime to develop and oftentimes
they do not last long. They need constant changing.
3) PORTABLE CATCHING PANELS-THIS is usually made of either bamboo, wood or wire
frames. This device comes in handy during vaccination.
4) FEED CARTS- in a well-planned poultry house with cemented service alleys, the feed cart is a
handy equipment which can reduce the number of hours spent in feeding the chickens. It
makes the feeding less tiresome and laborious. In the absence of a feed cart a wheel barrow
will do.

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POULTRY MANAGEMENT
REARING OF OLD DAY CHICKS-Brooding is essential for the chicks. Brooding is the process of
supplying artificial heat to the chicks from the time they are taken out from the incubators up to the
time their bodies can control their heat requirements and they are covered with feathers. The
following are the basic requirements for brooding day-old chicks
 Sufficient Heat- provide artificial heat to keep chicks comfortably warm during day or night.
Avoid abrupt changes in brooder temperature during the first two weeks of life. The following
set of temperature have been found to be ideal for brooding under Philippine conditions
AGE OF CHICKS BROODING

(WEEKS) TEMPERATURE (C)
0-1 32.2-35.0 (90-95F)

1-2 29.4-32.2 (85-90F)
2-4 26.7-29.4 (85-90F)
Above four weeks Remove the heat supply
The behavior of the day-old chicks in the brooder can be used as guidelines for the correct brooding
temperature. When the temperature is hot, the chicks will pant, spread out their wings, eat less and
remain inactive, move away from the source of heat and stay close to the edges of tile brooder. When
the temperature is low, the chicks will crowd under the heater, pile up and make known their comfort
loud chirping.
 Adequate Light and Ventilation- a well lighted brooder attracts and encourage the
chicks to start feeding.
LIGHT REQUIREMENT -Light requirement is very important in the development of new layers. The
correct light to dark ratio in the rearing house will influence the production of larger eggs.
During the first few days of brooding, lighting the chicks throughout the night (24 hours) is
favorable to growth because there is more eating time if feed is available. The light in the brooder
will encourage the birds to keep close to the source of heat, feed and water.
One cardinal rule to follow in the light management of poultry intended for egg production is NEVER
INCREASE LIGHT DURING GROWING PERIOD and NEVER DECRESE LIGHT DURING THE
LAYING PERIOD. Increase day length (light) during the growing period of birds will hasten their
sexual maturity, which will result to production of more pullet eggs (small eggs), layers are prone to
prolapse and shorter egg production cycle.
Under local conditions where there are only slight variations in day length, it is recommended that the
day must not exceed 11-12 hours during the growing stage (4-18 weeks) of the developing pullets.
Sources of Heat for Brooders

 Electricity
 LPG (Liquefied petroleum Gas)
 Infra-Red Lamp
 Kerosene Lamp
 Charcoal
Provide sufficient ventilation to supply plenty of oxygen and facilitate the removal of carbon dioxide
and excess ventilation, the chicks will not only be weak and in poor conditions but will also be more
predisposed to respiratory diseases.

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 AMPLE SPACE TO AVOID OVERCROWDING- provide brooder with enough space to avoid
overcrowding which leads to poorly developed chicks, high mortality as well as harmful
vices like toe picking, feather picking or cannibalism
At the beginning of the brooding period, the chicks need very little space but as the chicks grow older
they must be provided much wider area.
Egg Type Chicken

1 day to 3 weeks 0.3 sq.ft / bird
3 to 8 weeks 0.5 sq. ft/ bird
8-12 weeks 1.0 sq.ft/ bird
Meat Type/ Broiler

1 day to two weeks 0.3 sq.ft / bird
Two weeks to marketing 1.0 sq.ft/ bird
age
After 12 weeks, the floor space requirements of growing pullets varies according to the system
housing used.
Litter floor 2.0-2.5 sq.ft/bird

Slat floor 1.5-2.0 sq.ft/bird
Cages 0.75-1.0 sq.ft/bird
 HEALTHY STOCKS- select only healthy chicks which can easily recognize by their fluffy
feathers, bright eyes and alert, active appearance. Avoid chicks with wet vent and dull eyes.
 CORRECT FEEDING
o Provide the chicks with good quality feeds either home grown or commercially sourced
(chick starter mash)
o Feeds must be provided after about 2-3 hours when the chicks have learn to drink
st
o The addition of 5-10% sugar in the drinking water can be done for the 1 6-8
hours during the arrival of DOC. Supplementation of the water soluble vitamin-
mineral antibiotic preparation can give the chicks a good start.
o Feed the chicks intermittently rather than continuously. Research studies have shown
that when using intermittent feeding chicks utilize nutrient better.
o Do not allow troughs to go empty longer than 1 to 2 hours
 Proper Sanitation- cleanliness and dryness of the brooding quarters will prevent
contamination of the chicks from parasites and diseases which may be carried by previous
brooded chicks
 Regularity of Care and Management
o Environment should be kept as uniform as possible. Sudden changes in surroundings
cause a certain degree of stress or insecurity. Such examples are removal of brooder
canopy and slamming doors of brooder houses or the presence of drafts.
o It is advisable that a regular caretaker feed the chicken following a definite schedule
during the first 3 weeks of the chicks life.
 Environmental Control- optimum houses temperature for laying birds is between 18-29C.
Within this range, maintain a uniform house temperature when possible. Flock health and
performance are tightly dependent on temperature control and good ventilation. Fans may aid
in keeping the birds more comfortable during hot summer months. In environmentally
controlled houses be sure to provide for adequate air movement especially during hot
weather. Evaporating cooling may be used to lower the house temperature. Make sure that
feeds are fresh and fresh water is always available. Vitamins, minerals and antibiotic
supplements may be added to the drinking water during the first few days. Always check the
chicks at night.
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o After 7 to 10 days the brooder floor mats can be removed

o More feeders and waterers should be made available as the chick grows.
The following allowances are considered minimum per bird
Feeder (Linear)
Day old to 2 weeks 2.5 cm
2-6 weeks 4.5 cm
6-10 weeks 7.5 cm
Waterer
Day old to 2 weeks 0.5 cm(1 gal/100 chicks)
2-6 weeks 1.0 cm
6-10 weeks 2.0 cm
o Vaccination against avian pests is a good measure to prevent the outbreak of
the disease
o All weak, deformed and sickly chicks should be culled right away and
properly disposed
o The immediate burning or burying of dead birds is an important part of good
sanitation program. Use an incubator if dealing with large numbers or bury
them in the ground right away. Do not expose to flies and rats
CANNIBALISMS AMONG GROWING CHICKS
One of the common problems encountered in raising pullets is feather picking which almost results to
more serious problems- cannibalism. Cannibalism is a bad habit developed by some growing birds. It
usually starts from feathers or to picking which may result to serious wounding and death of birds.
The possible cause of cannibalism are:
a) Imbalance ration- a high energy diet with low protein leads to this problem
b) Overcrowding and insufficiency of feeding and drinking space
c) Extended period without feed and water
d) Poor ventilation
e) Excessive heat and too much light
f) It may also be a strain characteristics
To remedy this, provide feed and housing conditions , or beak trimming as preventive measures
Requirements for successful brooding

a) Good quality chicks
b) Proper temperature
c) Good ventilation
d) Adequate floor space, feeding and drinking
e) Dryness and cleanliness
f) Protection from predators
g) Proper feeds and feeding system
Factors affecting the length of brooding period
 Weather/ climatic conditions- longer during colds and rainy months; shorter during
dry and warm months
 Rate of feathering- shorter for fast feathering breeds/varieties/strains longer for
slow feathering; can be due to genetic make-up or nutrition of the birds.
REARING OF THE GROWING STOCKS
1) Broilers are marketed when they reach 45-60 days of age depending on strain.

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2) For the egg type, chicks are transferred to the growing houses or pens at 6-8 weeks old. They
are kept in these quarters until they are 16-18 weeks old at which time then they are
transferred to the laying house
3) Birds are given anti-stress drugs, either in the feed or in the drinking water 2-5 days
before and after they are transferred to the growing houses.
4) Thoroughly clean and disinfect the growing house to the transfer of the growing stocks.
Transfer birds only during good weather.
5) During hot summer days, the appetite of the birds diminish but this may be sufficiently
restored by wet mash feeding or by taking appropriate measures to lower house temperature
like spraying , misting or sprinkling the roofing with water.
6) Provide clean fresh drinking water at all times.
MANAGEMENT OF LAYER FLOCKS
1) Pullets are transferred to the laying house at the age of 16-18 weeks or at least 3 weeks
before the onset of egg production
2) A few days before and after the transfer, the birds ration should be fortified with antibiotics
and vitamins to minimize or counteract the effects
3) Cull those birds that slow or no response of becoming potential layers
4) Birds will start laying when they are 20-22 weeks old. Generally, pullets reach maximum egg
production when they are between 30-60 weeks old, after which the egg production tends to
decline anf then levels off
5) After the first year of laying, the layers undergo a physiological process called molting. Early
molters are poor layers while late molters are good ones.
6) During the second year of production, the layers usually average about 10-20% fewer eggs as
compared to the first year but the eggs are bigger
7) Provide layers with calcium supplements like limestone and ground oysters shell and insoluble
grit.
SYSTEM OF REARING-After the brooding stage, the chicks are transferred to the grower house or
provided with a much wider floor space. Grower houses are no longer provided with heaters.
Generally, the chicks are reared on wider floor space of any kind of the following house constructions.
1) Range system- this is a good system but because of more land area is required, this system
is commonly practiced by native chicken growers and duck raisers
2) Semi-confinement- this is a system of raising where the birds are provided with shed or
housing and an area to graze or pasture.
3) Complete confinement- the modern trend in raising strains of chickens.
a. Litter floor
b. Slat floor
c. Combinations
d. Cages
REARING OF PULLETS
FEEDING REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING PULLETS
6-14 weeks Grower ration 16% protein

14-20 weeks Pullet developer 14 % protein
ration
The correct level of good quality protein and other essential elements must be present in the growing
ration. Birds tend to lay eggs early when fed with feeds of high protein content. This is not desirable
since early sexual maturity results in smaller pullets and consequently production of smaller eggs.
Furthermore, small pullets can not carry on a long egg production period. If pullets tend to mature
quickly pullet developed ration can be given to the birds up to 22 weeks old. Although pullets fed with
low level of protein start laying eggs at a later period, they will produce many more standard size
eggs and consequently, bring bigger income.
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A grower ration may be given in mash, crumbles, or pelleted form, pellets /crumbles however are
more expensive
It is recommended that pullets should be allowed to clean out the feeds hoppers before the next
feeding. The method would tend to keep the pullets on their feeds better and solve the problem of
musty or stale feeds.
Feed wastage must be reduced to increase profits. Using conventional feeding trough and a mash
ration, it has been found out that when feeders are :
 Completely full- 30% of feed is wasted
 3/2 full- 10% of feed is wasted
 ½ full- 3% of feed is wasted
 1/3 full- 1% of feed is wasted
The feeder should be replenished 3-4 times a day to stimulate feed consumption. The use of tube
feeders save labor.
CULLING AND REVACCINATION-Only healthy pullets should be transferred to the laying houses.
Healthy pullets are :
 Vigorous and active
 Have bright and alert eyes
 Prominent red combs and wattles
 Possess well developed body and exhibit deep yellow pigmented beaks and shanks
These characteristics are related to high production performance. The stunted and poorly developed
pullets must be culled. The pullet must also be revaccinated specially against New Castle Disease or
Avian Pest before transferred to the layer house.
SIGNS OF SEXUAL MATURITY-After 16 weeks of age, the reproductive organs of pullets will start
to develop in preparation for egg production. This is manifested by change in appearance of the
secondary sexual characters
 The combs and wattles begin to increase in size and the color becomes red
 The pullets become friendly and cackle
 She instinctively looks for a nests
 Pullets become docile(easily manage) and gregarious (sociable)
 The vent and abdomen become large
The surest sign of sexual maturity is the laying of the first egg
The age at which the first egg is laid depends on the bred or strain and the kind of management
given. In general, however, egg type breeds should come into production when they are about 22
weeks (5 ½ months)
Although the most awaited time in raising pullets is when they begin producing eggs, it is not
desirable to hurry them up to production early. Too early will lead to:
 Production of too many small eggs
 Tendency to obtain lower egg production rate during the whole production period
 High mortality
 Higher incidence of prolapsed
If too early maturity is being shown by the pullets, some delaying measures may be worthwhile. The
following are some suggestions to delay sexual maturity
1) Actual amount of feed can be reduced. The amount of reduction will depend on the extent of
delaying required and the composition of diet. Some poultry raisers have practiced as much
as 20% reduction based on full feed capacity.
2) The feeds can be diluted by incorporating a high fiber material(like rice hull). The pellets
should not be full fed.
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3) A low protein, specially low lysine diet, will delay sexual maturity.
4) Skip feeding
5) Together with any method of feed restriction, light must be reduced.
LAYER FLOCK MANAGEMENT
HOUSING-The design and construction of houses for layers should be such as to provide for :
 Top performance of the layer
 Optimum environment control
 Maximum labor efficiency
 Satisfactory waste disposal
 Minimum housing and care cost per dozen eggs produced
 Like the grower house, layer houses can be either be
o Litter floor pens
o Slat floor pens
o Combination of litter and slated floor (used only for breeder stocks)
TRANSFERRING THE PULLETS TO THE LAYER HOUSE-Before the pullets actually start laying eggs
they must be transferred to the laying house. They should not be allowed to lay eggs on the rearing
floor to avoid the development of egg eating habits. Also if they have started laying, transferring birds
from the raring pen to laying house may affect the laying performance.
If everything is so programmed so that layer houses are prepared at the proper time, whether it is a
first batch of pullets or replacement stocks, pullets are best transferred before they commence laying.
This should be done at approximately 16-18 weeks or a month before laying.
DAILY ROUTINE WORK IN THE LAYER HOUSE
 FEEDING-layers must be fed a dietary composition refereed to as layer ration or breeder

ration. Commercial feed millers may have some variation of each of these kinds for their
purpose of selling. Layer ration will generally contain protein level ranging from 15% to as
high as 18%.
The amount of feed consumed by layers is influenced by a variety of factors:

o Age, size and egg production rate of the particular layer
o Energy content of the diet
o Climatic conditions
o Health status of the hens
Generally, mature laying hens will consume about as low as 90 grams to a high as 140 grams per
day. One year consumption varies from 40 to 42 kilos per year.
 WATERING- drinking water must be available to the layer at all times. The egg is about 65
to 70 % water. 100 layers can consume about 7 gallons of water during a normal day and will
drink much more when the temperature of the environment becomes higher. Layer can take
certain short period of starvation (w/o) feeds when water is available and keep a normal egg
production rate. When they are deprived of drinking water for a couple of hours, even when
there is feed all the time, this will certainly be reflected in a declined egg production.
 EGG COLLECTION-laying hens are expected to produce one egg per day. They are capable
of doing it but it is next to impossible to realized the one-egg-one-day for long period of time.
They are therefore expected to skip some days om egg production.
Oviposition (the act of egg laying) takes place normally as early as 7:00 AM to as late as 4:00 PM.
Majority of hens lay their eggs between 10:00 AM to 2:00 PM. The concentration of egg laying
takes place before noon as a common observation.
Collecting eggs more often than once has the following advantages
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 The eggs can be kept in the egg storage room where favorable environmental conditions can
be provided.
 Eggs kept long in the nest or pens or cages are liable to be exposed to high temperature,
more dust and dirt, birds dung, trampled by hen, intentionally picked, or broken by some
layer and other possible agencies that can injure them.
Eggs must be collected in wire basket to provide good air circulation.
 CULLING- As a general practice, culling can be executed at any time if it is necessary that
some of the birds must be removed due to whatever characteristics conditions existing at a
particular time.
 FLOCK MANAGEMENT PROGRAM- in a set up of one year laying program and a total
replacement of all old hens, the number of chicks to be raised can be determined. The
raising of replacement pullets must be started so as to coordinate or synchronize the time of
maturity together with time of disposal of the old birds to be replaced.
LAYER MANAGEMENT ON HOT CLIMATE
VENTILATION-Air movement around the birds at floor level has a beneficial cooling effects. In shade
houses, take full advantage of natural breezes using paddles or circulating fans in periods of still
weather and particularly during the heat of the day. In controlled environment houses, use inlets with
movable louvers that can direct moving air directly on to the birds at floor levels.
In controlled environment houses, over ventilate during the cool part of the day in order to cool down
the whole house. Birds experiencing a cool period each day are better able to withstand hotter period
with no adverse effects on performance
FLOOR SPACE-Provide birds with up to 100 %( depending on the severity of conditions) more
floor space than is recommended for temperate climates. Three birds per square meter is an
absolute maximum. In controlled environment houses, rearing males with females makes the most
economic use of expensive floor space
LITTER MANAGEMENT-Maintain only a very shallow layer of litter on concrete floors. This will
maximize any cooling effect that the concrete floor may have on the birds through absorption of body
heat. Fry, dusty litters can cause severe irritation and damage to the eyes of chickens. Avoid
dustiness by sprinkling water generously on litter at regular intervals. This spraying can, during
extremely hot dry spells, be advantageously extended to the birds themselves and the feed.
WATER SUPPLIES
1) Whenever possible, use water supply such as well which provides cool water. Water
consumption can double in very hot weather
2) Bury or insulate pipes to maintain the original coolness
3) Supply troughs in which breeders may sip their combs and wattles so that evaporation
of water cool the blood supply in the combs and wattles
4) In extremely hot weather, when water consumption may be doubled to prevent heat
prostration, do not place drugs or other substances in the water that might decrease its
palatability and, therefore its uptake. The distribution of waterers should be such as to
minimize the distance any birds has to move in order to drink; ideally both feed and
water should be distributed so that no birds has to move more than 1 ½ meters to get its
requirement.
LIGHTING-In shade houses, natural daylight must be supplemented with artificial lighting in order
to obtain desirable lighting patterns that are necessary to adequately control sexual maturity. A
constant or decreasing lighting pattern during rearing is essential to prevent too early sexual
maturity. An increasing or constant light pattern is necessary after 22-24 weeks of age.
EGG HANDLING

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1) Supply at least one nest per four females. Ensure free circulation of air round the nest areas
to discharge broodiness.
2) Collect eggs more regularly than in temperate areas and transfer immediately to the egg
cooling room which should be located on the farm site. Transport eggs to the hatchery in an
insulated van.
3) Practice daily fumigation of eggs
NUTRITION
1) In hot climates, poor production , small egg size, and thin shells are generally the result of
an inadequate daily intake of the required nutrient.
2) Where feed consumption is lowered merely by depression of the appetite and because of high
temperature during the period of bird activity, there will be an adequate intake of ALL
nutrients. This can be corrected by allowing the feeding activity to occur during the cool part
of the day, when appetite is stimulated. Additionally, if facilities allow, advantage can be
gained by feeding damped or wet mash, as can the substitution of mash by crumbs or pellets.
3) Generally in hot climates, the energy requirement of the hen are much reduced; because she
eats to meet only her energy requirement, this results in an adequate daily intake of protein,
vitamins and minerals. In this situation, the correct daily intake of nutrients can only be
achieved by correct feed formulation based upon a denser ration in which particular attention
should be given to increasing vitamin levels as well as above temperature climate levels.
4) The correct formulation of feed depends upon local conditions. It requires knowledge of the
relationship between energy content of the feed and the amount of feed consumed daily. With
correct formulation the latter will contain the correct daily allowance of proteins, vitamins and
minerals. Some vitamin supplementation can be done via the water and a continuous level of
vitamin supplementation is virtually essential during all periods of heat stress.
5) Feed intake is the main method of controlling sexual maturity in open houses and very careful
attention must be given to controlling quantities very often to levels much below those used in
temperate areas.
6) Where intake levels are severely controlled, check weighting of the birds is absolutely vital. It
is also essential to ensure proper ration formulation particularly in respect of any drug
inclusions such as antibiotics.
FEEDING MANAGEMENT
BROILER / MEAT TYPE
1) Broiler commercial ration are fed to the birds during the first 5 weeks and from then on
are replaced by the broiler-finisher ration
2) All purpose of straight broiler ration is fed from the start to the marketing age of eight weeks
3) Commercial broilers feeds contains additives considered to be growth promoting substances.
Feed additives make the production of broiler profitable and help broiler farms control
diseases
LAYER / EGG TYPE
1) Starter mash is given from day old to 8-10 weeks old

2) Growing mash is given to birds aged 8-10 weeks until they are 5 months old or when the egg
production reaches 10 percent. This mash promotes pullet growth at a rate that is just right to
allow the bird to develop its body and internal organs so that it ill start to lay at the right
time.
3) The birds should not be allowed to get fat during the growing period because this causes poor
egg production and high mortality among layers. A good way of preventing fatness among the
pullets is to restrict their feed to 85% of normal consumption when they are 16-19 weeks old
then full feed them at 17-20 weeks of age.
4) Laying mash is given to pullets when they are about to lay(10% or until the layers
are replaced or when they reach 19 weeks of age.
5) Wetting the mash or instituting wet mash feeding at noon during hot days will increase
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appetite of the birds

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POULTRY FEED PREPARATION AND FORMULATION
Basic Knowledge of Nutrition
The Nutrient Composition of Chickens and Eggs

Nutrient Chickenn (%) Eggs (%)
2
Water 55-78 66
3
Protein 21 13
4
Fats 17 10
5
Minerals 3.5 11
2-
depends on age of birds, ; young gave a higher water content
3-
chiefly in egg white
4-
chiefly on the yolk
5-
nearly all in calcium in shell
Water – the importance of water is demonstrated by the fact that at least 55 percent of the
liveweight of the chicken and 65 percent of the egg is water which it contains. A general average is
that the chicken will consume a weight of water equal to two or three times the weight of feed
consumed. During hot weather, chickens will consume about twice as much as water equal to two or
three times the weight of feed consumed. Chickens will consume about twice as much water as
they do under conditions of average temperature
Carbohydrates – they serve as a source of heat and energy in the body. A surplus taken into the
body may be transformed into fat and stored as a reserved supply of heat and energy
Fats – the function of fat is to serve as a source of energy for the body.The chicken may obtain its
fats from three sources: the fat, the protein and the carbohydrates in feed
Proteins- proteins are analyzed amino acids by various digestive enzymes, then various amino
acids are combined in various ways to produce meat, eggs and other proteins. A protein is said to
be of good quality when it contains sufficient available quantities of those amino acids that the
animal cannot make but which it requires for normal growth and reproduction. In general, the
protein in feedstuffs of plant origin are inferior to those in feedstuff of animal origin. Synthetic
amino acids are being used in increasing quantities to supplement natural proteins. Methionine and
lysine can be added to supplement feeds which contains chiefly plant sources protein (soybean
meal)
When formulating chicken rations, they must be designed as to supply all essential amino acids in
ample amount. Additionally, there must be sufficient total nitrogen for the chicken to synthesize the
other amino acids needed.
Minerals – the minerals which have been shown to be essential for chickens are calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, zinc, iron, copper, iodine, sodium, chlorine, potassium, sulfur,
molybdenum, and selenium. Of these, calcium, phosphorus,, manganese, sodium, chlorine, and zinc
are considered to be the most practical importance since outside sources of them must be added to
practical feed formulation for chickens.
Minerals are used for bone and egg formation, digestion, maintenance of body neutrality, respiration,
and elasticity and irritability of muscles and nerves.
Vitamins – vitamins are absolutely essential for the maintenance of health, growth and reproduction.
They must be stored in the egg along with other nutrients for embryo development. Although they are
not constituents of animal tissues, they are component of certain enzyme systems, and thus are
essential for the normal processes of those tissues.
Factors Involved in Formulating Chicken Rations

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1. Nutrient requirements of the particular bird to be feed

2. Availability of nutrient content and the cost of feedstuffs
3. The palatability and physical conditions of feedstuffs
4. The presence of substances harmful to product quality.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT
General Symptoms of Diseases in Poultry
1. Off-feed- commonly the first sign of illness. The birds does not eat all its normal amount of
ration. Some feed remain the feeding troughs.
2. Listlessness- in some infectious diseases, the sick birds losses its alertness and tends to
isolate itself from the flock
3. Sick birds do not respond to calls of caretakers- they will not come even during feeding time
4. Fever- most infectious diseases are accompanied by rise in body temperature
5. Respiratory disorders- when the respiratory system is affected, there is difficulty in breathing.
Sometimes there are discharge from the nostrils
6. Weakness and loss of weight- as the disease progresses the birds become weak and losses
body weight
Ways of Protecting Flock from Diseases
1. Obtain stock only flock known to be free from diseases

2. Raise birds in a clean, dry and well-ventillated house that is free from cold and draft
3. Provide chickens with a balance diet. Make sure they always have fresh and clean drinking
water
4. Undertake vaccination regularly against the common animal diseases
5. Do not mix at once newly acquired stocks with original ones. Isolate the new arrivals for at
least 2 weeks for observation of infection
6. When diseases are prevalent in the neighborhood, avoid visiting premises of neighbors whose
animals are sick.
7. Disease outbreak can be prevented by instituting the following vaccination programs
AGE OF TYPE OF VACCINE ROUTE OF REMARKS

BIRD USED ADMINI-
STRATION
8-10 days New Castle Intranasal Chicks from unvaccinated parents may be
Disease or Avian vaccinated as early as 3 days of age
Pests Vaccines
21-24 Fowl Pox Vaccine Wing Web May not be given in areas where the disease is
days not common
26-28 NCD Intranasal or Check protection to 10-14 days after
days Intramuscular vaccination. Revaccination if protection is low.
Common Diseases of Poultry
AVIAN PEST (NEW CASTLE DISEASE)
Cause: Virus
Transmission
 Direct contact with nasal and a mouth discharges of infected birds
 Airborne transmission
 Through mechanical means such as being carried by sparrows(maya), predators or other birds
 Human being transmit the diseases through infected cloths and shoes
Signs
 In the young birds, gasping, coughing, rattling of the windpipe, hoarse chirping,
paralysis, walking backward and circling
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 In adults, coughing, occasional paralysis, abrupt drop in egg production, soft-shelled

eggs, greenish watery diarrhea
Prevention-vaccination. Consult your veterinarian
Treatment
 There is no treatment for the disease. In case of an outbreak, the following measures could be
adapted to minimize its further spread and effect control of the disease.
o Isolate the birds quickly
o Quarantine area by regulating persons entering the disease-affected premise or from
other farms as well as from one poultry house to another
o Revaccination of the birds if titer(detected by serological tests) is already low
o Thoroughly disinfect the house and premises. Allow to dries up before occupancy
o Burry dead birds
CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASE (CRD)
Cause: Mycoplasma organisms or Pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO)

Transmission
 CRD organisms is egg borne; contracted exposure to infected flock
 Airborne transmission
Signs
 Tracheal rales, sneezing, coughing watery or sticky discharge from the nostrils
 Foamy exudates in the eyes
 Feed consumption is reduced and the birds lose weight
Treatment-Broad spectrum antibiotics, either by injection or mixed with the feeds or drinking water
COCCIDIOSIS
Cause: Microscopic organisms called Coccidia (Eimeria species) usually occurs in flocks below two
months of age.
Transmission
 When birds pick up or swallow the coccidial organisms
 Contaminated feed and water
 Indirect contact thru flies, human beings and other mechanical means
Signs
 Tendency to huddle together in a corner
 Decreased feed and water intake and poor weight gain
Prevention-Icorporation of Coccidialstats in the feeds or drinking water. Use of sulfa drugs. Most feed
companies incorporate this in the feed mixture as indicated in the feed drugs
MEREKS DISEASE
Cause : Virus
Transmission-Exposure to infected birds or to environment with existing virus, poultry nests and
feeders
Signs
 Initial symptoms are legs weakness and paralysis of one or both legs
 Birds tend to rest on their breasts with one leg extended and the other backward
 They could hardly reach the feeders and waterers resulting in dehydration and
emanciation which finally causes death
Prevention-Vaccination with MD vaccine, the most commonly used is the so called Herpes Virus of
Turkey (HVT)
Treatment-There is no known treatment for the disease
AVIAN MALARIA
Cause : Microscopic protozoan parasite

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Transmission-Bites of mosquitoes, mechanically by blood transfer as in mass vaccination,

caponization and injections
Signs
 Severe anemia (paleness), extreme leg weakness, emaciation and nervous signs like twitching
of the head
 The shanks and toes are dry and birds ruffled feathers
 Greenish-yellow diarrhea
Prevention-Control of mosquitoes within the premises and houses with effective insecticide, including
spraying the breeding places of mosquitos. Proper drainage of stagnant water.
Treatment-Antimalarial drops like plasmochin, quinine hydrochloride and pyrimethemine

combinations were found effective. Confer with the veterinarians
FOWL POX
Cause: Virus
Transmission-Spread by mosquitoes that feed on pox-infected birds; direct contact, mechanically
transmitted by visitors, wild birds and predators
Signs: there are two forms:
 Dry Form- characterized by the formation of black wart-like nodules on the skin of the face, in
the region of the comb, wattles and around the eyes, causing the latter to swell and close.
There is usually profuse eye discharge
 Wet form- characterized by the presence of whitish-yellow growth of the pharynx, larynx and
windpipe. Because of the growth, there is difficulty in breathing which will result in death due
to suffocation.
Prevention-Vaccination with fowl pox vaccines. Control the mosquitoes by spraying with insecticides
Treatment-There is no effective treatment against the disease. In wet form, removal of the wart-like
growth in the throat usually leads to recovery. In the dry form, the early applications of Tincture of
Iodine directly on the wart-like growth has been found to give beneficial results
INFECTIOUS CORYZA
Cause: Bacterial organisms

Transmission-Through the air, direct contact or through contamination of the feed, water and
equipment.
Signs
 Swelling of the face and wattles and discharge from the nostrils which at first is watery,
but becomes sticky and with foul odor as the disease progresses
 In laying flock, egg production decreases
Prevention-Strict sanitation of the farm, isolate sick birds immediately
Treatment-Broad spectrum antibiotics applied in the feed and water and sulfa preparations are
recommended.

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QUAIL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
BREEDS OF QUAIL
 Japanese Seattle
 Silver
 Negro
 Japanese Taiwan/ Chinese Quail
 Tuxedo
 Brown Cross nos. 1 and 2
SELECTION OF STOCKS
BODY CONFORMATION
1) The feathers should be tidy and neat
2) Avoid buying those with steak of white or black feathers- these could be signs of inbreeding
CHOOSE BIRDS WITH UNIFORM SIZE-A mature (60 day old ) Japanese quail (C. japonica) have
an average weight of 120 grams. However, a 30-35 day old bird would only average 100 grams. The
American quail (C. cuturnix) however weight heavier at 220 grams for the mature bird and 200
grams for the 30-35 days-old.
RECORDS OF THE PARENT STOCK

1) Size of eggs
2) Laying efficiency- a 65% average laying efficiency within 300 days laying period is desirable
3) Growth rate and body weight
MANAGEMENT
HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT-One of the advantages in quail raising is the relatively small space
that is required. Commensurately, the cost of putting up a cage is less. The materials commonly
used in making quail cages are plywood, ¼ inch mesh wire and 1”x1” lumber to serve as framework.
For every stage in the quails life, space requirement varies. This is true as in the case of other fowls
and even livestock animals. The following are the space requirements for quails
Japanese American
(per bird) (per bird)
Chick stage 2½“X2½“ 2½“X2½

(1-15 day old
Growing stage 3” x 3” 3 ½” x 3 ½”
(16-35 days old)
Laying stage 3 ½” x 3 ½” 4 ½” x 4 ½ “
(36 days old and
Up)
Since quails are not efficient feed converted, they should not be raised for broiler production
Layer cages should not be too high preferably a 5” and 6” height can accommodate the Japanese and
American breed respectively. Providing too much space will encourage too much movement thereby
increasing the risks of injuries
BROODING MANAGEMENT
TEMPERATURE-During the first five days, the temperature requirement of the quail chick is 95 F this
th th
may be reduced to 90 F on the 6 day down to 85 F on the 10 day after which the quail birds will
have developed enough feathers to keep their body warm under ordinary room temperature.

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To ensure better circulation of air in the brooding box, air vents should be provided. Used clean
cloths or sack can be spread over the screen portion of the brooder especially during the first 10
days. This will help conserve the heat in the brooder. Five to six layers of clean and dry newspaper
shall be used to cover the mesh wire flooring during the first 10 days. This practice is necessary
because it will not only help conserve the heat inside the brooder box but more importantly,
cleaning and removal of quail manure is facilitated by just rolling the topmost layer of paper. After
th
the 10 day, all the papers removed and feeding through covered with ¼ mesh wire (to avoid too
much spillage) will be used.
Water in the drinking should be changed daily and care must be exercised to avoid spilling of water
over the paper to prevent unnecessary dumpness.
Gas lamp or electric bulb may be used to control the temperature inside the brooder. The brooder
box must be cat and rat proof. With proper feeds. Enough water and optimum temperature
maintained, the mortality of quails can be kept at 5%-8% during the brooding stage which usually
last up to 15 days.
th
REARING MANAGEMENT-After the 15 day, the birds are transferred to the growing cages. During
the growing stage, it is not advisable to expose the birds to more than 12 hours of light. For smaller
operation, a brooder/ grower box combination can be constructed but the shape requirement of the
birds should be observed.
Only birds which are healthy and with uniform size should be transferred to the growing cages. The
small ones should be disposed. The average mortality from the start of the growing period up to 35
th
days is 1-4%. On the 35 day, the male birds are already discernable by the dark brown color of the
breast feathers. At this stage, the female birds can be segregated and transferred to the laying cages.
Approximately 40% of the total population can be chosen as layers on an assumed 50/50
male/female ratio. The remaining birds can be fattened up to 60 days before these are dressed and
sold as broilers. During the 25 days fattening period, light should be restricted from 6-8 hours a day.
This practice will improve the quality of the meat.
LAYER MANAGEMENT
On the average, quail start laying after 45 days from hatching. The production cycle lasts for 300-320
days and within this period the laying efficiency should be maintained at 65%. Some of the major
consideration when managing layers are
a) Feeding
b) Water- like any other bird, quail needs a lot of fresh and clean water. Whenever possible ,
flowing water should be maintained except when there is supply problem in which case
water should be replaced daily and watering trough must be cleared everyday.
c) Culling- for large scale operation, it is advisable that massive culling be done regularly,
preferably on a quarterly basis or even obce every 4 months. Birds that have physical defects
should be removed including those which grown fat, or are sickly and are not laying eggs. This
latter condition is manifested by the size of the vent and the conformation of the abdominal
parts.
d) Removal of waste- Because of the high protein content of the quail feeds, quail manure has
high ammonia content which will cause discomfort for the birds if not removed daily.
Removal of the manure can be facilitated by placing a manure receptacle or receiver under
the cage.
e) Light- laying quails may be given extra light up to midnight. This will allow the birds to
consume the feed in the trough. Furthermore, the weaker birds in the group will have
enough time to eat after the dominant ones have eaten their share.
f) It is not advisable to mix male birds in the laying cage except when fertile eggs are t be
produced. If there is an intention of producing fertile eggs for future replacement, the male
should be kept in separate cage and should only be mixed with layers at the time fertile eggs
are to be produced at a ratio of 1: 6 to 1:3 for the Japanese and American breed respectively.
g) Quail birds are very sensitive to high salt level in the feeds. The optimum level of this

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mineral should be kept at 7% and in no case be more than 1%.

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FEEDING MANAGEMENT-The protein requirements of chicken and quails are different and as such
the use of chicken feeds in quail raising is not advisable. Below is a comparison of the crude protein
requirement of chicken and quail.
QUAIL CHICKEN
Chick Stage 28% 21%
Grower Stage 24% 16%
Layer Stage 26% 15%
Quail cannot survive on chicken feeds for a long time. If ever they will survive, the mortality rate
will be very high sometimes reaching up to 70% from day old to 45 days. Moreover, the growth of
the birds is very uneven and the survivors will not be efficient layers. The productive laying period
for quails fed with chicken feed do not go beyond six months.
Another disadvantage of feeding chicken mash to quails is the very occurrence of molting which
affects severely the egg production.
The claim that mixing quail feeds with higher protein is expensive and not economical is baseless. The
advantages of giving the right ration far outweight the costs of giving cheicken feeds. This advantages
can be summarized below.
1. Mortality rate can be kept low with good feed

5-8% from 1-15 days
1-4 % from 16-35 days
8-12% from 36- 360 days
2. Production
a) Laying efficiency can be easily maintained within the average range of 63-68% for a period of
300-320 days. It is not rare to get laying efficiency of 80%.
b) Eggs are bigger and more nutritious
c) For breeders- fertility and hatchability are high
These things when quantified and taken together would positively refute the claim that feeding with
higher protein content as recommended here is costly and uneconomical.
The feed consumption of quail at different stages are :
Japanese American
Chick stage (per 7 grams/ day 10 grams / day
bird)
Growing stage 17 grams / day 32 grams/ day
(per bird)
Laying stage 23 grams/ day 45 grams/ day
(per bird)
During the first 15 days, the feed of the birds should be grounded to fineness enough to pass an
ordinary screen wire
Like chickens, quails are affected by abrupt changes in feeding. Hence, it is not advisable to change
feed abruptly.
MAINTAINING HEALTH-There is no known morbid disease of quails. While they suffer from some
respiratory disorders, these do not spread fast and the mortality rate is very low. Hence it is not
difficult to maintain the health of birds. Regular cleaning and disinfection program, however, should
be followed. Cages and broiler boxes including the incubator and hatchery trays can be cleaned with

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strong water dried under the sun. spraying with disinfectant follows. Vitamin premix can also be
added to the feeds or the drinking water to promote growth and improve the laying performance.
MARKETING
EGGS-Eggs are the main product of quails. For small scale/ backyard quail raising, this can be placed
in a bascket and marketed fresh. For bigger operation, it is advisable to pack eggs in carbon boxes
with individual dividers to protect the quality of the eggs. Storing eggs in a cool dry place where air
circulation is good can keep the eggs fresh for a period of seven days.
BROILERS/ STEWERS-The average feed conversion ratio of quail is 3: 1 this poor feed conversion
efficiency makes a broiler uneconomical and therefore any broiler produced should be treated
secondary product in quail raising. The procedure in dressing quail is the same as in chicken. The
birds are bled ans scaled in hot water (about 132-135 F) after the feathers are removed.
Evisceration follows. The dressed birds are then chilled and packed by the dozen or in kilos.

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DUCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
KINDS OF DUCKS
EGG- TYPE DUCKS
NATIVE OR PATEROS DUCKS-The native or Pateros ducks commonly called itik, is the most
popularly raised locally. Although smaller than imported breeds, they are good layers and non-
sitters. Their eggs are large.
Its predominant colors are black and gray. Some are barred (bulek), others are brown or have white
feathers mixed with black/ green. Males have coarser heads and heavier bodies than females. Males
emit shrill high-pitched sounds. They have curly feathers on top of their tails
The females emit low-pitched quacking sounds. Their tail feathers lie flat or close to the bodies.
In all commercial duck hatcheries, determining the sex of duckling is done at the age of 2 to 3 days.
KHAKI CAMPBELL DUCK-Khaki Campbell ducks have characteristics brown color, have extremely
active habits, do well in good range and show little desire for swimming.
These ducks are good layers; they lay as many as 300 or more eggs a year which are failrly large,
thicked-shelled and weigh 70 to 75 grams each.
COMMERCIAL HYBRID DUCK-The world first hybrid egg-type duck was known as CV2000 was
developed at Cherry valley Farms, England. It has white plumage and lays it eggs at about 20 weeks
of age. The body weight at point of lay is about 1.50 kg. On the average this duck could lay 285
eggs up to 72 weeks of age, with a mean egg weight of 75 kg. This duck can be distinguished by
their pure white feathers. Their eggs are either white or greenish.
INDIAN RUNNER-This breed originated from the East Indies, but its egg production capability was
developed in Western Europe.
This duck assumes a very erect normal posture with a re almost straight neck. The back is long,
straight and narrow. An adult weighs about 2.10 kg while an adult duck weighs about 1.80 kg. the
egg production characteristics of this breed resembles that of the Khaki Campbell.
TSAIYA-This breed was developed in Taiwan. The original color ranges from black neck to pure white.
Due to farmers preferences, the brown breed was selected and raised as a major variety while the
white variety was developed for the production of mule ducks (Hybrid of Mallard & Muscovy). Tsaiya
ducks have small body size. An adult female weighsabout 1.30 kg. while the male weighs a bout 1.40
kg. The average age at just egg is 126 days with eggs weighing about 68 9 at 40 weeks of age. They
could lay about 207 days in 360 days.
MEAT TYPE- DUCKS
MUSCOVY DUCK- MEAT TYPE-Muscovy duck (pato) is easily identified by its carunculated face or
red knobby I nodules along the eyes and above the base of the bill.
Muscovy is a heavy breed. It has plump body and yellow skin. It has three varieties : the white, the
colored and the blue.
Unlike other breeds, Muscovy ducks prefer to stay on land. They are good forgers, so they require less
care and can subsists on what they can pick up in the field supplemented only with palay and corn.
Muscovy has low egg production but is more self-sustaining than Pateros duck. It hatches her egg
in 33 days to 35 days.

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The objection to this breed is its tendency to fly far away from home and get lost. It is therefore
necessary to clip their flight feathers regularly. Clip only those of one wings to remove the birds
balance flying
PEKIN DUCK-Pekin duck is a native of China belonging to the meat type of ducks. Sometimes it is
mistaken for a goose because it carries its body rather upright. It is docile and well-adapted to
Philippine climate.
Pekin ducks are good layers, and duckling are ready for market at 2 to 3 months old.
HOUSING
 Build your duck house in a quite, cool place and near as possible to a stream or pond. Local
materials like bamboo, nipa and cogon are cool
 Provide each duck with at least 3 to 4 square feet of floor space. Cover the flavor with rice
hulls, corn cubs, peanut hulls or similar materials to keep it dry and clean and help prevent
spread of pests and diseases. A house of 100 ducks measure 4 x 4 meters and 3 meters high
or high enough to let a man stand indside.
 You may provide a swimming pond 10 feet wide and 20 feet long for 50 birds. However,
the pond is not becessary in duck raising as they lay just as many eggs without it.
 House ducks in groups according to size or age to facilitate management and to avoid quarrels
common among ducks of different ages. Older ducks tend to push out younger ones from
feeding troughs.
 Separate duck houses from one another by bamboo fences low enough to go over them from
one pen to another. Fence should extend down to the shallow edge of the water to prevent
ducks from straying away too far.
SELECTION AND MATING
 Select vigourous breeding stock. Select breeders when birds are about 8 weeks old and again
at 4 to 5 months old before they are placed in breeding pens.
 Eggs from hatching purposes should come from ducks not less than 7 months old to insure
better fertility, hatchability and livability of offspring.
 Drakes (male ducks) should have the same age as ducks or even a month older. They should
be raised separately from ducks. They are put together only when ready for mating.
 One drake may be mated to 6 to 10 ducks. Heavier breedings, however should have a closer
ratio of males to females than light breeds
 Pateros ducks start laying when they are 4 to 6 months old. Muscovy and Pekin ducks
start laying at 6 to 7 months old.
HATCHING
 The period of incubation for duck eggs is 28 days, except Muscovy which is 33 days to
35 days. Breeds of ducks that have high degree of laying are non-sitters and their eggs
are hatched through artificial incubation.
 The muscovy is a natural mother. She hatches and breeds her own duckling with none or little
assistance from man. Native or Pateros duck is a non-sitter, so her eggs are incubated under
the native method of incubation called balutan.
 The balutan or hatchery is a simple one-room house made of bamboo wood or hallow blocks
and roofed with nipa or galvanized iron or some convert the frist floors of their houses into
balutan, commonly called kamalig or barn. It is provided with : 1 withonly one door to avoid
drafts; some have windows that are opened only during hot months. Its floor is of hard earth
or concrete and covered with 3-inches layer of rice hull.
CARE OF DUCKLING
 Duckling need to be brooded or warmed either by natural or artificial method until they are
one month old. Most ducks are non-sitters and are not expected to brood. Hens may be
made to sit on duck eggs and brood ducklings.
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ANATOMY AND

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS USEFUL IN THE STUDY OF ANATOMY

 Cranial- directional term meaning toward the head

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 2

 Homeostasis- is the tendency of living things to attempt to maintain a state of

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 Bone – a highly specialized supportive tissues which is characterized by its

 Mechanical support (body framework)/ Rigidity and form to the body:

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Skull Vertebrae cervical thoracic lumbar sacral caudal

Function: - protection of brain

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- Forms passage for the beginning of digestive and respiratory system

Cow: C7 T13 L6 S5 cd18-20

Pig: 6; Sheep: 6; Cow: 7; Goat: 7; Horse: 8

Table 1. Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Bones. Spurgeon 1992.

Pectoral limb Pelvic limb

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3. Long bones with Pneumatic

4. Lungs and kidneys Attached to dorsal wall

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Functions of the muscular system

Types of muscle tissues

Smooth (involuntary or unstraited muscle)

 Composed of muscle cells that have no striations visible with a microscope.

 Characterized by fibers with visible striations, so it is considered a type of striated

REVIEW FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURIST 8

The general structure of a muscle fiber include myofibrils (chains of repeating

GENERAL MUSCLE TERMINOLOGIES

Arrangement of the muscle fibers:

Biceps = two origins

COMMON MUSCLES FOUND IN LIVESTOCK ANIMALS

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BASIC UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Classification of neurons according to the direction of impulse conduction

a. Afferent (sensory) neurons- transmit nerve impulses from effector organs to

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Major divisions (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Hormone- substance or chemical mediators produced by the endocrine glands

1) Regulate rather initiate reactions

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HYPOPHYSIS OR PITUITARY GLANDS

A. Anterior pituitatry lobe or adenohypophydid

The Adenohypophysis secretes the following hormones

a. Growth Hormone of Somatotropic Hormone (STH)- promotes growth of the

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Acromegaly when this happen after adulthood in human. Dwarfism occurs

The intermediate lobes secretes MSH or melanophore stimulating hormone which is

The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:

1) Oxytocin- stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females

 In the case of hypothyrodism such as simple goiter, there is lack of thyroxine

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THE ADRENAL GLAND

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 Calcitocin or also known as thyrocalcitocin is a hormone that lowers calcium

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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (CVS)

 The heart is located in the middle mediastinal space. It is enclosed with a

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