FOUNDATIONS OF ZOOLOGY – LECTURE

MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

For thousands of years, humankind has sought to answer how
inherited characteristics are determined. The early people
tried to answer this problem through belief and superstitions.
Interest in experimentation soon grew but little progress in
solving the problem of inheritance was made. It was
until Gregor Mendel conducted an experiment on garden peas
wherein the results emerged to be the key to understanding
the inheritance of traits. He developed set of rules that
accurately predicted patterns of heredity. When these rules
become widely known, biologists sought and soon discovered
the physical mechanisms responsible.

As you explore this module, you will discover the relationships

between genes, chromosomes, cell division and
inheritance. The discussion, learning materials and activities
provided will help you connect the concepts learned to
understand the effects of cell division and the components of
genetic materials to interpret individual differences, parental
contributions of genetic information and the expression of traits
in offspring.

INTERPHASE
CELL CYCLE
All cells go through the same basic life cycle, but they vary in
the amount of time they spend in the different stages.
- It is the stage between cell division.
- It occupies about 90% of the total cell cycle.
- It is the period during which the normal activities of
the cell take place.
- The nucleus is clearly visible with one or more distinct
nucleoli.
- The chromosomes appear in the irregular-granular
form.
- Mistakenly considered as the first stage of mitosis but
it is the initial stage in which the chromosomes
replicate
- characterized by the highest degree of metabolic
activity

Cell cycle is a cyclical process of growth and mitosis. It is a

cycle in which cells continue to grow and divide. It is a 4 –
stage process consisting of G1(Gap or growth 1),
S(Synthesis), G2 (Gap or growth 2) and cell division (mitosis
and cytokinesis). The first three phases of the cell cycle, the
G1, S, and G2 occur during the interphase period.

- The cyclical process of growth and mitosis.

- It consists of interphase and mitosis.

Series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division

and DNA replication
IT IS DIVIDED INTO:

1. G1 PERIOD
- Represents the early growth phase of the cell.
- The cell grows in volume as it produces tRNA, mRNA,
ribosomes, enzymes, and other cell components.
2. S PERIOD
- Growth continues, but this phase also involves DNA
replication.
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

3. G2 PERIOD
- Prepares the cell for division.
- It includes replication of the mitochondria and other
organelles.
- Synthesis of microtubules and protein that will make
up the mitotic spindle fibers.
- Chromosome condensation

TYPES OF CELLS

 SOMATIC CELLS
- Makeup all the body tissues and organs
- Diploid Chromosomes
- Undergo Mitosis
 GERMINAL CELLS
- Gametes
- Reproductive cells PROPHASE
- Haploid chromosomes
- Undergo Meiosis - The chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
- Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined
MITOSIS at the centromere.
- The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell.
- Produces two daughter cells with the same quantity
and quality of chromosomes as the parent cell EARLY, MIDDLE, LATE
- Also called duplication division
- Refers to the division of the nucleus (karyokinesis). - The nucleolus and the nuclear envelope
- Quickly followed by the division of the cytoplasm - disappear.
(cytokinesis) - Mitotic apparatus is nearly formed. (Asters and
- In a dividing cell, however, the process is actually spindle fibers in animal cells)
continuous, with each phase smoothly flowing into the - Chromosomes are observed to be long, thin coiled
next. filaments known as the chromatids
- It is a process that produces two daughter cells with - As prophase progresses, the chromosomes are
the same quantity and quality of chromosomes as the observed to have identical strands held together by
parent cell. the centromere
- It involves the division of the nucleus (karyokinesis) - Chromatids become shorter and thicker because of
and quickly followed by the division of the cytoplasm the coiling of the unit fiber that constitutes the basic
(cytokinesis). structure of the chromosomes
- As the chromosomes become very distinct, the
nuclear membrane breaks down and the nucleolus
disappears
- Centrosomes constituting the centrioles split and
migrate towards the opposite poles, at the same time
forming the asters, from which the spindle fiber
originate

CONSISTS OF FOUR PHASES:

- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

LATE PROPHASE

METAPHASE
- Mitotic spindle is now fully formed.
- The chromosomes align in the center of the cell in
association with the spindle fibers.
- Chromosomes with centromeres attached to the
spindle fibers are arranged at the center or equatorial
plate of the cell
TELOPHASE
- The phase of reconstruction.
- It begins when the two groups of chromosomes have
reached opposite ends of the cell.
- Chromosomes uncoil.
- Centrioles are replicated.
- Nucleolus re-appears.
- Nuclear membranes form.
- Spindle disappears.
- Cytokinesis completed resulting into two daughter
cells with the same quantity and quality of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
- final stage of mitosis is the reverse of the prophase
stage
- At the end of this stage, the cytoplasm divides
through the formation of the cleavage furrow, which is
a constriction of the outer middle portion of the cell;
thus two daughter cells are formed

ANAPHASE
- The phase of migration.
- The chromatids separate to form two sets of identical
chromosomes.
- The chromosomes assisted by the spindle fibers,
move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell.
- Cytokinesis begins: plant–cell plate formation,
animals – formation of the cleavage furrow.
- centromeres equally divide and thus attached
chromosomes migrate towards the opposite poles
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

COMPARISON OF ANAPHASE AND TELOPHASE - These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs
in females
- can be divided into nine stages
- divided between the first time the cell divides (Meiosis
I) and the second time it divides (Meiosis II)
- Produces four daughter cells with a haploid number of
chromosomes as the parent cell
- Also called reduction division
- Involves two successive divisions – meiosis I and
meiosis II
- also called reduction division is a process that
produces four daughter cells with haploid number of
chromosomes.
- It occurs in the cells of the reproductive organs, the
ovary and testis, during the formation of sex cells.
- The final result of meiosis is the production of sperm
cells in the male and of egg cells in the female.
- It involves two successive divisions: meiosis I and
meiosis II.
CYTOKINESIS FACTS ABOUT MEIOSIS

- Daughter cells contain half the number of

chromosomes as the original cell
- Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
- Occurs in the testes in males (Spermatogenesis)
- Occurs in the ovaries in females (Oogenesis)

WHY DO WE NEED MEIOSIS?

- It is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction

- Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought together
through fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote

FERTILIZATION
DAUGHTER CELLS OF MITOSIS
- “Putting it all together”
- Have the same number of chromosomes as each
other and as the parent cell from which they were
formed
- Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell
- Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of
Interphase)

IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS

MEIOSIS

- Formation of Gametes (Eggs & Sperm)

- a single cell divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original amount of genetic
information
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

MEIOSIS: TWO PART CELL DIVISION PROPHASE I

- It occupies the longest duration of meiosis.

- As the chromosomes coil up, special proteins cause
the homologous chromosomes to stick together in
pairs.
- The resulting structure has four chromatids.
- Within each set, chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes exchange corresponding segments-
they “crossover”.
- As prophase I continues:
- the chromosomes coil up further,
- spindle forms, and
- homologous pairs are moved toward the center of the
cell.
- Copied chromosomes condense into X- shaped
structures.

MEIOSIS I: REDUCTION DIVISION

- Results in reducing the number of chromosomes

- Accompanied by cytokinesis
- results in reducing the number of chromosomes
and accompanied by cytokinesis. It is divided
into: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and
telophase I.

LEPTOTENE

- Condensation of chromosomes
- Shortening and thickening of chromosomes
- Doubled chromosomes

ZYGOTENE

- Pairing of homologous chromosomes

- Synapsis begins

PACHYTENE

- Bivalent formed
- Crossing-over occurred
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

CROSSING-OVER

DIPLOTENE

- Coiling stage
- Chiasmata holds the homologous chromosomes

DIAKINESIS

- Recondensation
- Tetrad chromosomes are visible
- Terminalization: chiasmata at the ends
- End of Prophase I
- Nucleolus vanishes
- Nuclear membrane breaks down

METAPHASE I

- The homologous pairs are aligned in the middle of the

cell.
- The sister chromatids of each chromosome are still
attached at their centromeres, where they are
anchored to spindle microtubules
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

MEIOSIS II: REDUCING CHROMOSOME NUMBER

- Similar to the events of mitosis

- Follows interkinesis
- No chromosomes replication between meiosis I and
meiosis II
- follows interkinesis resembles an ordinary mitotic
sequence where the centromere divides. Like meiosis
I it also includes four phases: prophase II, metaphase
II, anaphase II and telophase II.

INTERKINESIS OR INTERPHASE II

ANAPHASE I - A period of rest that cells enter during meiosis.

- No DNA replication occurs during this stage of
- The attachment between the homologous meiosis.
chromosomes of each pair breaks.
- The chromosomes now migrate toward the poles of
the cell.
- The sister chromatids migrate as a pair instead of
splitting up.
- The sister chromatids are separated not from each
other but from their homologous partners.
- pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart by the
meiotic spindle, which pulls one chromosome to one
pole of the cell and the other chromosome to the
opposite pole

TELOPHASE I

- The chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell.

- Each pole has a haploid chromosome set.
- Each chromosome is still in duplicate form.
- New nuclear membranes may form.
- New nucleolus may form.
- Cytokinesis occurs, with two haploid daughter cells
formed.
PROPHASE II
- A spindle forms and moves the chromosomes toward
the middle of the cell.
- Now there are two daughter cells each with 23
chromosomes.
- In each of the two daughter cells, the chromosomes
condense again into visible X – shaped structure
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

- chromosomes complete their move to the opposite
poles of the cell.
- This is the last phase of meiosis, however cell division
is not complete without another round of cytokinesis

METAPHASE II

- The chromosomes align along the center of the cell.

- each of the two-daughter cell the chromosomes lined
up end – to – end along the equator of the cell

ANAPHASE II COMPARISON OF DIVISIONS

- The centromeres of sister chromatids separate.
- The sister chromatids of each pair move toward
opposite poles of the cell due to the action of the
meiotic spindle.

TELOPHASE II

- Nuclei form at the cell poles.

- Cytokinesis occurs at the same time.
- The results will be four haploid daughter cells, each
with single chromosomes.
GENETICS AND HEREDITY
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MODULE 3 – CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE

GENETICS

- is the study of heredity and variation.

HEREDITY

- refers to the transmission of traits from one

generation to another, from parents to offspring.
Individuals of a species have similar
characteristics but they are rarely identical, the
difference between them is called variation
- The process of heredity occurs among all living
things including animals, plants, bacteria,
protists and fungi.
GENES

- Tiny biochemical structures inside each cell

- carry traits from one generation to the next
- are like blueprints for building a house except
that they carry the plans for building cells,
tissues, organs and bodies.
- have the instructions for making the thousands
of chemical building blocks in the body
- Differences in genes cause the building of
different amino acids and proteins. These
differences cause individuals to have different
traits such as hair color or blood types.
- gives only the potential for the development of a
trait
DNA

- deoxyribonucleic acid
- Genes are made of a chemical
CHROMOSOMES

- Genes are strung together to form long chains of

DNA in structures known as
PROTEINS

- building blocks
AMINO ACIDS

- Smaller units of proteins