General Biology – Reviewer (2nd Qtr) Meiosis (a process of sexual reproduction)

MODULE 4: MITOSIS - Produces daughter nuclei with half the

number of chromosomes of the parental
Why It Matters?
nucleus
- The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a model o The arrangements of genes on
organism for study of the stages of chromosomes are different from
regeneration at the molecular level those in the parent cell
- If a predator takes a bite out of a
zebrafish’s fins, the entire fin will
regenerate within a week – skin, nerves, Chromosomes
muscles, bones, and related tissues
- In eukaryotes, the hereditary information
- Regeneration occurs because cells that
within the nucleus is distributed among
had stopped growing and dividing are
individual, linear DNA molecules
suddenly stimulated to grow and divide in
- DNA molecules combine with proteins that
a highly regulated way
stabilize the DNA molecules, assist in
packaging DNA during cell division, and
influence the expression of individual
The Cycle of Cell Growth and Division: An
genes
Overview
- In a cell, each chromosome is composed of
- Single-celled prokaryotic or eukaryotic one DNA molecule and its associated
organisms grow and divide as long as proteins
environmental conditions allow
- In multicellular eukaryotes, cell division is
under strict control to develop and
maintain different subpopulations of cells
- The life cycle of a cell (cell cycle) is
divided into three parts:
o Cell growth and activity, including
replication of DNA
o Nuclear division (mitosis)
o Division of the cytoplasm Sister Chromatids
(cytokinesis) - Before a cell divides in mitosis, duplication
of each chromosome (and its proteins)
produces two identical copies called sister
Two Types of Nuclear Division chromatids
Mitosis (a growth process) - Are held together by sister chromatid
cohesion until mitosis separates them,
- Divides the replicated DNA equally and placing one in each of two daughter nuclei
precisely, generating daughter cells, which o Cohesins hold the sister
are exact genetic copies of the parent cell chromatids together until they are
removed
- The equal distribution of chromosomes
into each of two daughter nuclei is call
chromosome segregation

Ploidy

- The number of chromosomes sets in a cell

or species is called its ploidy
- Some microorganisms have only one copy
of each type of chromosome in their
nuclei—they are haploid, or n
- Many plant species, have three, four, or
even more complete sets of chromosomes
in each cell—they are polyploid
- Most eukaryotes have two copies of each
type of chromosome in their nuclei—they
are diploid, or 2n
- The two chromosomes of each pair in a
diploid cell are called homologous
chromosomes—one is from the mother,
the other from the father

The Mitotic Cell Cycle

- There are three main events in a cell cycle:

interphase, mitosis (M phase), and
cytokinesis
- Interphase is divided into three phases:
o G1 phase: cell grows
o S phase: DNA replicates and
chromosomal proteins are
duplicated
o G2 phase: cell growth continues and
the cell prepares for mitosis

Interphase
- Usually, G1, is the only phase of the cell
cycle that varies in length—other phases
are typically uniform in length
- G1 is also the stage in which many cell
types stop dividing and are shunted into a
G0 phase—some cells in G0 reenter G1
others never resume the cell cycle
- Internal regulatory controls trigger each
phase of the cell cycle and regulate the
overall number of cycles that a cell goes
through
Mitosis Proceeds in Five Stages
Prophase
- Chromosomes condense into chromatin
- Nucleolus becomes smaller and disappears
- The mitotic spindle begins to form
between the two centrosomes as they
migrate toward the opposite ends of the
cell, where they will form spindle poles
Prometaphase
- Begins when the nuclear envelope breaks
down
- Spindle microtubules grow from
centrosomes at opposite spindle poles
toward the center of the cell
- A kinetochore forms on each sister
chromatid at the centromere (the point
where chromatids are joined in sister
chromatid adhesion)
- Kinetochore microtubules bind to the
kinetochores
- Nonkinetochore microtubules overlap
those from the opposite spindle pole
Metaphase
- Spindle microtubules move chromosomes
intro alignment at the spindle midpoint
(metaphase plate or equatorial plane)
- Condensation gives each chromosome a
characteristic shape, determined by
length and centromere location
Anaphase
- The spindle separates sister chromatids
and pulls them toward opposite spindle
poles
- Movement continues until the separated
chromatids (daughter chromosomes) have
reached the two poles
- At this point, chromosome segregation is
complete
Telophase
- The spindle disassembles and
chromosomes at each spindle pole
decondense, returning to the extended
state typical of interphase
 - The nucleolus reappears, RNA
transcription resumes
- A new nuclear envelope forms around the
chromosomes at each pole producing the
two daughter nuclei
- At this point, nuclear division is complete—
the cell has two nuclei
Cytokinesis
- Produces two daughter cells, each with one
of the two daughter nuclei
- The plane of cytoplasmic division is
determined by the layer of microtubules
that persists at the former spindle
midpoint
Cytokinesis by Furrowing
- In animals, protists, and many fungi, a
furrow girdles the cell and deepens until it
cuts the cytoplasm into two parts
Checkpoints
- The cell cycle has three key checkpoints
to prevent critical phases from beginning
until the previous phases are completed
correctly
o G1/S checkpoint
o G2/M checkpoint
o Mitotic spindle checkpoint
- Checkpoints are signals to stop—
inactivation of a checkpoint allows the cell
to proceed
G1/S Checkpoint
- Is the main point in the cell cycle at which
a cell decides whether to divide or not?
- The cell cycle arrests at the G1/S
checkpoint if DNA is damaged by radiation
or chemicals—if the DNA damage is
repaired, the cycle starts again
- Cell cycle arrest also occurs at this
checkpoint if the cell is nutritionally
deficient or growth factors are absent
G2/M Checkpoint
- Commits a cell to mitosis
- Cells arrest at this checkpoint if DNA was
not replicated accurately in S or if the
DNA has been damaged by radiation or
chemicals
- Accurate DNA replication is essential for
producing genetically identical daughter
cells
Mitotic Spindle Checkpoint
- This checkpoint is before metaphase in
the M phase
o Assesses whether chromosomes
are attached properly to the
mitotic spindle so that they align
correctly at the metaphase plate
- Once the cell begins anaphase, it is
irreversibly committed to completing M
Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases - The mutated form of the genes, called
oncogenes encode altered versions of
- Direct regulation of the cell cycle itself
these products
involves an internal control system
consisting a proteins called cyclins and MODULE 4: MEIOSIS
enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases
Sexual Reproduction: Egg and Sperm
(Cdks)
- A Cdk is a protein kinase, which Why It Matters?
phosphorylates and regulated the activity
- Sexual reproduction is the production of
of target proteins
offspring through the union of male and
o Cdk enzymes are active only when
female gametes (eggs and sperm)
bound to cyclin
o Dependent on meiosis, a specialized
- Concentrations of cyclins change as the
process of cell division that, in
cell cycle progresses
animals, produces gametes
o Gametes have half the number of
chromosomes present in the
Cell Cycle Controls Are Lost in Cancer
somatic cells (body cells) of a
- Cancer occurs when cells lose normal species
controls over division—cancer cells divide - At fertilization, the nuclei of an egg and a
continuously and uncontrollably, producing sperm cell fuse, producing a zygote—the
a rapidly growing mass called a tumor chromosome number is restored
- Cancer cells typically lose adhesions to
other cells and spread throughout the
body (metastasis) producing new tumors in Random Joining of Male and Female Gametes
other body regions
- The chance union of gametes increases the
- Metastasis is promoted by changes that
variability of sexual reproduction
block contact inhibition and alter cell-
- The possibility that two children of the
surface molecules that link cells together
same parents could receive the same
or to the extracellular matrix
combination of chromosomes is 1 chance
out of (2^23) 2 or 1 in
70,368,744,000,000 (~70 trillion).
Oncogenes = Cancer Genes
- The only exception is identical twins which
- Cancer cells typically have a number of arise from mitotic division of a single
mutated genes that promote uncontrolled fertilized egg
cell division or metastasis
- Many of these genes codes for
components of the cyclin/Cdk system that Meiosis and Fertilization
regulated cell division
- Meiosis separates homologous pairs,
- Other encode proteins that regulate gene
reducing the diploid (2n) number of
expression, form cell surface receptors,
chromosomes to the haploid (n) number
or elements of receptor systems
- Each gamete produced by meiosis receives
one member of each homologous pair
 - Humans have 46 chromosomes in their
diploid cells, which make up 23 homologous
pairs (2n)
- A human egg or sperm cell contains 23
chromosomes, one member of each pair (n)
The Mechanisms of Meiosis
- In humans and other animals, meiosis takes
place in the primary reproductive organs—
the gonads
- Meiosis in mature gonads of the male
(testes) produces spermatozoa (sperm)—
the gametes of the male
- Meiosis in mature gonads of the female
(ovaries) produces ova (eggs)—the
gametes of the female
- Gametogenesis is the cellular mechanism
of gamete formation
The Meiotic Cell Cycle (1 of 2)
- Meiosis is a two-part process of cell
division in sexually-reproducing organisms
(meiosis I and meiosis II)
- The duplicated chromosomes in the
parental cell are distributed to four
daughter cells, which has half the number
of chromosomes of the parental cell
- In premeiotic interphase, DNA replicates,
and chromosomal proteins are produced,
resulting in the identical sister chromatids
of each chromosome
The Meiotic Cell Cycle (2 of 2)
- During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes
pair and nonsister chromatids undergo a
physical exchange of chromosome
segments (crossing over)
- Completion of meiosis I produces two cells,
each with half the diploid number of
chromosomes, with each chromosome still
consisting of two chromatids
- In meiosis II, sister chromatids
separate—daughter chromosomes
segregate into four different cells, each
with the haploid number of chromosomes
Alleles
- The version of each gene (alleles) present
in the members of a homologous pair may
be the same or different
- For a gene that encodes a protein,
different alleles might encode different
versions of the protein, or no protein at all
- Each individual (except for identical
siblings) has a unique combination of alleles
in each homologous pair
Prophase I

- Replicated chromosomes (sister

chromatids) fold and condense in the
nucleus
- The two chromosomes of each homologous
pair undergo pairing (synapsis), forming
tetrads
- Chromatids of homologous chromosomes
physically exchange segments (crossing-
over)
- Sites where crossing-over has occurred
are marked by thickened spots
(crossovers or chiasmata)

Sources of Variability

- During meiosis and fertilization, genetic

variability arises from three sources:
o Crossing-over between paired
homologous chromosomes (genetic
recombination)
o Independent assortment of
chromosomes segregated to the
poles during anaphase I
o The particular sets of male and
female gametes that unite in
fertilization

MODULE 5: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chloroplasts in a Leaf

Why It Matters?

- Photosynthesis is the conversion of light

energy to chemical energy in the form of
sugar and other organic molecules
- Photosynthesis organisms include plants,
and some protists, archaeans, and bacteria
 - Plants and green algae released oxygen as
a byproduct of photosynthesis—other
eukaryotic photosynthesizers have
individual variations on the process Electron, Water, and Oxygen

- In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the

Photosynthesis: An Overview source of electrons and protons for CO2
fixation is water (H2O)
- Photosynthetic organisms (primary - Water undergoes an oxidation reaction
consumers) convert energy of sunlight into (loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen)
chemical energy - Oxygen (O2) is generated from the
o Used to assemble simple inorganic splitting of water then released into the
raw materials into complex organic environment
molecules
- Consumers live by eating plants or other
animals
- Eventually, both primary producers and
Summary: Photosynthesis
consumers provide chemical energy for
bacteria, fungi, and other decomposers - Photosynthesis uses sunlight, water, and
CO2 to produce almost all organic matter
on Earth, and supplies our atmosphere with
Two Stages in Photosynthesis oxygen
- The major product of photosynthesis is
Light-dependent reactions (Light Reactions)
glucose (C6H12O6)
- Energy of sunlight is absorbed and
converted into chemical energy (ATP and
NADPH)
- NADPH carries electrons that are pushed
to high energy levels by absorbed light

Light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle, Dark

Reactions)

- Electrons in NADPH are used as a source

of energy to convert inorganic CO2 to an
organic form (CO2 fixation)

CO2 Fixation

- Is a reduction reaction in which electrons

and protons (H+) are added to CO2
- CO2 is converted to a carbohydrate that
contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms in the ratio 1C : 2H : 1O
Where Reactions Take Place: Experimental Research: Engelmann’s Experiment

Prokaryotes - Theodor Engelmann used a glass prism to

break light into a spectrum of colors—
- Photosynthetic reactions are distributed
which was cast across a microscope slide
between the plasma membrane and cytosol
with a strand of algae and aerobic bacteria
Eukaryotes - Bacteria grew best where algae released
oxygen in greatest quantity—in areas of
- Light-dependent reactions are carried out
blue, violet, and red light
by molecules (pigments, electron carriers,
- Engelmann constructed an action spectrum
and ATP synthase enzymes) located in the
for wavelengths of light showing the
thylakoid membranes and stromal lamellae
effects of each color on photosynthesis
- Light-independent reactions occur in the
stroma

Photosynthetic Pigments

The Light-Dependent Reactions of - In photosynthesis, light is absorbed by

Photosynthesis green pigments (chlorophylls) and yellow-
orange pigments (carotenoids)
- Light-dependent reactions (light
- Pigment color produced by transmitted or
reactions) convert light energy to chemical
reflected light
energy
o Plants look green because
- Light reactions involve two main processes
chlorophyll absorbs blue and red
o Light absorption
light, and transmits or reflects
o Synthesis of NADPH and ATP
green light

Effects of Light Absorbed by a Pigment

Electrons of the atom is excited (increase in

energy) resulting to:

1. Fluorescence
2. Transfer of energy to a primary acceptor
molecule
3. Excitation of a pigment molecule
 P700 and P680

The reaction center of photosystem I contains a

pair of specialized chlorophyll a molecules (P700)
which absorbs light optimally at a wavelength of
700 nm

The reaction center of photosystem II contains

a pair of specialized chlorophyll a molecules
Absorption Spectrum and Action Spectrum
(P680), which absorbs light optimally at a
- Light absorbed by carotenoids (an wavelength of 680 nm
accessory pigment) and chlorophylls,
[Photosystem I – P700]
acting in combination, drives the reactions
of photosynthesis [Photosystem II – P680]
- The amount of light of different
wavelengths that is absorbed by a pigment
is its absorption spectrum
- The effectiveness of light of each
wavelength in driving photosynthesis
produces a graph called the action
spectrum of photosynthesis

Photosystems

- Light-absorbing pigments are organized

with proteins and other molecules into
large complexes (photosystems)
embedded in thylakoid membranes and
stromal lamellae
- Photosystems are the sites at which light
energy is converted into chemical energy
Review: Matching Type Linear Electron Flow of Light Dependent
Reactions

(mas nauuna yung Photosystem II)

1. B
2. E
3. D
4. F
5. C

Intermediate Electron Carriers

Photosystem II – Plastoquinone – Cytochrome

Complex – Plastocyanin – Photosystem I –
Ferredoxin – NADP reductase

Missing:

Reactants – 6 CO2

Products – 6 O2

Follow-up ques:

- 10 glucose molecules (120 H2O / 12 H2O) Cytochrome Complex

- Mas mataas yung H2O reactants, so yun
yung gagawing reference
ATP Synthase Complex of Light Dependent
Reactions
- Super daming protons (H+) sa lumen, bc of
the build-up, it will try to move out thru
the ATP-ase complex
- That movement of the protons will power
the conversion of ADP to ATP
2. Plastoquinone (electron carrier) transfers
electrons to cytochrome complex and
plastocyanin (electron carrier) to
photosystem I
3. The exergonic fall of electrons to a lower
energy level provides energy for the
synthesis of ATP. As electrons pass
through the cytochrome complex, H+ are
pumped contributing to the proton
gradient
4. Light energy are used to excite the
electrons (energized) to transport to
another ETC through protein ferredoxin
(electron carrier)
5. Enzyme NADP+ reductase catalyzes the
transfer of electrons from Fd to NADP+.
Then NADP+ is reduced to NADPH

Linear Electron Flow of Light Dependent

Reactions

- Light energizes electrons in the

chlorophyll molecules of photosystems I
and II
- Photosystem II passes this energized
electron to an electron transport chain,
which taps some of the energy from the
passing electron to pump protons across
the thylakoid membrane Photosynthesis starts at the photosystem II
- Photosystem I pass its energized electron
We get the electrons from the water (which is
to an enzyme called NADP reductase that
split into its components (H, O))
uses it to convert NADP+ to NADPH
- ATP synthase uses the energy stored in Electrons are excited at photosystem II
the proton (H+) gradient to produce ATP
The first electron carrier is the plastoquinone

Plastoquinone will bring that electron to the

Linear Electron Flow of Light Dependent cytochrome complex
Reactions
Cytochrome complex pumps in protons (H+) to
1. Light energy is used to excite the raise the proton gradient in the lumen
electrons (energized) and water is split at
Proton gradient powers the ATP synthesis
the photosystem II
(conversion of ATP to ADP)
The next electron carrier is the plastocyanin The Calvin Cycle: Overview

Plastocyanin goes to photosystem I

Electrons are re-excited in photosystem I,

increasing the energy within

The last electron carrier will be ferredoxin

The last stop of the electron is at the NADP+

reductase

Because of that, we already have the energy to

produce NADPH
THREE PHASES OF THE CALVIN CYCLE
The products: NADPH and ATP will go to stroma
to be used for the light-independent reaction or
the Calvin Cycle

Energy Yield of Light Dependent Reactions

- The overall yield of the linear electron Carbon Fixation

flow pathway is 1 molecule of NADPH and
- CO2 is added to ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate
1 molecule of ATP for each pair of
(RuBP), creating a 6-carbon molecule
electrons (2e-) produced from the
- When fixating a carbon, it is actually
splitting of water
embedded or added to a molecule
- RuBP is found in the stroma
- A transient 6-carbon molecule is cleaved
to produce two 3-carbon molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate (3PGA)
- Enzyme: RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase
(rubisco)
- Plats that initially fix carbon in this way
are C3 plants
1. 60 (there is 2 electrons in every 1 H2O
(2x30))
2. 15 (30 x ½)
3. 500 NADPH, 500 ATP

Reduction

- A phosphate group from ATP and electrons

from NADPH are transferred to 3PGA to
produce two (Glyceraldehyde 3-
Phosphate) G3P
 - After three turns, one G3P exits the cycle
– used to build 6-carbon glucose and other
organic molecules in chloroplasts
- Five G3P are used to regenerate RuBP
Regeneration
- G3P enters a complex series of reactions
that yields the 5-carbon sugar ribulose-5-
phosphate.
- In the final reaction of the cycle, a
phosphate group is transferred from ATP
to regenerate the RuBP used in the first
reaction
Turns of the Calvin Cycle = CO2
- For each turn, one CO2 is converted into
one G3P unit
o It takes 3 turns (CO2) to produce
one net G3P
- Net G3P is the primary building block for
reactions producing glucose and many
other organic molecules in chloroplasts
o It takes 6 turns (CO2) of the cycle
to produce enough G3P units to
make a 6-carbon carbohydrate such
as glucose
Starts with 3 CO2, which will be captured from
the atmosphere by the rubisco, and added and
fixated in the sugar called RuBP
1 CO2 : 1 rubisco
It will create the unstable intermediate, which
will be cut into two pieces. Thus, creating the 6
molecules of 3-PGA (6 3-PGA)
Each one of the 3-PGA molecule will be reduced
using ATP and NADPH in order to create G3P
By the end of the reduction, 6 G3P will be
produced
However, only one out of the six will be used to
make glucose, while the remaining five G3P will be
recycled in the regeneration process
Those 5 will be converted back to RuBP (ATP and
ADP are used to convert the 5 G3P back to RuBP)
G3P: Starting Point of Many Organic Molecules
- Two G3Ps can combine together to form
either glucose or fructose which are both
are six-carbon sugar
- Glucose and fructose can be combined to
form sucrose
- Glucose can be connected in chains to form
starch
- G3Ps can also be used in lipid and protein
synthesis
Summary: The Calvin Cycle Mitochondria and ATP

- For each turn of the cycle (CO2), 2 ATP
and 2 NADPH are used during reduction
- Another ATP is used in regeneration, for a
total of 3 ATP and 2 NADPH
- One complete turn of the cycle includes:
- ATP forms in mitochondria as part of the
reactions of cellular respiration
- Cellular Respiration:
o Collection of metabolic reactions
that breaks down food molecules to
produce energy in the form of ATP

CH2O is G3P
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration
Matching Type
- Form of cellular respiration in eukaryotes
and many prokaryotes
- Oxygen is a reactant in the ATP producing
process

Anaerobic Respiration

- Form of cellular respiration in some

prokaryotes
- A molecule other than oxygen, such as
1. B sulfate or nitrate, is used in the ATP-
2. D producing process
3. C
4. A
5. F

MODULE 6: CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Mitochondrion Overview of Cellular Respiration

Why It Matters?

- Animals, plants, fungi, and most protists

depend on mitochondria for energy to grow
and survive
- Cellular respiration and photosynthesis
are the major biological steps of the
carbon cycle
- Cellular respiration includes reactions that
transfer electrons from organic molecules
(such as glucose) to oxygen, and reactions
that make ATP
- Cellular respiration moves electrons from
fuel to other molecules (such as oxygen)
that act as electron acceptors
 - Electron energy is used to drive ATP
synthesis
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Electron carriers: NADH & FADH2
Three Stages of Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
- Enzymes break a 6-carbon molecule of
glucose into two 3-carbon molecules of
pyruvate
- Some ATP is synthesized by substrate-
level phosphorylation—an enzyme-
catalyzed reaction that transfers a
phosphate group from a substrate to ADP
Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle
- Enzymes convert the 3-carbon pyruvate
into a 2-carbon acetyl group, which enters
the citric acid cycle and is completely
oxidized to carbon dioxide
- Some ATP is synthesized during the citric
acid cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
- High-energy electrons are delivered to
oxygen by a sequence of electron carriers
in the electron transport chain
- Free energy released by electron flow
generates an H+ gradient by chemiosmosis
- ATP synthase uses H+ gradient as the
energy source to make ATP
Where Cellular Respiration Takes Place?
Reaction locations:
- Glycolysis: in the cytosol
- Pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle: in
the mitochondrial matrix
- Oxidative phosphorylation: in the inner
mitochondrial membrane
7.1 Glycolysis: Splitting Sugar in Half
Glucose – Fructose Diphosphate – Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate (G3P) – Pyruvate
7.2 Glycolysis: Splitting Sugar in Half
- glycolysis breaks 6-carbon glucose into
two molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate
(pyruvic acid) in 10 sequential enzyme-
catalyzed reactions
- Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of all
organisms
- The initial steps of glycolysis require
energy – 2 ATP are hydrolyzed •
- 4 ATP are produced by substrate-level
phosphorylation, for a net gain of 2 ATP
 - The electron carrier NAD+ is reduced to Overview: The Citric Acid Cycle or Kreb’s Cycle
NADH, which carries 2 electrons and a
proton (H+) removed from fuel molecules

Energy Flow in Glycolysis

- The initial steps of glycolysis require

energy – 2 ATP are hydrolyzed
- In the citric acid cycle, carbon products of
- 4 ATP are produced by substrate-level
phosphorylation, for a net gain of 2 ATP pyruvate oxidation are oxidized to CO2

- The electron carrier NAD+ is reduced to
NADH, which carries 2 electrons and a
proton (H+) removed from fuel molecules
- All available electrons are transferred to
3 NAD+ (NADH) and 1 FAD (FADH2)
- Each turn of the citric acid cycle produces
1 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation

Pyruvate Oxidation
Mnemonic: Citric Acid Cycle

Summary:

- Active transport moves pyruvate into the

mitochondrial matrix where pyruvate
oxidation and the citric acid cycle take
place
- Oxidation of pyruvate generates CO2
acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), and
NADH
- The acetyl group of acetyl-CoA enters the
citric acid cycle
Summary: The Citric Acid Cycle
o Pyruvate Oxidation (pyruvic acid
oxidation) removes CO2 from - The eight reactions of the citric acid cycle
pyruvate and oxidizes the (tricarboxylic acid cycle or Krebs cycle)
remaining 2-carbon fragment to an oxidize acetyl groups completely to CO2
acetyl group (CH3CO) which is generate 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 and
carried by acetyl-CoA to the citric synthesize 1 ATP by substrate-level
acid cycle phosphorylation

Oxidative Phosphorylation: The ETC and
Chemiosmosis
- High-energy electrons removed from fuel
molecules and picked up by carrier
molecules (NAD+ or FAD) are released
into the electron transport chain of
mitochondria
- Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain
(ETC)
o Series of electron carriers that
alternately pick up and release
electrons and ultimately transfer
them to their final acceptor-
oxygen
ATP Synthase and Chemiosmosis
- In the mitochondrion, ATP is synthesized
by ATP synthase, an enzyme embedded in
the inner mitochondrial membrane
- The H+ gradient powers ATP synthesis by
ATP synthase by chemiosmosis (the
chemiosmotic hypothesis)
- ATP synthase uses proton-motive force t
add phosphate to ADP to generate ATP
(phosphorylation)
Protein Complexes in the Inner Mitochondrial
Membrane
- The major protein complexes (numbered I,
II, and IV) in the inner mitochondrial
membrane serve as electron carriers
- A smaller complex (complex II) is bound to
the inner mitochondrial membrane on the
matrix side
- Electrons from NADH enter the ETS at
complex I – electrons from FADH enter
the ETS at complex II
- Two small, mobile electron carriers,
cytochrome c and ubiquinone (coenzyme
Q), shuttle electrons between the major
complexes
Summary: ATP Production
- 32 ATP are produced from each molecule
of glucose oxidized (about 2.5 ATP per
NADH, and 1.5 per FADH2)
o Glycolysis: 2ATP + 2 NADH (5ATP)
o Pyruvate Oxidation: 2 NADH (5
ATP)
o Citric acid cycle: 2ATP + 6NADH
(15ATP) + 2FADH2 (3 ATP)
How Do We Breakdown Food? - Fermentation is the only source of ATP for
bacteria and fungi that lack enzymes to
Fermentation
carry out oxidative phosphorylation (strict
- When oxygen is absent or limited, anaerobes)
electrons carried by the 2NADH produced - Most strict anaerobes (such as bacteria
by glycolysis may be used in fermentation that cause botulism and tetanus) require
- Fermentation an oxygen-free environment – they cannot
o Electrons carried by NADH are use oxygen as a final electron acceptor
transferred to an organic acceptor - Some prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are
molecule (converts NADH to NAD+) strict aerobes – they have an absolute
o NAD+ accepts electrons in reaction requirement for oxygen to survive and are
6 of glycolysis unable to live solely by fermentations
o Glycolysis continues to supply ATP o Vertebrate brain cells are key
by substrate-level phosphorylation examples of strict aerobes
- Facultative anaerobes can switch between
fermentation and full oxidative pathways,
Two Types of Fermentation depending on the oxygen supply
- Includes E. coli in the human digestive
Lactate Fermentation:
tract, Lactobacillus (used in buttermilk
- Converts pyruvate into lactate and yogurt), and S. cerevisiae (used in
- Occurs in some bacteria, plant tissues, brewing, wine making, and baking)
skeletal muscle - Many cell types in higher organisms,
- Used to make buttermilk, yogurt, dill including vertebrate muscle cells, are also
pickles facultative anaerobes

Alcoholic Fermentation:

- Converts pyruvate into ethyl alcohol and Anaerobic Respiration

CO2
- Fermentation differs from anaerobic
- Occurs in some plant tissues,
respiration, a form of cellular respiration
invertebrates, protists, bacteria, and
used by some prokaryotes
single-celled fungi such as yeasts
- In fermentation, electrons carried by
- Used to make bread and alcoholic
NADH are transferred to an organic
beverages
acceptor molecule
- In anaerobic respiration, electrons are
transferred to an electron transport chain
in which the final electron acceptor is a
molecule other than oxygen, such as
sulfate
Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration