Essay answers – Model Paper 01

5. (i) Describe the structure of chloroplast

Draw fully labelled correct diagram
1. It is a biconvex lens shaped organelle
2. with two enclosing membranes
3. The outer and inner membranes are smooth
4. and are separated by a very narrow intermembrane space.
5. Inside the chloroplast there is another membrane system.
6. This membrane produces flattened and interconnected disc shaped sacs called thylakoids.
7. Thylakoids contain complexes called photosystems
8. which are complexes of proteins with embedded photosynthetic pigments.
9. Thylakoids stacked to form a granum.
10. The grana are interconnected by intergranal lamellae.
11. The fluid outside the thylakoid is stroma
12. which contain circular DNA, 70s ribosomes
13. many enzymes that catalyzes the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis , starch granules and lipid
droplets

(ii) Describe the role of chloroplast in photosynthesis in C3 plants

1. Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place in the membrane system of thylakoids.

2. Chlorophylls, carotenoids and electron acceptors are located on this membrane system of
thylakoids.
3. Stroma is a gel like structure containing soluble enzymes and other chemicals, which is the site of
the Calvin cycle.
4. Chlorophyll molecules, other organic molecules and proteins are organized into complexes in the
thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts called photosystems.
5. A photosystem contains a reaction center complex and light harvesting complexes.
6. The reaction center complex also contains a primary electron acceptor.
There are two types of photosystems found in the thylakoid membrane.
7. They are Photosystem I (PS I) and photosystem II (PS II).
8. In the PS I the chlorophyll a molecule is known as P700
9. they absorb light at 700nm wave length effectively.
10. In the PS II the reaction center contains chlorophyll a molecules which is known as P680
11. Which absorbs light having a wavelength of 680 nm.
12. Light is absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments and synthesize ATP and NADPH due to the
excitation of Photosystem I and Photosystem II
13. This process is called linear electron flow.
14. The striking of photons of light on the pigments results in the excitation of electrons from the
photosystem II to the higher energy state.
15. These electrons will be accepted by the primary electron acceptor of photosystem II.
16. Splitting of water takes place as a result of an enzyme catalyzed reaction
17. and yields O2 (g), H+ ions and electrons.
18. Electrons released as a result of hydrolysisneutralize excited photosystem II (P680).
19. Striking of photons of light on the pigments results in the excitation of electrons from
photosystem I (P700) to the higher energy state.
20. Excited electrons will be accepted by a primary electron acceptor of PSI.
21. Excited electrons of PS II at primary electron acceptor of PS II will pass through an electron
transport chain to PS I and neutralize the excited PS I.
22. The energy released due to the passage of electrons from higher energy state to lower energy
result in the synthesis of ATP.
23. This is known as photophosphorylation.
24. Excited electrons of PS I at primary electron acceptor of PSI will pass through an electron
transport chain

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25. And reduce NADP+ and yield NADPH.
26. The reduction of NADP+ is catalyzed by an enzyme called NADP reductase.
27. Cyclic electron flow occurs in photosystem I.
28. Here some photoexcited electrons uses alternative cyclic pathway.
29. This produces only ATP
30. In Calvin cycle energy from ATP and NADPH produced by the light reaction are used to reduce
CO2.
The Calvin cycle of photosynthesis can be described in three steps;
31. Carboxylation (Carbon fixation)
32. Reduction
33. Regeneration of carbondioxide acceptor (RuBP)
34. The CO2 acceptor is a 5 C sugar, Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).
35. The addition of CO2 to a RuBP is called carboxylation.
36. The enzyme involves in this reaction is RuBP carboxylase oxygenase or Rubisco.
37. The first product of RuBP carboxylation is a 6C molecule which is unstable
38. and breaks down immediately in to two molecules of 3phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
39. This is the first stable product of photosynthesis.
40. Then 3phosphoglycerate converts to 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
41. Which is reduced to Glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate (G3P) through step by step.
42. Enzyme catalyzed reactions utilizing NADPH and ATP from light reaction.
43. G3P will act as a precursor for carbohydrate synthesis (glucose).
44. RuBP is regenerated by undergoing a series of complex reactions. This process uses energy from
ATP generated in light reaction.

6. (i) Briefly describe the differences between histological structure of primary dicotyledonous
stem and monocotyledonous stem
1. In dicot stem hypodermis made up of Collenchyma cells is present just inner to the epidermis
2. But in monocot stem this is made up of sclerenchyma
3. Ground tissue of dicot stem is differentiated to outer cortex and
4. Pith in the middle
5. Ground tissue of monocot shoot is not differentiated into cortex and pith
6. Vascular bundles arranged as a ring in dicot stem.
7. These have intrafascicular cambium made up of parenchyma
8. Between inner primary xylem and outer primary phloem
9. Therefore known as an open vascular bundle
10. The vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue in most monocot stems.
11. These lack intrafascicular cambium
12. Therefore called a closed vascular bundle
13. Outside vascular bundle in dicot stem, there is a cluster of sclerenchyma cells called
sclerenchyma caps.
14. But in monocot stem each vascular bundle is surrounded by sclerenchyma ring.
15. Primary medullary rays are found in dicot stem and which are not present in monocot stem
16. At maturaity part of protoxylem in monocot stem is broken down and form lysegenous cavity.
17. Which is not present in dicot stem.

(ii) Briefly describe the process of secondary growth of dicotyledonous stem

1. Increase in the diameter of stems and roots in plants due to the new cells produced by lateral
meristems is called secondary growth.
2. Lateral meristems, namely vascular cambium
3. and cork cambium produce cells and tissues in the secondary growth.
4. Single parenchyma cell layer of intrafascicular cambium get the meristematic capacity
5. Meanwhile, parenchyma cell layer of primary medullary rays get the meristematic capacity
6. And form interfascicular cambium
7. These intrafascicular cambium and interfascicular cambium together form the vascular cambium
8. In a typical woody stem, the vascular cambium consists of a continuous cylinder

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9. of undifferentiated cells
10. of often only a single cell layer in thickness,
11. located outside the pith and primary xylem and to the inside of the cortex and primary phloem.
12. Viewed in a cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials.
13. Some initials are elongated and are oriented with their long axis parallel to the axis of stem
14. Which are called fusiform initials
15. The other initials are shorter and oriented perpendicular to the axis of the stem
16. Called ray initials
17. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) towards primary xylem
18. Then primary xylem and pith push inwards
19. and secondary phloem towards primary phloem
20. Then primary phloem push outwards
21. Fusiform initials produce cells such as tracheids, vessel elements, parenchyma and fibers of the
xylem,
22. as well as sieve-tube elements companion cells, phloem fibers and phloem parenehyma.
23. Ray initials produce vascular rays-mostly parenchyma cells
24. that connect secondary xylem and phloem.
25. As these meristematic cells divides they increase circumference of the vascular cambium
26. As the secondary growth continues over many years, layers of secondary xylem (wood)
accumulate.
27. The walls of the secondary xylem cells are heavily lignified and account for the hardness and
strength of wood.
28. During early stages of secondary growth, the epidermis pushed outwards, causing it to split, dry
and falls off the stem or root.
29. It is replaced by two tissues produced by cork cambium,
30. Which is a cylinder of dividing cells
31. that arises in the outer layer of cortex in
32. Cork cambium produces cork cells to exterior.
33. Cork cambium produces secondary cortex to interior which is parenchyma
34. Cork cambium and tissues it produces(secondary cortex) are collectively called periderm
35. As the cork cells mature, they deposit a waxy, hydrophobic material called suberin in their walls
36. and they become dead cells.
37. For gaseous exchange small pores are present in the periderm known as lenticels
38. which are formed by loosely arranged cork cells.
39. They appear as horizontal slits.
40. Further growth of stem or root breaks the layer of cork cambium
41. and it lacks its meristematic activity and its cells become cork cells
42. A new cork cambium is initiated inside which with produce a new layer of periderm.
43. As new cells are added, the outer regions of cork will crack and peel off in many tree trunks.
44. Due to the tissue layers produced by vascular cambium and cork cambium, girth of the stem or
root increases in secondary growth.
45. Bark is all tissues out of the vascular cambium
46. Its main components are secondary phloem and periderm.

7. (i) Describe the modes of nutrition in plants with suitable examples

1. Nutrition is the process of acquiring raw materials and energy from the environment for the
metabolic activities of organisms.
2. Plants show Autotrophic nutrition (autotrophism)
3. Autotrophs synthesize organic materials from CO2 and inorganic materials
4. Plants are photoautotrophs which utilizes light energy in order to synthesize organic molecules
from inorganic material.
5. Also plants show Symbiosis
6. Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact with each other.

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7. There are three types; they are mutualism,
8. Parasitism
9. and commensalism.
10. Mutualism a symbiotic relationship in which both participants are benefited
11. E.g: legume root nodules with nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium)
12. mycorrhizae- symbiotic association of roots of higher plants with fungi
13. corolloid root of Cycas with Anabaena
14. Commensalism is an interaction between two species in which benefits one of the species and
neither harm nor benefit s the other
15. e.g: epiphytic orchids
16. Parasitism is a close association between two different species which is beneficial to one (the
parasite) and harmful to the other (the host).
17. e.g. semi parasitic–Loranthus and host plant
18. parasitic -Cuscuta (Dodder plant) and host plants
19. Some are Carnivorous plants
20. These obtain nitrogen and minerals by killing and digesting insects and other small animals.
21. They live in habitats where the soil is poor in nitrogen and other minerals
22. Ex: Nepenthes (Pitcher plant)/ Drosera (Sundews) / Utricularia (Bladder worts)

(ii) Briefly explain how plants respond to positive and negative geotropism using statolith
hypothesis

1. Shoot of the plant grows upwards while root grows downwards, due to their response to gravity or
gravitropism.
2. Gravitropism can be either positive or negative.
3. Roots display positive gravitropism while shoot display negative gravitropism.
4. Gravitropism occurs as soon as a seed germinates.
5. This ensures that the root grows into the soil and shoot grows towards sunlight.
6. Plants may detect gravity by the settling of statoliths.
7. Statoliths of vascular plants are specialized plastids containing dense starch grains.
8. They can settle under the gravity, to the lower portions of the cell.
9. In roots, they are located in certain cells of the root cap.
10. According to statolith hypothesis, the aggregation of statoliths at the low points of root cap cells
triggers re-distribution of Ca2+
11. which causes lateral transport of auxin within the root.
12. As a result, Ca2+ and auxin get accumulated at lower side of elongation zone of root.
13. At high concentration of auxin, cell elongation is inhibited
14. resulting slow growth on lower side
15. and more rapid elongation on upper side.
16. Consequently, the root grows downwards.

8. (i) Describe the gross structure of the human brain giving specific reference to its embryonic
origin, meninges and cerebral ventricles
1. Central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
2. In vertebrates, the CNS develops from the hollow dorsal nerve cord during embryonic
development.
3. Anterior part of the central nervous system enlarges and forms the brain
4. which has three major regions: forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
5. The central canal in the brain forms four irregular shaped cavities called ventricles.
6. The brain contains four ventricles
7. three ventricles are present in the fore brain
8. They are; left and right lateral ventricle

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9. Found one each cerebral hemisphere at the either sides of median plane below corpus callosum
10. And third cerebro ventricle
11. Located below lateral ventricles in between two parts of thalamus
12. and one ventricle is in the hind brain.
13. This is fourth cerebro ventricle
14. Located between pons varolii and cerebellum
15. This central canal/ ventricles continues in the spinal cord.
16. The ventricles and central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid.
17. There are three layers of tissues called the meninges surrounding brain and spinal cord.
18. The outermost layer is called the dura mater that attached to skull
19. the innermost layer as pia mater attached to nervous tissue of brain and spinal cord
20. and in between these two layers is the arachnoid mater.
21. Beneath the arachnoid membrane it ha sub arachnoid space
22. Which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
23. The forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain of the human embryo develops into the adult brain.
24. The forebrain gives rise to the cerebrum,
25. thalamus,
26. hypothalamus
27. and pineal body.
28. The mid brain gives rise to part of the brain stem.
29. The hind brain gives rise to cerebellum,
30. pons varoli
31. And medulla oblongata.
(ii) Briefly describe the structure location and functions of human brain stem
1. The brain stem consists of the midbrain,
2. pons Varolii
3. and medulla oblongata.
4. Mid brain is the upper part of the brain stem.
5. It is situated between the cerebrum above and the pons below
6. surrounding the cerebrospinal fluid filled connection of the third and fourth ventricles.
7. Mid brain contains aggregates of nerve cell bodies and nerve tracts which connect the
cerebrum with lower brain and spinal cord.
8. Acts as relay stations for ascending and descending nerve fibers
9. Receives and integrates sensory information (auditory and visual) and sends it to particular
regions of the forebrain
10. coordinates auditory and visual reflexes
11. Pons Varolii is located in front of the cerebellum,
12. below the mid brain and above the medulla oblongata.
13. It contains nerve fibers that form a bridge between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.
14. It also contain nerve fibers passing between higher levels of brain and spinal cord.
15. Groups of nerve cell bodies in the pons form centers that regulate respiration.
16. Some nerve cell bodies in the pons act as relay stations.
17. Transfers information between PNS and the midbrain and forebrain
18. Coordinates large scale body movements such as climbing and running
19. Together with the medulla oblongata helps regulate respiration.
20. Medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain stem
21. which extends from the pons above and is continuous with the spinal cord below.
22. It consists of cardiovascular centre,
23. respiratory center
24. and reflex centers.
25. Transfers information between PNS and the mid brain and the fore brain
26. Coordinates various body movements such as running, climbing
27. Controls several autonomic, homeostatic functions including breathing, heart and blood
vessel activities

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 28. Controls involuntary reflexes such as vomiting, swallowing, coughing, sneezing through
reflex centers
Any 50 points × 3.0 = 150

9. (i) Write an account on feedback mechanisms in regulating hormonal functions

1. Variety of physiological processes in the human body including the actions of hormones on target
cells are regulated by feedback mechanisms.
2. Feedback refers to the regulation of a process by its output or end product.
3. Most hormonal controls in the human body use negative feedback mechanisms
4. where accumulation of an end product of a process (the response to the stimulus) slows that
process (reduces the eff ect of the initial stimulus).
5. The endocrine gland will release its hormone into the blood only when the gland is stimulated
6. and the response at the target site will in turn reverse or reduce the stimulus through the negative
feedback.
7. In the absence of stimulation, the blood level of hormone will decrease.
8. Some hormone levels in the blood can be directly controlled by the blood levels of the stimulus
9. For example high blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin hormone (from the
pancreas) to the circulating blood
10. which acts on specifi c target tissues to lower the blood glucose level.
11. When glucose level in the blood reaches normal range, blood glucose level can in turn directly
control the secretion of insulin levels from the pancreas
12. and prevent further lowering of the glucose level in the blood.
13. A few hormonal regulatory systems operates using “positive feedback mechanism”
14. which is a form of regulation in which an output (or end product) of a process speeds up that
process thereby reinforcing or amplifying the change.
15. Positive feedback mechanisms involving oxytocin hormone operate in childbirth
16. and breast milk ejection.
17. During labour, contractions of uterus are stimulated by oxytocin hormone released by the
posterior pituitary.
18. These contractions force the baby’s head into the uterine cervix
19. stimulating its stretch receptors.
20. In response to stimulation of stretch receptors, sensory neurons are stimulated again triggering
more oxytocin release from the posterior pituitary
21. enhancing contractions of the uterus.
22. This process repeats until the baby is born. Afterwards oxytocin secretion stops as the stimulus
(stretching of the cervix) is no longer present.
23. Another positive feedback mechanism involving oxytocin hormone operates when releasing milk
from the mammary glands
24. During suckling, sensory neurons send the nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary
25. triggering release of oxytocin hormone to the circulating blood.
26. Then oxytocin acts on the mammary glands
27. and induces contractions of smooth muscles in the mammary glands to release milk.
28. Milk release increases the sensory stimulus forming a positive feedback that amplifi es the
stimulus.
29. In response to the positive feedback, more oxytocin is released enhancing milk ejection

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(ii) Describe blood glucose regulation in human

1. In humans, normal blood glucose level is 70 – 110 mg/100 mL

2. In the human body, blood sugar levels are homeostatically controlled by opposing actions of two
hormones secreted by the pancreas
3. They are insulin and glucagon.
4. High blood glucose levels exceeding the normal limits, stimulate the secretion of insulin hormone
5. from beta cells of the islets of Langerhans into the circulating blood.
6. Insulin acts on specific target tissues/ liver, skeletal muscles and somatic cells
7. to promote lowering of the blood glucose level.
8. Insulin in the circulating blood stimulates transport of glucose into the body cells
9. and use of glucose by body cells for ATP production
10. conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle cells for storage,
11. and conversion of glucose to fatty acids and storage of fat in adipose tissues.
12. When glucose level in the blood reaches normal range,
13. blood glucose level can in turn directly control the secretion of insulin levels from the pancreas
through negative feedback.
14. This mechanism prevents further lowering of the glucose level in the blood beyond the normal
limits.
15. Low blood glucose levels below the normal limit, stimulate the secretion of glucagon
16. from alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans into the circulating blood.
17. Glucagon acts on specific target tissues to promote increase of the blood glucose level.
18. Glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscles
19. and release of glucose into blood.
20. When glucose level in the blood reaches normal range,
21. blood glucose level can in turn directly control the secretion of glucagon levels from the pancreas
through negative feedback
22. which prevents further increasing of the glucose level in the blood beyond the normal limits.

10. Write short notes on following.

(i) Blood clotting process
1. When a tissue is damaged, blood flows from it and coagulates to form a blood clot.
2. This prevents further blood loss and entry of pathogenic microorganisms
3. In general the blood in undamaged vessels does not clot.
4. When the blood vessel is damaged the connective tissues of the vessel wall is exposed.
5. Therefore platelets in the blood adhere to the collagen fibers in the connective tissue
6. and release substance that makes close by platelets sticky.
7. This platelet plug provides instant protection against blood loss.
8. Then platelets release clotting factors.
9. They trigger the formation of thrombin from prothrombin
10. Then thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin.
11. Next this fibrin aggregates into threads that form a network of the clot.
12. The activated thrombin is also involved in formation of more thrombin which completes the
formation of blood clot.

(ii) Internal respiration

1. Gas exchange at the alveoli and in the tissues is a continuous process

2. Internal respiration means movement of O2 from blood to the tissues and CO2 from tissues to the
blood

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3. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 requires partial pressure gradients between blood and tissues during
internal respiration
4. Blood reaching the tissues in the systemic capillaries have a higher PO2 and a lower PCO2 than
in the tissues.
5. These partial pressure gradients result in the net diffusion of O2 from the blood stream into the
tissue
6. Near tissues, HCO3- ions in blood dissociate in to CO2 and H2O
7. Which is catalyzed by Carbonic anhydrase enzyme
8. Carbaminohemoglobin in blood dissociates in to CO2 and hemoglobin
9. This increases partial pressure of CO2 in blood compared to tissue cells
10. and CO2 diffusion from the cells into the blood stream
11. across the extracellular fluid/interstitial fluid.
12. This is called unloading of O2 and loading of CO2 .
13. Then the blood returns to heart and pumped to lungs again.

(iii) Structure of hepatic lobule

1. Hepatic lobule is hexagonal in shape
2. Outer connective tissue capsule is called Glison capsule.
3. Every corner of the lobule contains a portal triad which includes,
4. A branch of hepatic artery
5. A branch of hepatic portal vein
6. A branch of Bile duct
7. Central vein is located at the center of the lobule
8. Which is a branch of hepatic vein
9. Structural unit is hepatocyte
10. Which is a cuboidal shaped cell
11. These are arranged as pairs of radial columns from the central vein.
12. A small canal called bile canaculus is located between two columns of hepatocytes.
13. There are blood filled cavities with branches of vessels of hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein
14. Called sinusoids
15. In between two pairs of columns of hepatocytes.
16. which consists of partially developed blood capillaries branched from hepatic artery hepatic
portal vein.
17. Blood sinusoids are lined by amoeboid shaped cells known as kupffer cells.

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