MITOCHONDRIA AND PLASTIDS

MITOCHONDRIA
What is MITOCHONDRIA?
The term 'mitochondrion' is gotten from the Greek words "mitos" and "chondrion" which
signifies "string" and "granules-like", separately. It was first portrayed by a German
pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890.
Mitochondria are double membrane bounded cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) found
in the cytoplasm of practically all eukaryotic (cells with obviously characterized nucleus), the
primary function of which is to generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's
biochemical reactions. . Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is put away in a small
atom called Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondria contain their own small
chromosomes. As well as generating energy, mitochondria store calcium for cells signaling
activities, create heat, and intervene cell death (apoptosis) and growth.

STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA:
Mitochondria are ordinarily round to oval in shape and reach in size from 0.5 to 10 μm.
Mitochondria are small and are not apparent under the microscope except if they are stained.
Mitochondria are parted into various compartments or areas, every one of which completes

1|Page
particular jobs. In contrast to different organelles (small organs inside the cell), they have two
membranes, an external one and an internal one. Every membrane has various functions.

The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material
called the matrix. The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and
phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space.
Some of the major regions include:

 Outer membrane: Small molecules can pass freely through the outer membrane.
 Intermembrane space: This is the area between the inner and outer membranes.
 Inner membrane: This membrane holds proteins that have several roles.
 Cristae: These are the folds of the inner membrane.

1. Outer Membrane:
The external mitochondrial membrane is similar more with the plasma membrane in structure
and composition. The external membrane covers the outer layer of the mitochondrion and has an

2|Page
enormous number of unique proteins known as porins. Porins in the external membrane permit
small particles to be traded between the cytoplasm and the intermembrane space. It is
uninhibitedly porous to particles, supplement atoms, energy particles like the ADP and ATP
atoms.

2. Intermembrane Space:
It is the space between the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondria, it has the same
composition as that of the cell’s cytoplasm. There is a difference in the protein content in the
intermembrane space

3. Inner Mitochondrial Membrane:

The inner mitochondrial layer is wealthy in numerous compounds, coenzymes, and different
parts of electron transport chain. It likewise contains proton siphons and numerous permease
proteins for the transport of different atoms like citrates, ADP, phosphate, and ATP.
The inward mitochondrial layer gives out finger-like outgrowths (cristae) towards the lumen of
the mitochondrion and contains tennis-racket formed F1 particles that contain ATP-ase enzyme
for ATP union. The internal mitochondrial layer is totally impermeable even to little particles
(except for O2, CO2, and H2O).Numerous carriers in the inner membrane guarantee the import
and commodity of significant metabolites.

4. Cristae:
These are the folds of the inner membrane. They increase the surface area of the membrane,
therefore increasing the space available for chemical reactions.

5. Mitochondrial Matrix:
The mitochondrial matrix which is the fluid (colloidal) region circled by the internal layer,
contains the solvent compounds of the Krebs cycle which totally oxidize the acetyl-CoA to

3|Page
create CO2, H2O and hydrogen particles. Hydrogen particles decrease the atoms of NAD and
FAD, the two of which give hydrogen particles to respiratory or electron transport chain where
oxidative phosphorylation happens to produce energy-rich ATP atoms.

Mitochondria also contain in their matrix single or double circular and double-stranded DNA
molecules called mt DNA and also the 55S ribosomes, called mitoribosomes. Since
mitochondria can synthesize 10 percent of their proteins in their own protein-synthetic
machinery, they are considered as semi-autonomous organelles.

FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell. They help turn the energy we
take from food into energy that the cell can use. But, there is more to mitochondria than energy
production.
Although the best-known role of mitochondria is energy production, they carry out other
important tasks as well. In fact, only about 3 percent of the genes needed to make a
mitochondrion go into its energy production equipment. The vast majority are involved in other
jobs that are specific to the cell type where they are found. Below, we cover a few of the roles of
the mitochondria:

Energy production:
ATP, a complex organic chemical found in all forms of life, is often referred to as the molecular
unit of currency because it powers metabolic processes. Most ATP is produced in mitochondria
through a series of reactions, known as the citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle.
Energy production mostly takes place on the folds or cristae of the inner membrane.
Mitochondria convert chemical energy from the food we eat into an energy form that the cell can
use. This process is called oxidative phosphorylation. The Krebs cycle produces a chemical

4|Page
called NADH. NADH is used by enzymes embedded in the cristae to produce ATP. In
molecules of ATP, energy is stored in the form of chemical bonds. When these chemical bonds
are broken, the energy can be used.

Cell death:
Cell death, also called apoptosis, is an essential part of life. As cells become old or broken, they
are cleared away and destroyed. Mitochondria help decide which cells are destroyed.
Mitochondria release cytochrome C, which activates caspase, one of the chief enzymes involved
in destroying cells during apoptosis. Because certain diseases, such as cancer, involve a
breakdown in normal apoptosis, mitochondria are thought to play a role in the disease.

Storing calcium:
Calcium is vital for a number of cellular processes. For instance, releasing calcium back into a
cell can initiate the release of a neurotransmitter from a nerve cell or hormones from endocrine
cells. Calcium is also necessary for muscle function, fertilization, and blood clotting, among
other things. Because calcium is so critical, the cell regulates it tightly. Mitochondria play a part
in this by quickly absorbing calcium ions and holding them until they are needed.
Other roles for calcium in the cell include regulating cellular metabolism, steroid synthesis, and
hormone signalingTrusted Source.

5|Page
Heat production:
When we are cold, we shiver to keep warm. But the body can also generate heat in other ways,
one of which is by using a tissue called brown fat.
During a process called proton leakTrusted Source, mitochondria can generate heat. This is
known as non-shivering thermogenesis. Brown fat is found at its highest levels in babies, when
we are more susceptible to cold, and slowly levels reduce as we age.

Plastid:
One of the distinctive features of a plant cell is the presence of plastids.

What is plastid???
The plastid (Greek: plastós: formed, molded – plural plastids) is a double membrane bound
organelle involved in the synthesis and storage of food. They usually found in the cells of plants,
algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms. They often contain pigments used in
photosynthesis, and the types of pigments in a plastid determine the cell's color.
The three kinds of plastids are:
1. Chromoplast.
2. Chloroplast.
3. Leucoplasts.

1. Chromoplast:

6|Page
Chromoplasts are plastids and contain carotenoids. They lack chlorophyll. Chromoplasts may
develop from green chloroplasts.

Structure of Chromoplast:

Using Light Microscope:

Using a light microscope chromoplasts can be differentiated and are classified into four main
types.

I. The first type is composed of proteic stroma with granules.

II. The second is composed of protein crystals and amorphous pigment granules.
III. The third type is composed of protein and pigment crystals.
IV. The fourth type only contains crystals. 

Using Electron Microscope:

An electron microscope reveals even more, allowing for the identification of substructures such
as globules, crystals, membranes, fibrils and tubules.

The substructures found in chromoplasts are not found in the mature plastid that it divided from.

7|Page
Functions of Chromoplast:
Carotenoid pigments in chromoplast are responsible for different colors like yellow, orange and
red color imparted to fruits, flowers, old leaves, roots, etc.

The chromoplast is a coloring agent which attracts the insects and insects are the mode of
transportation as they take anther to the stigma. So, in this way they help in pollination.

2. Chloroplast:

Chloroplast is an organelle that contains the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that captures
sunlight and converts it into useful energy, thereby, releasing oxygen from water.
Chloroplasts are found in all green plants and algae. They are the food producers of plants.
These are found in the guard cells located in the leaves of the plants. They contain a high
concentration of chlorophyll that traps sunlight. This cell organelle is not present in animal cells.
Chloroplast has its own DNA and can reproduce independently, from the rest of the cell. They
also produce amino acids and lipids required for the production of chloroplast membrane.

8|Page
Structure of Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are found in all higher plants. It is oval or biconvex, found within the mesophyll of
the plant cell. The size of the chloroplast usually varies between 4-6 µm in diameter and 1-3 µm
in thickness. They are double-membrane organelle with the presence of outer, inner and
intermembrane space. There are two distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as the
grana and stroma.

 Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids. The grana of

the chloroplast consist of chlorophyll pigments and are the functional units of chloroplasts.
 Stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in
cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains various enzymes,
DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae function by connecting the stacks
of thylakoid sacs.
The chloroplast structure consists of the following parts:
1. Membrane envelop:
It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes. The inner membrane separates the stroma
from the intermembrane space.
2. Inter-membranal space:
The space between inner and outer membranes.
3. Thylakoids:
The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids.
The green colored pigments called chlorophyll are found in the thylakoid membranes. It is the
sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of the photosynthesis process. The thylakoids
are arranged in stacks known as grana and each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
4. Grana:

9|Page
These are the sites of conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
5. Chlorophyll:
It is a green photosynthetic pigment that helps in the process of photosynthesis.
6. Stroma:
Stroma is a colorless, alkaline, aqueous, protein-rich fluid present within the inner membrane of
the chloroplast present surrounding the grana.

Functions of Chloroplast:
 Chloroplasts are the organelles inside plant cells that capture light energy to make sugars.
 Chloroplasts convert light energy into relatively stable chemical energy via the
photosynthetic process. By doing so, they sustain life on Earth.
 Chloroplasts, along with the nucleus, cell membrane, and endoplasmic reticulum, are key
players in pathogen defense. After detecting stress in a cell, chloroplasts begin producing
molecules like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen
species which can serve as defense-signals. 
 In addition to defense signaling, Chloroplasts synthesize all the fatty acids in a plant cell.
3. Leucoplasts:

10 | P a g e
Leucoplasts are a category of plastid and as such are organelles found in plant cells. They are
non-pigmented, in contrast to other plastids such as the chloroplast.
They lack photosynthetic pigments. Leucoplasts are not green and are located in non-
photosynthetic tissues of plants, such as roots, bulbs and seeds.

Functions
 They may be specialized for bulk storage of starch, lipid or protein and are then known as
amyloplasts, elaioplasts, or proteinoplasts (also called aleuroplasts) respectively.
 Leucoplasts are colorless plastids and occur in plant cells not exposed to light, such as
roots and seeds.
 They are colorless due the absent of pigments.
 Leucoplasts sometimes differentiate into more specialized plastids, starch grain, oils,
proteins and lipids are stored.
 The synthesis of fatty acids, amino acids.

Types of leucoplasts:

11 | P a g e
There are 4 main types of leucoplasts on the basis of material they store. They include:
1. Amyloplasts: for starch storage and detecting gravity
2. Elaioplasts: for lipids storage
3. Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein
4. Tannosomes: for synthesizing and producing tannins and polyphenols.

12 | P a g e
References:
1.

13 | P a g e