The Cell Cycle

Course Instructor
Dr. Mahendra Ram
Department of Chemical and
Biochemical Engineering
Email: mahendra.cbe@iitp.ac.in

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA

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 Background check: What is a Chromosome ?

❑ Chromosome is an organized (condensed) form of

DNA and associated proteins found in nucleus of cells.

❑ Transmits the hereditary information into daughter

cells.

❑ In nucleus, genetic material is found in form of thin

fibers called as Chromatin which is made up of long
chain of DNA molecules.

❑ These DNA molecules are supercoiled (folded) around

Histone proteins.

❑ During cell division, chromatin is converted into

chromosomes. 2
What is a Chromosome ?

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How Chromosomes are formed ?

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Structure of Chromosome (duplicated)
(TTAGGG)

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▪ Homologues: a pair of chromosome
having same genes, but different
alleles one inherited from mother
and another from father.
▪ Sister chromatids: same genes,
same alleles.
▪ Alleles: two or more alternative
forms of a gene that arise by
mutation and are found at the same
place on a chromosome.

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❖ Microtubules are
made of Tubulin
protein.

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 Key facts about Chromosomes !!

❑ Total 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human

body cell (total 46 chromosomes). No. of
Eukaryotes
❑ These numbers may vary in Eukaryotes. chromosomes
❑ Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs are autosomes Human 46
while one pair is the sex chromosome
Monkey 42
(allosome, XY in male and XX in female).
❑ Two complete sets of chromosomes, one Dogs 78
from each parent: diploid cells (2n) Frog 26
❑ Only single set of chromosomes (total 23 Potato 48
only): haploid cells (n)
Sun flower 34
❑ In humans, gametes (reproductive cells) are
haploid cells such as sperm and egg cells. Butterfly 380
❑ In Eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear Onion 16
whereas in Bacteria it is circular (plasmid).
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• (1-22) pairs of
chromosome:
autosome.

• Autosomes are
homologues.

• 23rd pair of
Chromosome:
sex chromosome

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 The Cell Cycle

❑ Billions of cells die and are generated daily.

❑ A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and
divides.

❑ Required during development, growth and repair/maintenance of

tissues/organs or during reproduction.

❑ Responsible for transfer of life from one cell to other.

❑ Three major steps are involved: cell growth, DNA replication (synthesis) and
cell division (Mitosis/Meiosis).

❑ Parent cell divide into daughter cells (2 daughter cells in Mitosis while 4
daughter cells in Meiosis).
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 Cell Cycle (in Eukaryotes)

❑ The complete cell cycle takes around 12-20 hrs.

❑ Two main phases:
1. Interphase (preparatory phase)
• Interphase = G1 + S + G2
• Cell prepares itself for division.
• DNA is replicated.
• Organelles are duplicated.
• Cell increases in size.

2. M phase (mitotic phase)

• Cell division takes place (except in heart, muscle and nerve cells).
• M phase = Mitosis + Cytokinesis
• Nucleus divides (Mitosis), Cytoplasm divides (Cytokinesis).
• New daughter cells are formed.
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 Cell Cycle
Note:
• Not always a cell divides.

• When it is not dividing, it

leaves the cycle and enters
into G0 phase which is
called as resting phase
(active but not dividing).
Example: Neurons (nerve
cells)

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 Interphase
❑ Cell growth and DNA replication takes place.
❑ Referred as “Preparatory phase”.
❑ Cells spend most of the time (~ 90%) in interphase.
❑ Consists of three phases:
1) G1 Phase (Gap 1: 1 st growth stage)
• Cellular contents like organelles (excluding chromosomes) are
duplicated, proteins are produced, cells grow in size.
• G1/S check point ensures that everything is ready for DNA replication.
2) S Phase (Synthesis)
• DNA replication takes place and genetic material is duplicated (2 sister
chromatids are formed).
3) G2 Phase (Gap 2: 2nd growth stage)
• Preparation for M phase (cell division or Mitosis).
• Cell continues to grow, centrosome duplicates.
• G2/M check point ensures that everything is ready for cell division. 14
 M Phase (Mitotic phase or Cell division)

❑ Chromosome separation and cell division occurs to form genetically identical

cells.
❑ Relatively short period of cell cycle.
❑ Consists of two phases:
1) Mitosis phase (nuclear division)
Made up of four distinct phases:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
2) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)
• Cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane divide.
• Formation of two identical daughter cells having exact copies of
chromosomes.
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 Mitosis Cell Division (Karyokinesis : nuclear division)
❑ Discovered by German scientist Walther Flemming.
❑ Occurs in somatic cells (diploid) only.
❑ Set of 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase
and Telophase (known as PMAT).
1) Prophase:
• First stage of cell division.
• Longest phase in Mitosis.
• Nucleolus disappears.
• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
• Movement of centrosomes (a pair of centrioles:
triplets of microtubules) towards the opposite
poles of the cell.
• Formation of mitotic spindle between
centrosomes using microtubule fibers. 16
 Mitosis (contd.)

2) Metaphase:
• Second phase of Mitosis.
• Lasts only for few minutes.
• Centrosomes are placed at the poles of the
cell.
• Chromosomes are aligned at the center of
the cell (at the equator).
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes
is referred as metaphase plate.
• Spindle fibers are attached to the
chromosomes at the centromere (kinetochore
protein) and align them.
• Nuclear membrane completely disappears.
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 Mitosis (contd.)

3) Anaphase:
• Third phase of Mitosis.

• Spindle fibers shorten and pull

chromosomes apart towards the opposite
poles.

• Sister chromatids separate at the centromere.

• Half of each chromosome (called as

chromatids) moves to the opposite ends of
the cell.

• Cell elongates towards the poles.

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 Mitosis (contd.)

4) Telophase:
• Last phase of Mitosis.

• Reformation of nuclear membrane around

separated chromosomes.

• Chromosomes unfold back into chromatids.

• Spindle fibers disappear.

• Nucleolus reappear.

• Cell continues to elongate.

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 Cytokinesis
❑ Takes place after telophase. Cleavage furrow in animal cells
❑ Final stage of cell cycle, different in animals
and plants.
❑ Cytoplasm divides into two parts.
❑ Organelles distribute into two parts.
❑ Cell contract at the center and two new
diploid cells are formed each having one
nucleus.
❑ New cells are identical (clone) to the parent
cell and have same number of chromosomes.
❑ Size of the daughter cell may vary (may differ
in cellular content but same in nuclear
content).

Note: In Prokaryotes, cell division takes place by binary fission (~ 25 min) NOT by Mitosis. 20
 Cytokinesis in plant cells

In plant cells, during cytokinesis, a cell plate is formed which divides the cell into two parts.
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 Complete Cell Cycle

(G1/S restriction)

(G2/M restriction)

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 Meiosis (reproduction or sex cell formation: gametes)

❑ A process where a single parent cell divides twice to produce four

daughter cells containing half the original amount of genetic material.

❑ Occurs in sex cells (gametes) – sperm in males, eggs in females.

❑ One diploid cell produces 4 haploid cells.

❑ Number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is halved, i.e., in

humans gametes (haploid) have 23 chromosomes only [while somatic
cells (diploid) have 46 chromosomes].

❑ Occurs during sexual reproduction.

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❑ Meiosis “shuffles” the genes (genetic crossover in some part of the chromatids)
so that the an individual’s gametes are genetically different from one another.
❑ Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids
of homologous chromosomes. This crossover happens in Prophase-I.

A A a a A a A A a a
B B b b B b B B b b
C C c c C c C c C c

Chromosome crossover in Prophase-I

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 Meiosis (contd.)
❑ Until Interphase, both Mitosis and
Meiosis are same.

❑ After Interphase, a cell goes

through M-phase twice, i.e.,
Interphase ⟶
followed by
Prophase-I ⟶ Metaphase-I ⟶
Anaphase-I ⟶ Telophase-I ⟶
Cytokinesis-I ⟶
followed by
Prophase-II ⟶ Metaphase-II ⟶
Anaphase-II ⟶ Telophase-II ⟶
Cytokinesis-II
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Meiosis-I (separates homologous chromosomes)

Prophase–I involves:
❑ Synapsis: Pairing
of homologous
chromosomes
forming tetrads.

❑ Crossing-over:
Exchange of
genes between
non-sister
chromatids at
points of contact
(Chiasma).
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Meiosis-II (separates sister chromatids)

❑ 4 haploid
daughter cells
are obtained
after Meiosis-
II.
❑ Each daughter
cell has 23
chromosomes

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 Meiosis
Cell-Division
Cycle

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Mitosis vs. Meiosis
at a glance in
humans:
# of Chromosomes

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 Mitosis Meiosis
• Diploids (2n) are produced from diploids (2n). • Haploids (n) are produced from diploids (2n).
In humans: n = 23
• 2 daughter cells are generated. • 4 daughter cells are generated.
• Number of chromosomes remain the same in • Number of chromosomes is halved in each
daughter cells (total 46). daughter cell (23 only).
• Occurs during cellular reproduction for growth • Occurs during sexual reproduction. Only
and repair. Takes place in all somatic cells reproductive/germ cells participate (eggs,
except nerve cells, RBCs. sperms).
• Daughter cells are genetically identical to each • Genetic variation may happen in daughter cells
other and to parent cell. (due to crossing over).
• Only one cell division (4 phases: PMAT). • Two cell division one after another (8 phases:
PMAT-I + PMAT-II).
• Synapsis of homologous chromosomes does not • During Metaphase-I, homologous chromosomes
occur. pair up along their length forming tetrads (group
of 4 chromatids), crossing over between non-
sister chromatids occurs. 32
Some useful information:

❖ RBCs are not produced by Mitosis/Meiosis as they don’t have nucleus,

DNA, or mitochondria.

❖ RBCs are produced from stem cells in bone marrow after losing nucleus
and other organelles.

❖ Uncontrolled division of cells (Mitosis) causes cancer (tumor cells).

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 Sexual reproduction

❑ Fusion (fertilization) of two gametes (n) to produce a single zygote (2n).

❑ Fertilization of a sperm and an egg results in a unique offspring.

❑ A special feature called as Genetic shuffling occurs in Meiosis:

• Crossing over in Prophase-I (creates new combination of genes on each
chromosome, results in mixing of genes inherited from parents).

• Independent assortment in Metaphase-I (random

alignment/arrangement of homologous chromosomes results in several
possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes, 2n = 223 =
~ 8 million possible combinations).

❑ 1 sperm cell (1 of 8 million possible chromosome combinations) x 1 egg cell

(1 of 8 million possible chromosome combinations) = 64 trillion (1012) diploid
combinations. 35
2n = 22 = 4
possible
combinations
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