RNA and Protein

Synthesis
 The Role of RNA
 RNA molecules have many
functions, but in the
majority of cells, most RNA
molecules are involved in
protein synthesis.
 Protein synthesis is the
assembly of amino acids
into proteins.

Types of RNA
The RNA produced during transcription is modified into 3
basic types:
 1. messenger RNA (mRNA) copies one segment

(or gene)on one strand of DNA in the nucleus

and carries that information to the ribosome.
 2. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) makes up a large
part of the ribosome and is responsible for
reading and decoding mRNA.
 3. transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to
the ribosome where they are joined to form
proteins.

http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/zencmed/targets/illus/ilt/T068340A.gif
 Protein Synthesis
 During protein synthesis, genes
copied onto RNA are expressed by the
production of specific types of
proteins.
 Protein synthesis involves two
processes:
 1. Transcription – process in which a

RNA copy of a segment (gene) of

DNA is made.
 2. Translation – the decoding of
mRNA message into a polypeptide
chain (protein).
 Transcription
Transcription occurs on the DNA in the
nucleus.
RNA Polymerase binds to DNA at a
promoter and separates the DNA
strands.
RNA Polymerase uses one strand of
DNA as a template to assemble
complementary nucleotides into a
strand of RNA.
Transcribed mRNA leaves the nucleus
and goes to the ribosome.
Transcription Practice
DNA: AACTGGTACGTA
mRNA: UUGACCAUGCAU

DNA: ATGTTCACTGGA
mRNA: UACAAGUGACCU

DNA: GTTCATGCATAT
mRNA: CAAGUACGUAUA

DNA: TGCCATCGATTC
mRNA: ACGGUAGCUAAG

DNA: CTGATGCTGATA
 Decoding mRNA
 The sequence of bases in an mRNA
molecule serves as instructions for the
order in which amino acids are joined to
produce a polypeptide.
 Ribosomes decode these instructions by
using codons, sets of 3 bases that each
code for one amino acid.
 Each codon is matched to an anticodon
on the tRNA to determine the order of the
amino acids.

http://www.gwu.edu/~darwin/BiSc150/One/codon.gif
Translation-occurs in the cytoplasm at the
ribosomes.
 mRNA attaches to a ribosome
 Translation begins at AUG, the start
codon
 tRNA brings an amino acid to the
ribosome
 The tRNA binds to the mRNA by
matching its anticodon to the codon
the mRNA
 The ribosome moves along the mRNA
as each tRNA drops of its amino acid
 The ribosome joins amino
acids with peptide bonds and
the tRNAs leave the ribosome
 The process continues until
the ribosome reaches the STOP
codon
 The result is a polypeptide.
(protein)
 Using a Codon Chart
 A codon chart
can be used to
determine the
sequence of
the amino
acids in the
polypeptide.
http://www.safarikscience.org/biologyhome/7_dna/

 The mRNA
bases or
CODONS are
codon_question.png

used to find
the amino acid.
CODON CHART
 Decoding Practice
 For the following examples, give the appropriate
mRNA sequence and amino acid sequence.
(Remember: U replaces T in mRNA.)

Example 1:
DNA: TAC GCA TGG
AAT
mRNA: AUG CGU ACC
UUA
Example
Amino 2:
Acids: Met Arg Thr
Leu
DNA: CGT GGA GAT ATT
mRNA: GCA CCU CUA UAA
tRNA: CGU GGA GAU AUU
Amino Acids: Ala Pro Leu stop
 DNA – The Code for Life

Question: Why don’t we all

look alike?
 All Living Things…
 Have cells.
 All cells contain the genetic instructions
that make an organism unique. 
Adapted to environment, appearance,
preferences, behaviors, survival instincts,
etc.
 The Function of DNA
 The DNA molecule
contains all of your
hereditary
information in the
form of genes.
 Genes are portions
of the DNA molecule
that code for the
production of
specific types of
proteins.
 However, DNA is
confined to the http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/images/genes.gif

nucleus, while
proteins are made by
ribosomes in the
 Comparing DNA and RNA
 RNA is the nucleic acid
that acts as a messenger
between DNA and the
ribosomes.
 The RNA produced during
transcription is
structurally different from
DNA in 3 basic ways:
 1. The sugar in RNA is

ribose whereas the

sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose.
 2. RNA is single
stranded while DNA is
double stranded. http://www.dkimages.com/discover/previews/769/85011519.JPG
 DNA

We get our genetic

codes/instructions from DNA
that is located inside every cell.
 Discovery of DNA
Rosalind Franklin - Invented X-ray diffraction
photography. Photo used
to determine the shape of
DNA is spiral.
DISCOVERY OF DNA
James Watson and Francis
Crick used the information
from Franklin and other
scientists to build a 3-D
model of DNA.

Won the
Nobel Peace
Prize in
Chemistry in
1961.
 Structure of DNA
Shape of DNA - Like a twisted rope ladder.

This shape is called Double

Helix.

A single spiral would be

called Helix.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
Side Pieces (The Rope Part)
Are alternating units of
a (1) five-carbon sugar
and a (2) phosphate
group. These go down
both sides of the
molecule
phosphate

Sugar (called deoxyribose)

 STRUCTURE OF DNA
Nitrogen Bases (Steps of the ladder) -
1. Adenine – A
2. Thymine – T
3. Cytosine – C
4. Guanine - G

The bases are

connected to the
sugar only !!!!!
 STRUCTURE OF DNA
The nitrogen bases fit together in this way:

Adenine always goes

with Thymine

Cytosine always goes

with Guanine

The bases are held together by a weak hydrogen

bond. Two (2) bonds between A and T, three (3)
bonds between C and G.
Purines and Pyrimidines
Purines: A & G
Pyrimidines: T & C

Both basically serve the same

purpose but structure
is different. Structure allows
these to be used in different
ways in cells

Purines- 2 carbon-nitrogen
rings, 4 nitrogen
atoms

Pyrimidines-1 carbon-nitrogen
ring, 2 nitrogen atoms
 STRUCTURE OF DNA

These three parts form the basic unit of DNA

called the NUCLEOTIDE. (subunits of DNA)

phosphate

Nitrogen base
Sugar Can be A, T, C or G
(deoxyribose)
 STRUCTURE OF DNA
The nitrogen bases fit together in this way:

Adenine always goes

with Thymine

Cytosine always goes

with Guanine

The bases are held together by a weak hydrogen

bond. Two (2) bonds between A and T, three (3)
bonds between C and G.
 phosphate
adenine
sugar
thymine

cytocine

guanine
STRUCTURE OF DNA

One complete
turn of the
double helix is
10 base pairs or
10 steps on the
ladder
DNA Nucleotide Drawing
 Where is DNA located?

 DNA molecules are coiled up inside of EVERY

SINGLE CELL!
 The structures that DNA is coiled into are called
CHROMOSOMES.  This is how the DNA molecules
actually fit inside of tiny cells.
 Chromosomes

 Definition: The structure that DNA is organized in.

 They come in pairs, half from each parent.
 NUMBERS OF CHROMOSOMES VS
COMPLEXITY
The number of chromosomes in the cells of eukaryotes
differs from one kind of organism to another and has
NOTHING to do with the complexity of the organism.

FOR EXAMPLE:

Goldfish - 98
Wheat - 42

Human - 46
Potato - 48
Fruit fly - 8

A fern called Ophioglossum reticulatum has 1,260

chromosomes per cell, more than any other known organism.
 CHROMOSOME ARRANGEMENT
All regular body cells have all the same parts in
multi-cellular organisms and the same # of
chromosomes.
There are 46 chromosomes in human body cells.
Chromosomes always come in pairs.
In humans there are 46 chromosomes for a
total 22 of pairs.
of 23 the pairs are
similar.
The 23rd pair is
different.
These are the sex
chromosomes.
Male xy
Female xx
 CHROMOSOME ARRANGEMENT
HUMAN BODY CELLS HAVE 46
CHROMOSOMES OR 23 PAIRS.

Bone cell

Nerve cell

BULLFROG BODY CELLS

HAVE 26
CHROMOSOMES OR 13
FRUIT FLY BODY CELLS HAVE 8
PAIR. OR 4 PAIR.
CHROMOSOMES
Gene: segment of DNA on your
chromosomes that determines
your traits.
Traits
• Characteristics about an organism that are
determined by the information carried on
genes (segments of DNA).
Siblings???
 If you have a sibling, and you both get the DNA from your (same)
mom & dad, why don’t you look exactly alike?????
Siblings
 Since sex cells only get half the number of chromosomes, each sex
cell does not get the same exact half.
 During sex cell formation, chromosomes randomly reconnect to form
a new gene variety.
 (We will talk about this more in reproduction… next unit…)
 How does DNA copy itself?

Purpose: DNA copies itself to ensure that each

new cell that is produced gets the correct number
of chromosomes and receives an EXACT copy
of the DNA molecule.
This is called DNA REPLICATION.
The DNA molecule serves
as its own pattern or
template so as an exact
copy can be made.
 STEPS OF DNA REPLICATION

1. DNA untwists and unzips down the hydrogen

bonds. This is why the bonds had to be WEAK.

2. New nucleotides fill in the naked ends produced

by the unzipping process.

3. Nucleotides continue to fill in until the entire

strand is complete.

4. This results in 2 new identical DNA molecules.

What happens when there is a
problem during replication?
 A permanent change in the sequence of DNA is
known as a mutation
 (a small change that occurs during replication but is
caught/corrected is known as a point mutation)
DNA REPLICATION
What if there is a
mistake?
There is always a chance
that the wrong
nucleotide bonds to
another. HOWEVER,
DNA has a special
enzyme that is
responsible for
“reading” the bases and
recognizing and
replacing damaged or
wrong nucleotides. This
PROOFREADING
allows for only one (1)
error in ONE BILLION
nucleotides.
 Possible causes of mutations
 Error during replication
 Error during fertilization (reproduction)
 Outside factors such as X-rays and chemical have ben
known to change or breakdown chromosomes
 Common mutations (in humans)
 Pimples/acne, high fertility (twins), heart disease,
diabetes, stroke, high blood pressure, color blindness,
heterochromia (two different colors in one eye OR two
different colored eyes), red hair, down syndrome, blue
eyes, freckles
Different types of mutations
Different types of mutations:
Substitution/Inversion

 Switches a section of base pairs

 Switching an A or a G
Different types of mutations:
Insertion and Deletion

 Insertion= extra base pairs are inserted into a new plane

 Deletion= a section of DNA is lost or deleted

 Different types of mutations:
Duplication

 A piece of DNA
is abnormally
copied one or
more times