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Prayer
 PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS IN DNA
and
MUTATION
EXPLAIN HOW A PROTEIN IS MADE USING INFORMATION
FROM DNA (S10LT - IIID -37)
EXPLAIN HOW MUTATIONS MAY CAUSE CHANGES IN THE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A PROTEIN (S10LT - IIIE -38)
MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES (MELCS)
EXPLAIN HOW A PROTEIN IS MADE USING INFORMATION FROM
DNA (S10LT - IIID -37)
EXPLAIN HOW MUTATION MAY CAUSE CHANGES IN THE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A PROTEIN (S10LT - IIIE -38)

At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:

 
a. explain how a protein is made using information from
DNA;
b. calculate the percentage bases in a DNA strand using
Chargaff’s rule; and
c. explain how mutation may cause changes in the
structure and function of a protein.
Building a house usually requires
a blueprint, or a plan of the
structure of the house to
determine how it would look like
after constructions.
Organisms have blueprints that
contains information that will
determine their physical and
chemical characteristics. This
blueprint is called as
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Molecular structure of DNA

 linear sequence of nucleotides (primary structure)

 James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick
established the structure of the DNA in 1953.
 Let’s check if you are equip for this
lesson.
1. What are the components of the DNA
& RNA?
2. What is the structural difference
between DNA and RNA?
3. List the four nitrogenous base of
mRNA.
4. List the four nitrogenous base of
DNA.
5. How many strands does RNA have?
6. How many strands does DNA have?
 Nucleotide

Phosphate group Nucleoside

2-deoxy-D-ribose Nitrogen bases

purines pyrimidines
a. Adenine a. Thymine
b. Guanine b. Cytosine
Evidences used to propose DNA
structure:

 A DNA polymer consists of nucleotides

linked by 3’ – 5’ phosphodiester bonds.
 DNA base composition follows Chargaff’s
rules, i.e.,
A = T; G = C or
Purines = Pyrimidines
Evidences used to propose DNA
structure:
 Purified native DNA can be denatured by gentle
heating. The denatured DNA exhibits marked
changes in physical properties (viscosity), but
there would be no cleavage of covalent bonds.

 The x-ray diffraction patterns of DNA fibers

indicate the helical structure of the molecule.
The Watson and Crick
Model
(1521) From DNA to protein - 3D - YouTube
 DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary
material of most living creatures. It carries
genetic information that determines all types of
plant lives. DNA replication is a process by
which a single DNA molecule is copied, resulting
in two identical molecules prior to the cell
division. The accuracy and precision in DNA
replication has ensured the continuity of life from
generation to generation.
 Each strand is made up of a five-carbon
sugar (2′-deoxyribose), phosphoric acid, and four
nitrogen-containing bases. Two bases are purines,
which have a double ring structure; the other two
are pyrimidines, which contain a single ring. The
purine bases are adenine (A) and guanine (G),
while the pyrimidine bases are thymine (T) and
cytosine (C).
Base composition studies

Erwin Chargaff
- chromatographic methods to separate
the four bases in DNA samples from
various organisms.
Chargaff’s conclusions

The amount of adenine residues is

proportional to the amount of thymine
residues in DNA. Also, the amount of
guanine residues is proportional to the
amount of cytosine residues.
 Chargaff’s conclusions
 Based on the proportionality, the sum of the
purines (A + G) equals the sum of the
pyrimidines (C + T).

NOTE: The percentage of G + C does not

necessarily equal the percentage of A + T.
This ratio varies greatly in different
organisms.
How to calculate the percentage of bases in a
DNA strand using Chargaff’s rule?
According to Chargaff’s rule, the concentration of guanine
always equaled the concentration of cytosine. In other
words,

amount of purine = amount of pyrimidine in a given

DNA molecule
[A]+[G]=[C]+[T]

Adenine (A) is paired to Thymine (T) by 2 hydrogen bonds

Cytosine (C) is paired to Guanine (G) by 3 hydrogen bonds
 The central dogma of the transfer of genetic information states that the
sequence involved in the expression of heredity characteristics is that
DNA forms RNA forms Proteins. During protein synthesize, it occurs
in two sequential steps namely: transcription and translation.
 Transcription- is the process by which the information in a
strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger
RNA (mRNA).
 Translation - is a process that determines the order of bases
in (mRNA) of amino acids into a protein. It occurs in a
ribosome in the cytoplasm.
(mRNA) – messenger RNA
(tRNA) – transfer RNA
(rRNA) – ribosomal RNA
 Three major types of RNA
Ribosomal RNA
 rRNA
 largest; 80% of all RNA
 constitute an important structural
component of ribosomes
Messenger RNA

 mRNA
 carry genetic information from the
DNA of the gene to the ribosome
Transfer RNA

 tRNA
 smallest
 carries amino acids to the ribosome
during translation.
Your DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, contains the
genes that determine who you are.
1. How can this organic molecule control your characteristics?
DNA contains instructions for all the proteins your body makes. Proteins, in turn,
determine the structure and function of all your cells.
2. What determines a protein’s structure?
Itbegins with the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein. Instructions for
making proteins with the correct sequence of amino acids are encoded in DNA.
3. How do the instructions in DNA get to the site of protein synthesis outside the
nucleus?
Another type of nucleic acid is responsible. This nucleic acid is RNA or ribonucleic
acid. RNA is a small molecule that can squeeze through pores in the nuclear membrane.
It carries the information from DNA in the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm and
then helps assemble the protein

in short: DNA → RNA → Protein

 Discovering this sequence of events was a major milestone in molecular
biology. It is called the central dogma of biology. The two processes
involved in the central dogma are transcription and translation.
 Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology:
DNA → RNA. It is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA.
Transcription happens in the nucleus of the cell. During transcription, a
strand of mRNA is made that is complementary to a strand of DNA called
gene. A gene can easily be identified from the DNA sequence.
 Translation is the second part of the central dogma of molecular
biology: RNA --> Protein. It is the process in which the genetic code in
mRNA is read to make a protein. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves
to a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. 
  Translation happens on the ribosomes floating in the cytosol, or on the ribosomes attached to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosome reads the sequence of codons in mRNA, and molecules of
tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence. Just as with mRNA synthesis, protein
synthesis can be divided into three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination.

 Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon for the amino acid it carries. An anticodon is

complementary to the codon for an amino acid. For example, the amino acid lysine has the codon AAG,
so the anticodon is UUC. Therefore, lysine would be carried by a tRNA molecule with
the anticodon UUC. Wherever the codon AAG appears in mRNA, a UUC anticodon of tRNA
temporarily binds. While bound to mRNA, tRNA gives up its amino acid. With the help of rRNA,
bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to the ribosome, creating
a polypeptide chain. The chain of amino acids keeps growing until a stop codon is reached.
Structure of RNA vs. DNA
 ribose sugar  deoxyribose sugar
 Uracil - Adenine  Thymine - Adenine
 single-stranded  double-stranded
 Meiosis Mistakes
“MUTATIONS”
HUMAN CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES
 Mutation occurs when a DNA gene is damage or
change in such a way as to alter the genetic
message carried by that gene.
 A mutagen is an agent of substance that can
bring about a permanent alteration to the physical
composition of a DNA gene that the genetic
message is changed.
 Genetic alterations include chromosomal
abnormalities and gene mutations.
 Chromosomal abnormalities generally arise in
cell division while gene mutations are
permanent changes in DNA gene sequence
Nondisjunction

 Failure of homologous chromosomes to

separate during cell division

Results
1 too many OR 1 too few chromosomes
Chromosomal Abnormalities

 Trisomy:

one too many

47 chromosomes
 Monosomy:

one too few

45 chromosomes
How can we diagnose these
abnormalities?
Karyotypes
Picture of chromosomes in a
dividing (div.) cell
Arranged in order by size
Why might this be useful?

Prenatal testing
Amniocentesis – the sampling
of amniotic fluid using a hallow
needle inserted into uterus, to
screen for developmental
abnormalities in a fetus.
Down’s syndrome
 Short stature
 Round face
 Developmental delays
 Eyelidsthat cover inner
corner of eyes
Trisomy-21
 Klinefelter Syndrome
 1/1000 males
 Post-pubertal testicular failure
 Small testes, hyalinized tubules,
 Azoospermia – absence of (gametes)
sperm in the semen.
 Infertility, variable hypogonadism
 Social pathology
Klinefelter syndrome

48,XXXY
Edward’s syndrome
 Growth deficiency
 Feeding difficulties
 Breathing difficulties
 Developmental delays
 Underdeveloped organs
 Small head
 Low-set, malformed ears
 Cleft lip/palate
 Overlapped, flexed fingers
 Trisomy 18
 Patau syndrome

 heart defects
 sloping forehead,
 small or missing eyes,
 low set ears,
 cleft palate
 extra fingers and toes
 Developmental delays
 Trisomy-13
 Turner syndrome
 1/5,000 females
 Gonadal dysgenesis, disappearance of eggs
 Sexual immaturity
 Amenorrhea – abnormal absence of mentruation
 Infertility
 Short stature – natural height
 Somatic abnormalities
 Something wrong with the second X in
some cells
 Don’t forget the 3Rs!
REVIEW your notes
REFLECT what you have learned
RESPOND to the questions

Have a Spongyday! 
See you next meeting
- Sir Vevs