10

Science
Quarter 3 – Module 4.2:
Explain How Mutations may
cause Changes in Structure and
Function of Protein
Science – Grade 10
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Title
First Edition, 2020

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 10

Science
Quarter 3 – Module 4.2:
Explain How Mutations may
cause Changes in Structure and
Function of Protein
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (LSM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners, can
continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions, directions,
exercises, and discussion are carefully stated for you to understand each lesson.

Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by-steps
you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.
Pre-test are provided to measure your prior knowledge on lessons in each SLM. This
will tell you if you need to proceed on completing this module of if you need to ask
your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of the lesson.
At the end of each module, you need to answer the post-test to self-check your
learning. Answer keys are provided for each activity and test. We trust that you will
be honest in using these.
In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are also provided
to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they can best
help you on your home-based learning.
Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any part of this
LSM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and tests. And read
the instructions carefully before performing each task.
If you have questions in using this SLM or any difficult in answering the task in this
module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.

Thank you.

2
 What I Need to Know

In this module, you are expected to explain how mutations may cause changes
in structure and function of protein.

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the genetic mutation. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with
the textbook you are now using.

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

a. explain how mutations may cause changes in structure and function of a
protein (S10LT-IIIe-38);
b. illustrate the kinds of chromosomal mutations;
c. differentiate the kinds of chromosomal mutations; and
d. value the significant understanding about genetic mutation and how it
may affect one’s life.

3
 What I Know

Directions: Read each item carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer and write
it in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It occurs when the base sequence of DNA is altered which may affect one
gene or the whole chromosome.
A. mutation C. transcription
B. oxidation D. translation

2. The following molecules are proteins EXCEPT:

A. collagen C. enzymes
B. DNA D. hemoglobin

3. It happens when a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to

another chromosome.
A. deletion C. mutation
B. inversion D. translocation

4. Abnormalities in chromosomal structures may occur during ________.

A. meiosis C. replication
B. mitosis D. translation

5. The permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene.

A. gene mutation C. genotype
B. gene therapy D. karyotype

6. Genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

A. Cri du chat syndrome C. Edwards syndrome
B. Down syndrome D. Klinefelter syndrome

7. Mutation may induce by factors called ________, they are in the form of toxic
chemicals, harmful radiation, extreme temperature, and microbial infections
are factors that may induced mutations.
A. Halogens C. Protein
B. Mutagens D. RNA

8. In which types of cells do mutation can occur?

A. digestive cells and brain cells
B. somatic cells and digestive cells
C. brain cells and reproductive cells
D. reproductive cells and somatic cells

4
9. Only mutations in ___________ pass on to offspring.
A. brain cells C. reproductive cells
B. digestive cells D. somatic cells

10. It occurs when a chromosome breaks, and some genetic material is lost.
A. deletion C. mutation
B. inversion D. translocation

11. It involves the breakage of a chromosome in two places; the resulting piece of
DNA is reversed and re-inserted into the chromosome.
A. deletion C. mutation
B. inversion D. translocation

12. Genetic disorder caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of
chromosome 5.
A. Cri du chat syndrome C. Edwards syndrome
B. Down syndrome D. Klinefelter syndrome

13. Abnormalities associated with chromosome structure and number can be

detected by test called ___________.
A. gene mutation C. genotype
B. genetic engineering D. karyotype

14. Development of methods for changing a cell’s DNA.

A. gene mutation C. genotype
B. genetic engineering D. karyotype

15. When DNA from two different species joined together.

A. DNA deletion C. DNA translocation
B. DNA inversion D. recombinant DNA

3
 Lesson
Mutation: Changes in
1 Genetic Code

Mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations may affect only
one gene, or they may affect whole chromosomes.

When the code in a gene is changed, a different message may result. Any
change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases in the DNA, any mistake in the
transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA or pairing of the codon and
anticodon, may cause changes in the kind, sequence and number of amino acids of
proteins synthesized by cells. Changes in the protein structure or level of expression
may lead to changes in cellular properties and behavior, as a result, the organism is
affected.

Most mutations are harmful. Some mutations in a body cell are known to
cause cancer, while mutations in sex cells can cause birth defects. A severe mutation
may lead to cell death and may have no effect on the body. Sometimes mutations
may be useful for the species. For example, a mutation in blood proteins prevents
viruses or parasites to thrive in host organisms .

3
 What’s In

Directions: Read each item carefully. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write
it in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

The following is a portion of a molecule with a nucleotide sequence:

“A A T GCC AGT GGT”

1. The strand is chemically ______________.

a. a protein
b. an mRNA
c. a DNA strand
d. a segment of a eukaryotic

2. If this strand is replicated, which of the following is the complementary

strand that is produced?
a. T C G TCC GTC TAG
b. T T A CGG TCA CCA
c. A G C AGG CAG GGT
d. U C G UCC UCU AGA

3. If transcribed into an mRNA, what would be the resulting strand?

a. U U A CGG UCA CCA

c. A G C AGG CAG AUC
b. A G C AGG AGA TCG
d. T C G TCC GTC TAG

4. During translation, the tRNA sequence of nucleotides arranged

linearly is _______.

a. T C G TCC GTC TAG

c. A G C AGG CAG AUC
b. A A U GCC AGU GGU
d. U C G UCC GUC UAG

Sequence the following steps in protein synthesis from first to last (1-6).

___A. Transcription
___B. tRNA – amino acid units link to mRNA
___C. Amino acid separate from tRNA
___D. Polypeptide chain assembled
___E. mRNA links to ribosome
___F. Stop codon encountered in mRNA

4
 What’s New

Read the two sentences below (each word contains three letters just like
CODON, the sequence of three nucleotides which combines to form a unit of genetic
code in a DNA or RNA molecule).

THE DOG BIT THE CAT

THE DOG BIT THE CAR

What happens when a single letter in the first sentence is changed? Did you
see that changing a single letter also changes the meaning of the sentence? A change
in nitrogenous base in a protein may yield a different amino acid and a corresponding
change in the protein structure and function, that altering on the set of codon will
cause mutation or alteration which in effect might cause changes in appearance of
an organism.

What will happen if a single base is deleted from a DNA strand? You learned
that an mRNA corresponds to a DNA sequence translated by ribosomes into proteins.
If the new sequence with a deleted base was transcribed, then every codon after the
deleted base would be different. Deletion or insertion of a base may change the
reading frame of the codon leading to frameshift mutation. Read again the two
sentences below.

THE DOG BIT THE CAT.

THE DOB ITT HEC AT.

What was deleted? Would the result be the same if there would be an addition
of a single base?

Mutations in chromosomes may occur in a variety of ways. Sometimes parts

of chromosomes are broken off and lost during mitosis or meiosis.

5
 What is It

Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive cells and
body/somatic cells. Only mutations in sex cells pass on to offspring. Mutations affect
the reproductive cells of an organism by changing the sequence of nucleotides within
a gene in a sperm or an egg cell. If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene
becomes a part of the genetic makeup of the organism. If mutation is severe, the
resulting protein may be nonfunctional, and the embryo may not develop. There are
two types of mutations that can occur in gamete cells:

• Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes

up a gene.
• Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome level resulting in
gene deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle and
meiosis. It may be caused by parts of chromosomes breaking off or rejoining
incorrectly.

Any change or mistake in the sequence of DNA, mutation arises. Mutations

can lead to gene malfunction, by changes in sequences that are protein-coding or
important for information processing, these changes in the genes can occur for a
variety of reasons. Mutation may be induced by factors called mutagens. Mutagens
are common in the form of toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation. Sometimes,
mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis. All of these can alter the
DNA sequence and length.

Many diseases are caused by the effects of inherited genes. In most cases,
there is only a small difference between DNA sequences in the defective gene and a
normal one. This difference is enough to cause serious and often fatal diseases. These
disease-causing genes are the result of a mutation. They may be passed from one
generation to the next if present in gametes.

Figure 1 shows changes in

the sequences of bases in normal
hemoglobin and the one affected by
mutation. A recessive gene causes
sickle-cell anemia, where most of
the red blood cells stiffen and
become sickle shape in affected
people. These diseased cells carry
less oxygen than normal cells.
People affected by the disease
eventually die. Source: education-portal.com
Figure 1. Hemoglobin Gene Mutation

6
 Abnormalities in chromosomal structure may occur during meiosis. The
normal process of crossing-over and recombination may be affected, such that
chromosomes break and reunite the wrong segments. If there is a loss or gain of
chromosomal material, there can be significant clinical consequences.

Changes that affect the structure of chromosomes can cause problems with
growth, development, and function of the body’s systems. These changes can affect
many genes along the chromosome and disrupt the proteins made from these genes.
Structural changes can occur during the formation of egg or sperm cells in fetal
development, or in any cell after birth. Pieces of DNA can be rearranged within one
chromosome or transferred between two or more chromosomes.

The effects of structural changes depend on their size and location, and
whether any genetic material is gained or lost. Some changes cause medical
problems, while others may have no effect on a person’s health. The gain or loss of
chromosome material can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. Below are examples
of humans with genetic disorder.

a) “Cri du chat” is caused by the

deletion of part of the short arm of
chromosome 5. “Cri du chat” is French,
and the condition is so named because
affected babies make high-pitched cries
that sound like a cat. Affected
individuals have wide-set eyes, a small
head and jaw, are moderately to severely
mentally retarded, and very short.
Source: player.mashpedia.com
Figure 2. Cri du chat

b) Down’s syndrome is usually caused

by an extra copy of chromosome
21(trisomy 21). Characteristics include
decreased muscle tone, stockier build,
asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and
mild to moderate mental retardation.

Source: www.healthtap.com
Figure 3. Down’s Syndrome

7
 c) Edwards syndrome is the second
most common trisomy after Down’s
syndrome. It is a trisomy of chromosome
18. Symptoms include mental and
motor retardation and numerous
congenital anomalies causing
serious health problems. About 99%
dies in infancy. However, those who live
past their first birthday, usually are
quite healthy thereafter. They have
characteristic hand appearance with
clenched hands and overlapping fingers.

Source: healthtap.com
Figure 4. Edward Syndrome

d) Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY) is

described when men are usually sterile
and tend to have longer arms and legs
and to be taller than their peers. They
are often shy and quiet and have a
higher incidence of speech delay.

Source: http://chengmoh.blogspot.
com/2012/08/genetic-diseases.html
Figure 5. Klinefelter Syndrome
e) Turner’s syndrome (X instead of XX
or XY) is described when female sexual
characteristics are present but
underdeveloped. They often have a
short stature, low hairline, abnormal
eye features and bone development and
a “caved-in” appearance to the chest

Source: http://chengmoh.blogspot.
com/2012/08/genetic-diseases.html
Figure 6 . Turner Syndrome

Sources:http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/structuralchangeshttp://www.usd.edu
/med/som/genetics/curriculum/1ECHROM3.htm

8
Human Karyotyping

Occasionally, chromosomal material is lost or rearranged during the formation

of gametes or during cell division of the early embryo. Such changes, primarily the
result of nondisjunction or translocation, are so severe that the pregnancy ends in
miscarriage – meaning loss of an embryo or fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy
or fertilization does not occur at all. It is estimated that one in 156 live births has
some kind of chromosomal abnormality.

Some of the abnormalities associated with chromosome structure and number

can be detected by a test called a karyotype. A karyotype is an image of the full set
of chromosomes of an individual that displays the normal number, size, and shape.
Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus or test for certain defects through
examination of cells from uterine fluid – a procedure called amniocentesis – or
through sampling of placental membranes as shown in Figure 7.
.

Figure 7 Amniocentesis

To produce a karyotype, chromosomes commonly derived from actively

dividing white blood cells are stained
and photographed. The homologous
pairs of chromosomes are identified
and arranged in order by size, with
the exception of the sex
chromosomes; these appear last as
shown in Figure 8. These tests are
typically done on a blood sample,
although any body cell could be used.
The cell must be undergoing mitosis–
preferably in metaphase– so that the
chromosomes are replicated,
condensed, and visible under a
microscope. Source: www.austincc.edu
Figure 8. Karyotype of Human Male and Female

9
Genetic Engineering

Understanding the gene has led to the remarkable development of methods

for changing a cell’s DNA. A modern biotechnology called genetic engineering
produces transgenic or GM crops of organisms. Scientists have developed methods
to move genes from one species into another. When DNA from two different species
are joined together, it is called recombinant DNA. This process uses restriction
enzymes to cleave one organism’s DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice
the DNA fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA. Transgenic organisms are able to
manufacture genetic products foreign to them using recombinant DNA. Genetic
engineering has already been applied to bacteria, plants, and animals. These
organisms are engineered to be of use to humans. Figure 9 shows the method for
producing recombinant DNA.

Source www.researchgate.net
Figure 9. Diagrammatic Illustration of the Steps in Genetic Engineering

Today, molecular biologists are finding applications for recombinant DNA

technology: from medical applications, including gene therapy and vaccines; DNA
fingerprinting used to identify persons responsible for crimes and provide evidence
for identity of dead persons; to the creation of genetically modified crops that are
resistant to pesticides, or that make extra vitamins and minerals; to bacteria that
can clean oil spills. While the applications of recombinant DNA technology are
numerous, its limitations are its potential effects on our ecosystem.

Now that you have learned that protein is made using the information from
DNA and how mutations may cause changes in the structure and function of a
protein, it would be worth finding out how deeper understanding of molecular
genetics may affect your life. What do you think are the significant contributions of
this knowledge to human society? You may share your thoughts and ideas virtually
with your classmates.

10
 What’s More

Now, you will work on an activity that will help you visualize some
chromosomal mutations using models and fill in the column using the information
of your clay model of chromosomes in assessment part of the module. Prepare to
send the video of this performance task to your teacher.

Activity 1. ChromoZOOM Change

Objective:

• Illustrate the kinds of chromosomal mutations

• Differentiate the kinds of chromosomal mutations

What you need:

Modeling clay of varied color

Activity 1.1. Translocation

Procedure:

1. Using modeling clay make models of two (2) chromosomes. One should
have a different color and size from the other.

2. Break one part of each of the chromosomes. Exchange the parts and attach
them to each of the other chromosomes. See illustration below.

Source : www. medlineplus.com

Figure 10. Translocation

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Activity 1.2. Deletion

Procedure:

1. Make a model of a chromatid (one of the duplicated copies of a chromosome).

2. When done, remove a portion of it (close to either end of the chromosome or within
the long arm or short arm). If you choose to remove a part within the arms, be sure
to join back the bottom part. See sample illustration.

Figure 11. Deletion

Activity 1.3. Inversion

Procedure:

1. Make a colored chromatid as shown below.

2. This time break a portion (with 2 colors) of it. Refer to the illustration below and
reinsert the chromatid in reverse manner.

Source: www.medlineplus.com
Figure 12a. Paracentric Inversion

12
 Source : www. medlineplus.com
Figure 12b.Pericentic Inversion

Activity 1.4. Dicentric

Procedure:

1. Make models of two (2) chromosomes using clay. One should have a different color
from the other.

2. Break one part of each of the chromosomes. Attach the two different chromosomes
forming two centromeres as shown in the figure and remove the unnecessary part.

Source : www. medlineplus.com

Figure 13. Dicentric Chromosome

13
Activity 1.5. Ring Chromosome
Procedure:

1. Using modeling clay, make a model of chromosomes.

2. Remove the upper and lower portion of the chromosome as shown in the figure.
Attach the two end forming a ring. See sample illustration.

Source : www. medlineplus.com

Figure 14. Ring Chromosome

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________
Grade & Section: _____________ Teacher: _________________________________

RUBRIC

Performance Criteria Value

Indicator 1 2 3 4

Creativity Finished the Showed Included Included

clay models creativity but some ideas many
but no needs and several unique ideas
evidence improvement materials and creative
provided in were used use of
terms of. materials
of creativity
Concept Clay models Clay models Clay models All models
understanding were made were created were created are correct
but the idea but some but few are and showed
is incorrect. models are incorrect. the different
incorrect. kinds of
chromosomal
mutations.

Effort Did not Finished the Completed Gave effort

finish the clay models, the project in far beyond
work in a but they lack an above the
satisfactory finishing average requirements
manner. touches or manner, yet of the
can be more could project.
improved have been
with little done/
effort. developed/
accomplished
.
Responsiveness Displayed a Displayed a Displayed a Displayed a
negative negative positive positive
response response at response response all
throughout times during most of the the time
the the time during during the
development development the development
of the clay of the piece. development of the piece.
models. of the piece.

Total
Teachers Comments:

15
 What I Have Learned

1. Mutation is a change in base sequence of DNA. Mutations may affect only

one gene, or they may affect the whole chromosome

2. Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive cells and
body/somatic cells.

3. There are two types of mutations that can occur in gamete cells: Gene
mutation and Chromosomal mutation.

4. Mutation may be induced by mutagens. Mutagens are commonly in the form

of toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation extreme temperature and even
microbial infection.

5. Sometimes, mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis.

Abnormalities in chromosomal structure may occur during meiosis. The
normal process of crossing-over and recombination may be affected, such that
chromosomes break and reunite the wrong segments. If there is a loss or gain
of chromosomal material, there can be significant clinical consequences.

6. Translocation, deletion, inversion, dicentric, ring chromosome are some of

the chromosomal mutations.

7. The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to variety genetic disorders.

8. Human Karyotyping is a modern technology use to test certain defect through

examination of cells from urine fluid- a process called amniocentesis.

9. A modern biotechnology called genetic engineering produces transgenic or

GM crops of organisms.

10. When DNA from two different species are joined together, it is called
recombinant DNA. This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave one
organism’s DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA
fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA.

16
 What I Can Do

Directions: Read each question carefully. Briefly explain your answers and write
them in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What do you think are the significant contributions of this knowledge on how
mutations may cause changes in structure and function of protein to us
humans?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. What implications or issues concern you the most, after knowing that
mutations can and does occur naturally or with human intervention?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. In what way can this deeper understanding of molecular genetics

affect your life?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

17
 Assessment

Directions: Fill in the table below using the information of your chromosome clay
model. Draw the table in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

Chromosomal Mutations
Trans Deletion Inversion Dicentric Ring
location
1. How many
chromosomes are
involved?

2. How did you change

the original structure of
the chromosome?

3. Which condition/s do
you think result/s to
change/s of the
chromosome material?

(Please indicate it using the word

loss, gain, either loss or gain of
genetic material)

Activity 2

Directions: Using the following definitions, unscrambled the letters to arrive at the
correct genetic disorder. Write your answers in your notebook/on a separate sheet
of paper.

______________1. RIC DU THAC is caused by the deletion of part of short arm

chromosome 5.

______________2. DRAWED SYNRODME is caused by an extra copy of chromosome

18 (trisomy 18).

______________3. RENTUR SYNRODME is a condition that affects only females,

results when one of the X (sex chromosomes) is missing or
partially missing.

______________4. RETLEFENIKL NYSRODME is a genetic condition in which male

is born with an extra X chromosome. Instead of the typical XY
chromosome in men they have XXY.

______________5. WOND MERODSYN is usually caused by an extra copy of

chromosome 21(trisomy 21).

18
 Additional Activities

Directions: Below are pictures of persons with Albinism, a genetic disorder caused
by mutation of genes, responsible for the production of skin pigment,
melanin (a protein). In some part of the globe, people with albinism are being blamed
for COVID -19, with your understanding about mutation make a slogan to raise
awareness about albinism its causes and implications to human society. Write
your answer to this activity in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

Source: www.albino.org.com

19
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________
Grade & Section: _____________ Teacher: _________________________________

RUBRIC
Performance Criteria Value
Indicator 1 2 3 4

Creativity and Finished the Included an Included some Included

Originality slogan but idea, unique ideas many
provides no but lacked and several unique
evidence originality materials were ideas and
of creativity and used, based creative use
or originality may have his/her work of
imitated on someone materials,
someone else’s idea; made
else’s plan made connections
decisions after to previous
referring to knowledge,
one source generating
many ideas
Concept Slogan was Slogan was Slogan was Slogan was
understanding not created created but created to well-
at all. unclear. raise planned and
awareness created to
about raise
albinism. awareness
about
albinism.
Effort Did not Finished the Completed the Gave effort
finish the slogan, but it project in an far beyond
work in a lacked above average the
satisfactory finishing manner, yet requirement
manner. touches or more could s of the
can be have been project
improved with done/
little effort developed/
accomplished
Responsiveness Displayed a Displayed a Displayed a Displayed a
negative negative positive positive
response response at response most response all
throughout times during of the time the time
the the during the during the
development development development of developmen
of the slogan of the piece the piece t of the piece

Total
Teachers Comments:

20
 21
Assessment (Activity 1)
Chromosomal Mutations
Translocation Deletion Inversion Dicentric Ring
1. How many 2 1 1 2 1
chromosomes are
involved?
2. How did you Broke a part Broke a Broke a Fused the two Broke the
change the & attached it part part, chromosomes, end parts
original structure to another reversed and forming two and fused
of the chromosome. centromeres.
reinserted both end
chromosome?
it into the forming a
chromosome ring
3. Which Either gain or Loss of Either gain Either gain or Loss of
condition/s do loss of genetic genetic or loss of genetic genetic
you think result/s material OR Material loss of material OR Material
to change/s of the
no loss or gain genetic no loss or
chromosome
material? of genetic material OR gain of genetic
material no loss or material
during the gain of during the
exchange genetic process
process material
during the
process
What I Know
What’s In Assessment
1. A
2. B 1. C Activity 2
3. D 2. B
3. A 1. CRI DU CHAT
4. A
5. A 4. B 2. EDWARD SYNDROME
6. B 5. 1 3. TURNER SYNDROME
7. B 6. 3 4.KLINEFELTER
8. D 7. 4 SYNDROME
9. C 8. 5 5.DOWN SYNDROME
10. A 9. 2
11. B 10. 6
12. A Additional
13. A
14. C What I can do Activities
15. D
Answers may vary Slogan may vary
Answer Key
References

Addison-Wesley (1996). Science Insights: Exploring Living Things.

USA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company.

APEX Biology Unit 6 Anatomy of Genes Lessons 1-5 Heredity and Genetics

BEAM Learning Guide, Nov.2008, Genetic Book of Life pp. 28-34

Biggs. A. Gregg, K., et al. (2000). Biology: the Dynamics of Life. USA: McGraw-
Hill Companies. Inc.

EASE Biology Lesson 3 The DNA Material pp. 20 -24

Rabago, L.et al. (2010). Functional Biology: Modular Approach. Vibal

Publishing House, Inc.

Teaching Guide – Integrative Science Biology by Eferza Publications

22
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