Scientists you must know for the exams.

TOPIC 1
Scientist Experiment Overview

Davson-Danielli - Lipoprotein sandwich (1935)

Singer-Nicholson - Falsified Davan-Danielli's model

(1972)
- Made the fluid mosaic model
- Done by freeze fracturing →
split open membrane → saw
rough surface which was the
proteins
- This is the currently accepted model

Pasteur Falsified spontaneous generation of cells

- Did it with a swan neck
- Showed that cells only arise from
preexisting cells

TOPIC 2
Scientist Experiment Overview

Watson and Crick (1953) - Elucidation of the structure of DNA

using model making
- DNA models aided in quickly
visualizing and assessing the viability
of potential structures
- DNA model correctly proposed in 1953

Meselson and Stahl (1958) - Theory of semi-conservative DNA

replication was confirmed by them
- Prior to meselson and stahl, 3
hypothesis were proposed for DNA
replication
- Conservative model
- Semi-conservative model
- Dispersive model
- Meselson-Stahl tested the validity of
the 3 models using radioactive
isotopes of nitrogen
- DNA molecules were prepared
using 15​
​ N then replicated in the
presences of 14​
​ N
- DNA samples were then
 separated via centrifugation to
determine the composition of
DNA in the replicated
molecules
Results →
- After one division: DNA
molecules contained both 15​ ​ N
and 14​
​ N, disproving the
conservative model sometimes
consist only on​ 14​N. Disproving
the dispersive model
supporting the
semiconservative model

Wohler - Disproved theory of vitalism (with

synthesis of urea)

TOPIC 3
Scientist Experiment Overview

Mendel - Discovered the principle of

inheritance with experiments in
which a large number of pea plants
were crossed
- Organisms possess two versions of
each factor (now known as alleles)
- Parents contribute equally to the
inheritance of offspring
- For each factor one is dominant to
the other

Cairn’s Technique Cairn’s technique is for measuring the

length of DNA molecules by
autoradiography
- Radioactivity labelled DNA was
produced
- The cells were then placed on a
dialysis membrane and digested my
lysozyme enzymes
- A thin layer of photographic
emulsion was applied and left in
darkness
- Some of the atoms of tritium in the
DNA decayed and emitted high
energy electrons → reacted with the
film
- At each point where a tritium atom
developed there was a dark point →
produced images of DNA molecules
TOPIC 4
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TOPIC 5
-None-

TOPIC 6
Scientist Experiment Overview

William Harvey (blood) - Discovered the circulation of blood

- Demonstrates that blood flows
through the larger vessels
- Valves prevent backflow
- Rate of flow through major vessels
was far too high for blood to be
consumed in the body after being
pumped out by the heart
- Predicted that the presence of
numerous fine vessels are too small
to be seen that linked arteries to
veins in the tissue of the body

William Harvey (sexual reproduction) - Has an obsession with how like is

transmitted from generation to
generation
- Conducted pioneer research on
sexual reproduction
- Thought that males produce egg
when mixed with menstrual blood
- Egg cell develop inside the
mother
- Disproved Aristotle’s theory that
males produce seeds/eggs
- Deers → seasonal breeders
- Sexually active during
mating season
- Harvey dissected female
deer to examine the uterus
- Expect to find eggs after
mating
- Found signs of development
after 2-3 months of the
mating season

Florey and Chain - Investigated the use of chemical

substances to control bacterial
infections (penicillin)
- Develop a method of growing the
fungus penicillium in conditions that
 allows the fungus to secrete
penicillin
- Penicillin killed the bacteria
on agar plates
- Was tested on mich
- Larger quantity given to human
- Man have bacterial infection
- After given penicillin, his condition
improved
- However he was only given
a small amount
- Bacteria reproduce fast and
the man died.
 SKILLS AND EXPERIMENTS

TOPIC 1 - Cell Biology

Skill Explanation

Calculating magnification

Magnification​ = Image size (with ruler) ÷ Actual size (according to scale

bar)

Actual Size​ = Image size (with ruler) ÷ Magnification

Drawing of the
ultrastructure of
prokaryotic cells based on
electron micrographs.
Drawing of the
ultrastructure of eukaryotic
cells based on electron
micrographs.

Drawing of the fluid

mosaic model
Identify phases of mitosis

Determine mitotic index

Mitotic index: ratio between number of cells undergoing mitosis to the total
number of cells

Experiments Explanation

Osmosis practical Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of high water
concentration to à region of low water concentration

Hypotonic: Low osmolarity higher water concentration therefore the water

will enter the cell and the cell gets (turgid only for plant cells)

Hypertonic: High osmolarity - higher osmolarity than water therefore the

water leaves the cell and it becomes more (flacid also only for plant cells)

By placing the potato chips in different concentrations of salt and

determining the gain and loss of math we can determine the osmolarity

IV: Concentration of the solution

DV: Mass change of the potato chips
 TOPIC 2 - Molecular Biology

Skill Explanation

BMI

Experiments Explanation

Design of experiments Temperature: The independent variable can be manipulated using a water
to test the effect of bath
temperature, PH and PH: Alkaline or acidic (Buffers of different PH’s)
substrate concentration Substrate concentration: Adding more or less substrate concentration
on the activity of
enzymes It can be measured by:

Gas production:
- Counting bubbles
- Displacement of syringe cap with increasing volumes of gas
- Pressure change in sealed environment
Digestion of a solid:
- Calculate % of weight change
- Volume of liquid produced
Digestion of liquids:
- Diffusion of out a dialysis tube if product is permutable but substrate
is not

Skill: Experimental FACTORS: pH, substrate concentration, temperature

investigation of a factor
affecting enzyme activity Things to consider when investigating this:

■ What is an appropriate range of values to select for your

independent variable?
■ Have you chosen a sufficient time period for the reaction to
proceed?
■ Have you identified, and controlled, all relevant extraneous
variables?
■ Can you include a negative control condition (no enzyme) to
establish baseline readings?
■ Can you include a positive control condition to confirm enzyme
activity?
■ Is it possible to treat the enzyme with the independent variable
before​ mixing with the substrate?
■ Does the data collection method allow for sufficient precision in
detecting changes to levels of product / substrate?
■ Have all appropriate safety precautions been taken when handling
relevant substances?

Urea ● Falsification of vitalism

● Was​ believed that organic molecules could only be synthesized by
living systems → a “vital force” was needed
● 1828, Frederick Wohler
● Heated ammonium cyanate and produced urea (a waste product of

Crick and Watson
Design of experiments
to investigate the effect
of limiting factors of
photosynthesis
Separation of
photosynthetic pigments
by chromatography
Chromatography - ​Is an experimental technique by which mixtures can be
separated
nitrogen metabolism)
● Demonstrates that organic molecules can be artificially synthesised
● Used trial and error to assemble a DNA model
● They already knew the following:
○ DNA strand are antiparallel; form a double helix
○ Complementary base pair rule
○ Outer edges of bases remain exposed
● Rosalind Franklin
○ Final model was largely due to the X-ray crystallography
data generated by Franklin
○ Confirmed the arrangement in a double helix
○ Data was shared without Franklin’s knowledge or
permission
Limiting factors consist of:
Temperature:​ Using an aquatic plant → you put the plant in a container
and then put it in a water bath
Photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes which are sensitive to
temperature
As temperature increases the rate of reaction will also increase → there
are more collisions
Above a certain temperature the enzyme will denature
Light intensity​: Using different intensities of light bulbs or you could
use different coloured bulbs
Light is absorbed by chlorophyll which converts the radiant energy into
chemical energy
As the light intensity increases photosynthesis increases since more
chlorophyll are activated
At a certain light intensity photosynthetic rate will plateau since all
available chlorophyll are saturated with light
Different wavelengths have different effect on photosynthesis (green
wavelength is reflected)
Carbon dioxide -
Can add calcium carbonate to the water for aquatic plants
Carbon dioxide is involved in the fixation of carbon atoms to form
organic molecules
As carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis
will increase as more organic molecules are being produced
At a certain concentration of co2 photosynthetic rate will plateau as the
enzymes responsible for carbon fixation are saturated
The production of o2 can be measured by emerging plant in an
enclosed water filled space attached to a sealed gas syringe
Photosynthetic organisms do not rely on a single pigment to absorb
light rather benefit from combined action of many pigments
These pigments include
- Chlorophylls
- Xanthophyll
- Carotenes
- A mixture is dissolved in a fluid (called the mobile phase) and
 passed through à static material (called stationary phase)
- The different components of the mixture travel at different speeds,
causing them to separate
- Distant component travels/ distance solvent travels
Methods:
- Paper chromatography - uses paper (Cellulose) as the stationary
bed
- Thin layer chromatography - uses a thin layer of absorbent which
runs faster and has better separation

TOPIC 3 - Genetics

Skill Explanation

Design of an experiment Things that affect successful rooting of a stem cutting

to assess one factor
affecting the rooting of
stem-cuttings
- Cutting position (whether cutting occurs above or below a node, as
well as relative proximity of the cut to the node
- Length of cuttings (including how many nodes remain on the cutting
- Growth medium (whether left in soil, water, potting mix, compost or
open air)

Setting up sealed Mesocosms​ are enclosed environments that allow for a small part of a
mesocosms to try to natural environment to be observed under controllable conditions
establish sustainibility - .
(Practical 5)

Experiments Explanation

Cairns’ technique for John Cairns invented a technique to measure the length of DNA molecules
measuring the length of by ​autoradiography.
DNA molecules by - Autoradiography​ could visualise the chromosomes whilst
autoradiography. uncoiled, allowing for more accurate indications of length
- By using tritiated uracil (​3​H-U), regions of active transcription can be
identified within the uncoiled chromosome
What is ​Autoradiography?
- Cells are grown in a solution containing radioactive thymidine
- The tritiated thymidine (​3​H-T​)​ is incorporated into the chromosomal
DNA of the cell
- The chromosomes are isolated by gently lysing the cells and fixing
the chromosomes to a photographic surface
- The surface is then immersed in a radioactively-sensitive emulsion
containing silver bromide (AgBr)
- The radiation released from the tritiated thymidine converts the Ag+
ions in silver bromide into insoluble metal grains
- Following a period of exposure, excess silver bromide is washed
away, leaving the silver grains to appear as small black dots
- When the photographic film is developed, the chromosomal DNA
can be visualised with an electron microscope
Video:
Cairn's Technique (2016) IB Biology (mycis video)
 TOPIC 4 - Ecology

Skill Explanation

Experiments Explanation

Mesocosm What is it?

An enclosed environment that allows a small part of a natural environment
to be observed under controlled conditions.

How to make it
Can be created using a glass/plastic bottle with a lid
1. Build a foundation
a. Add a bottom layer of pebbles/gravel/sand (for drainage)
b. Add a second thin layer of activated charcoal (prevents
mold and helps aerate the soil)
c. Spread a thin cover of sphagnum moss or an organic
coffee filter (creates a barrier between the lower layers and
soil)
d. Final layer is pre-moistened growing medium (soil)
2. Plants
a. Slow growing and thrive in a bit of humidity (e.g. ferns, club
moss, etc.)
b. Inspect plant for signs of disease before introducing
3. Maintain conditions
a. Place in location that provides a continuous source of light
b. No fluctuating temps.
c. Do not initially over-water the plants

Nothing in Unit 5

TOPIC 6 - Human Physiology

Skill Subunit Explanation

Measuring/Measuri 6.4 Ventilation can be monitored in a number of ways:

ng ventilation in
humans at rest
and after mild and
vigorous exercise
● Via simple observation (counting number of breaths per
minute)
● Chest belt and pressure meter (recording the rise and fall of
the chest after x minutes)
● Spirometer (recording the volume of gas expelled per breath)
○ The device detects the changes in ventilation and
presents data on a digital display
 ● Breathing into a balloon and measuring the volume of air in a
single breath
○ Volume of air is/could be determined by submerging
the balloon in water and measuring the volume
displaced

Application Explanation

Digestion of starch 6.1 ● Peristalsis

in small intestine ○ Contraction of longitudinal and circular muscle
throughout the digestive system
○ Prevents food from being pushed back towards the
mouth
○ Contraction also allows food to be mixed with
enzymes in the small intestine
● Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers
in the small intestine
○ Macromolecules:
■ Protein
■ Starch
■ Glycerol
■ Lipids
■ Nucleic acids

Enzymes Organs Substrate Product pH

Amylase Salivary Starch Maltose 7

gland and
pancreas

Protease

● Pepsin stomach Protein polypeptide 2

● Trypsin pancreas Polypeptide Amino acids

Protein + pepsin = polypeptide + trypsin = amino acid

Lipase pancreas lipids Fatty acids and 7

glycerol

And
Transport products
of digestion to the
liver
William Harvey’s 6.2 Galen’s belief:
discovery of the
circulation of the
blood with the
heart acting as the
pump
Harvey’s findings:
1. 2 types of molecules in starch - both are polymers from alpha
glucose:
a. Amylose (1-4 bonds)
b. Amylopectin ( 1-4 and 1-6 bonds, more branched)
2. Enzyme Amylase breaks down 1-4 bonds but not 1-6 bonds
3. Dextrin
a. Fragments of 1-6 bonds from Amylopectin that did
not break down
4. Enzyme maltase and dextrinase digest maltose and dextrin
into Glucose
a. Microvilli contains protein pumps, causing absorption
of glucose from digestion of starch
b. Carried by blood and flow through villus capillaries to
venules in the submucosa found in small intestine
c. Via hepatic portal veins
5. Excess glucose absorbed by liver cells
a. Converted to glycogen for storage
● Arteries and veins were ​separate​ blood networks
● Veins were thought to pump natural blood (produced by the
liver)
● Arteries were thought to pump heat (produced by the heart)
via the lungs (for cooling)
● Arteries and veins were part of a ​single​ connected blood
network
● Arteries pumped blood from the heart (to the lungs & body
tissues)
● Veins returned blood to the heart (from the lungs & body
tissues)
● Double circulation: Pulmonary (for the lungs) vs. systemic
circulation (for other organs of the body)
○ The heart is a double pump with left & right sides
● Also predicted the presence of numerous fine vessels that
linked arteries to veins in the tissues of hte body
Pressure change 6.2
in the left atrium,
left ventricle and
aorta during
cardiac cycle

● Aorta contracts
○ Rapid flow of blood from the pulmonary veins into the
left atrium (aortic valve opens)
○

Florey and Chain’s 6.3 ● Eight mice were infected with a pathogenic bacteria that
experiments to test causes a fatal pneumonia
penicillin on ● Control: four mice that received no treatment
bacterial infections ○ All died
in mice ● Experimental: four mice that received penicillin injections
○ Survived
● Conclusion: penicillin has antibiotic properties (kills bacteria
but not host cells)

Leptin in mice and 6.6 ● The hormone Leptin is produced in the adipose cells (fat
human storage cells)
● Target cells in the hypothalamus which controls food intake of
an organism
● More adipose cells, more leptin concentration in the blood
● Effects of high concentration of leptin:
○ Reduction in food intake
○ Longterm appetite inhibition
● Experiment with mice:
○ Obese mices in the experiment have a recessive
allele of ob which prevents adipose cells in the body
to produce leptin
○ This is the main reason why they are obese
(mutation)
○ Receive leptin injection:
■ Appetite decrease
■ Energy increase
■ Mass dropped by 30% in a month
○ Result: leptin works in mice

● Experiment in human:
○ Volunteers who are injected high dose of leptin lost
7.1 kg
■ However, they gain more weight rapidly
afterwards
 ■ Due to:
● High blood leptin concentration
● Cells in hypothalamus becomes
resistant to leptin because of the high
concentration
● Result:
○ Fail to respond
○ Appetite is not inhibited
○ Food intake is excessive
● More adipose cells develop, more
leptin is produced
○ However it is still unable to
respond

■ Causes for obesity in human:

● Mutation in the gene for leptin
synthesis
○ Note: majority of the
population of human don't
have this mutation
● Overeating
■ Solution:
● Constant injection of leptin
(short-lived protein)
● However: leptin injection have a
great impact on reproductive system
○ Not suitable for children

William Harvey’s 6.6 Prior belief of reproduction (Aristotle theory)

investigation of ● Male produces a seed → which forms an egg when mixed
sexual with menstrual blood → egg develops into a fetus
reproduction in
deer Harvey examined the uterus of a female deer during the mating
season by slaughtering and dissecting them
● Expectation: eggs developing in the uterus immediately after
mating
● Findings: signs of anything developing two or more months
after the start of mating season
●

Experiments Explanation