Procedia CIRP 97 (2020) 217–223

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Procedia CIRP
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/procir

8th CIRP Conference of Assembly Technology and Systems

Operator - mobile robot collaboration for synchronized part

movement
Aswin K Ramasubramanian, Nikolaos Papakostas∗
Laboratory for Advanced Manufacturing Simulation and Robotics, School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Mobile robotic platforms have become increasingly popular. Commercially available versions of mobile
Assembly robots are designed to support human operators in typical production environments. They may be used
Adaptive control
for transferring parts from one place to another, as well as for assisting the operator in a series of tasks,
Customization
by utilizing the dexterity of their arm and end effector. This paper focuses on the development of a novel
Control
approach that allows the handling and transportation of parts through the simultaneous operation of hu-
man operators and mobile robots. In particular, a straightforward, easy to implement control strategy is
used to adapt the operation of the mobile robot to the tasks carried out by the operator. This paper dis-
cusses also the advantages of introducing mobile robots in typical industrial environments and compares
their potential against fully automated robotic solutions.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

1. Introduction tially leading to an increase of the production flexibility and output

Starting with the deployment of industrial robots in work cells
to perform complex and repetitive tasks, manufacturing compa-
nies have now come a long way forward towards commissioning
collaborative robots to facilitate safe Human-Robot Collaborative
(HRC) operations in the shop floor (Lasi et al., 2014). In partic-
ular, the popularity of mobile collaborative robotic platforms has
grown significantly due to their ability to support various opera-
tions in typical shop-floor assembly environments. Therefore, they
have a direct impact on shaping the configuration and evolution
of the factories of the future (Ajoudani et al., 2018). In principle,
mobile robotic platforms are capable of operating autonomously,
carrying out complex tasks, thus supporting flexible and reconfig-
urable manufacturing systems towards achieving higher production
output (Shneier, 2015, Makris et al., 2012), since they are capa-
ble of moving around the work environment. Mobile collaborative
robot manipulators comprise a mobile robotic platform, which is
usually similar to that of an automated guided vehicle (AGV), and
a collaborative robotic arm mounted on top of it. This configura-
tion provides an additional degree of support to the human opera-
tors to perform assembly or materials’ transport operations, poten-
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nikolaos.papakostas@ucd.ie (N. Papakostas).
(Barattini et al., 2019).
In HRC, operators and robots are expected to work together,
carrying out a task in a way that utilizes the capabilities of both.
These tasks may include pick and place, manual assembly tasks as
well as drilling or riveting operations (Barattini et al., 2019). Addi-
tionally, these mobile manipulators can potentially be used to as-
sist the human operators to transfer parts between different loca-
tions.
Some commercially available collaborative manipulators have
inbuilt sensors to measure the internal and the external force, as
well as the torque values at each joint axis for HRC (Chawda and
Niemeyer, 2017). Likewise, the mobile platforms are typically
equipped with a floor scanner device to avoid obstacles as well as
to prevent contact with human operators, thus making them suit-
able for HRC operations (Barattini et al., 2019).
Even though collaborative mobile manipulators add flexibility
to production environments, a number of limitations and con-
straints need to be addressed, such as dynamic path planning with
obstacle avoidance, localization, and the positioning accuracy of
the mobile platform (Michalos et al., 2016). Moreover, manufactur-
ing companies, mainly Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), have
technical and monetary constraints when deploying complete, in-
dustrial robotics solutions within their operations. A hybrid envi-
ronment, where humans and robots can cooperate and work to-
gether as a team, can potentially overcome some of the current
challenges faced by SMEs (Antonelli et al., 2016). This paper ex-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2020.05.228
2212-8271/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
A.K. Ramasubramanian and N. Papakostas
plores one such idea, where humans and robots can work together
as a team.
The aim of this research is to develop a method that would en-
able both human operators and mobile manipulators to work to-
gether in order to perform simple part transportation tasks in the
shop-floor. The proposed approach uses compliance control and
external force feedback data from the collaborative robotic arm to
allow the human operator to perform a shared part transportation
task with the mobile manipulator. In essence, the mobile manipu-
lator is guided by the human operator towards moving a part to a
different location in a collaborative fashion.
2. Related work
Collaborative mobile manipulators have been used for assist-
ing human operators in the shop-floor in a series of processes,
including assembly of parts, pick and place as well as warehouse
management tasks. A two-phase approach, which enables the hu-
man operator to configure the mobile manipulator for executing
autonomous operations in order for complex tasks to be carried
out in the shop-floor, considering also uncertainty, is discussed in
(D Ö Mel et al., 2017). However, human operators teaching au-
tonomous mobile manipulators about how to deal with complex
tasks is a quite challenging process that does not necessarily lead
to an improvement of cycle times in a production environment
(Madsen et al., 2015).
A dual-arm mobile collaborative manipulator, which is capable
of autonomous navigation, is demonstrated in reconfigurable man-
ufacturing systems, assisting human operators within an assembly
line environment (Kousi et al., 2018).
One of the main challenges of using mobile manipulators in
a production environment is the complexity of programming the
robot. A skill-based approach that enables the operators to recon-
figure the program of the manipulator by teaching new skills to
the robot is discussed in Ref. (Schou et al., 2018). Such approaches
simplify the process of programming mobile manipulators and en-
able the operator to perform collaborative tasks more efficiently.
There is a wide range of research studies carried out, mainly fo-
cusing on the development of mobile manipulators to carry out as-
sembly line tasks, optimization, and scheduling (Yang et al., 2019).
Furthermore, a lot of research works in the field of HRC focus
either on the development of state-of-the-art mobile platforms
(AGV) or the enhancement of collaborative manipulators.
However, there is still a lack of clarity on tasks that can al-
low human and mobile manipulators work together as a team. A
Multi-Human mobile-robot control framework model proposed in
Ref. (Kim et al., 2019), discusses an application involving two hu-
man operators performing various actions, such as handing over
an object to a mobile manipulator, drilling of the object, while it
is held by the manipulator. This framework may be used for evalu-
ating and improving the ergonomics using mobile manipulators in
shop-floor settings. Most existing HRC applications involving mo-
bile manipulators, focus more on building autonomous robots, on
the optimization of task allocation, on gesture and voice controls,
on the use of machine learning, and on AI tools that can be used
to improve the performance in specific tasks (Yang et al., 2019).
A ROS-integrated gesture based control for interaction of Human
and KUKA youBot is discussed in (Ahmed et al., 2019). There is
still a lack of applications involving the coexistence of mobile ma-
nipulators and human operators, sharing a common workspace to
carry-out tasks in a synchronized manner, elaborating on the level
of interaction between them (Yang et al., 2019, Hoffman, 2019). A
collaborative scenario discussed in (Walter et al., 2016) involves a
mobile manipulator assisting the human operator with the fixing
of frames. The mobile manipulator positions the one end of the
frame in parallel with the other end held by the human operator.
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Procedia CIRP 97 (2020) 217–223
Additionally, process simulation tools, such as Gazebo, may be
used to evaluate the performance of the robot virtually before de-
ploying it into complex industrial environment. A reinforcement
learning algorithm to deal with the trajectory planning plan trajec-
tory for complex pick and place tasks is discussed in (Iriondo et al.,
2019).
On the other hand, collaborative manipulators offer various in-
built functionalities, such as force / torque sensors, impedance con-
trol mode to assist hand guided operations and collision detec-
tion for safe HRC (Chawda and Niemeyer, 2017, Popov et al., 2017,
Lee et al., 2016).
In this paper, a new method is presented that allows direct
physical Human-Robot Interaction for tasks carried out by the op-
erator and the collaborative mobile manipulator working in syn-
chronization for transferring parts in a manufacturing environ-
ment.
In the following Section 3, the task, the experiment and the
synchronization approach are presented. Section 4 presents the re-
sults of the experiments, while the last part of the paper presents
the conclusions as well as a few ideas for future work.
3. Experiments
3.1. Task description
The primary goal of the proposed work is to facilitate the devel-
opment of safe HRC that will in turn enable the coordinated trans-
fer of parts within a typical manufacturing environment utilizing a
mobile manipulator.
The task in the investigated scenario involves a long aluminum
profile being picked up from a rack where one end of the profile is
held by the robot and the other end is held by the human opera-
tor. The operator will guide the mobile manipulator to the desired
location. The guidance system of the mobile manipulator is based
on cartesian impedance control coupled with the feedback from
the force/torque sensors located at the joints of the collaborative
manipulator.
3.2. Experimental setup
The mobile collaborative platform, KUKA KMR iiwa, is shown
in Fig. 1 (KUKA, 2017). This platform is used to validate the pro-
posed approach in a case where a part has to be co-manipulated
in a shop-floor. The KMR iiwa platform consists of a KUKA KMR
iiwa R820 robot mounted on top of a KUKA KMP 200 mo-
bile platform. The mobile manipulator is programmed using the
KUKA Sunrise workbench, which is a Java-based software platform
(Hentout et al., 2019). The use of the KUKA Sunrise Mobility soft-
ware is required for programming the KMP 200 platform. The grip-
ping tool mounted on the flange of the manipulator is the Robotiq
3-finger adaptive gripper (Robotiq, 2020).
For illustration purposes, a relatively short part in the experi-
ment is presented, but the proposed method may well be applied
to longer parts that cannot be easily handled or manipulated by a
human operator. These parts would normally require the presence
of a second operator for moving them in different locations of a
manufacturing environment.
The profile is made up of an aluminum tube with a diameter of
30 mm and a length of 1200 mm. Furthermore, the approximate
weight of the aluminum profile is 610 g. The profile is placed on
the rack as shown in the Fig. 1 The goal is that the human operator
and the mobile manipulator move the part between two distant
positions in a collaborative manner, while allowing the manipula-
tor to follow the human operator.
A.K. Ramasubramanian and N. Papakostas Procedia CIRP 97 (2020) 217–223

Fig. 1. (a) Aluminum profile; (b) KUKA KMR iiwa platform; (c) KUKA KMR iiwa R820 and Robotiq 3-finger adaptive gripper.

Fig. 2. (a) Workspace representation with position; (b) Robot positioned in front of the table.

Table 1 Table 2
Position parameters for the mobile platform. Final position of the mobile robot.

Position Home (m) P1 (m) Position Home (m) P1 (m)

X 6.5000 8.7500 X 6.5005 8.7489
Y 10.0000 11.5000 Y 10.0006 11.4995
 90.0000 0.0000  89.9494 0.0457

Table 3
3.3. Implementation Difference between measured and the actual
position of the mobile platform.

The laser scanners attached to the mobile manipulator can be Position Home (m) P1 (m)
used to create a map of the work environment. Fig. 2 gives the X 0.0005 0.0011
Y 0.0006 0.0005
representation of the workspace scanned by the manipulator, in-
 0.0506 0.0457
cluding the home position, as well as target point P1 in front of the
table to pick up the object. Table 1 gives the positional information
(poses) X, Y,  of the home and P1 for the mobile manipulator.
The communication to the collaborative arm is initiated via the how the overall process is implemented for allowing the effective
KUKA NavBox. The NavBox consists of a computer that controls the physical human-robot interaction. The pseudocode of the proposed
activities of the mobile platform. A remote task is set up in or- method is shown in Fig. 4.
der for the platform to establish communication with the Sunrise
controller via the NavBox to manipulate the arm. Once the remote
task is initialized, the robot moves to home position, if not already 4. Results
there. Later, the robot moves to point P1 as shown in the Fig. 2. Af-
ter the mobile platform reaches the position P1, the collaborative 4.1. Localization of the mobile platform
arm picks up the object. The arm grasps one end of the aluminum
profile and then the cartesian impedance control for allowing hand The maximum deviation of error along the x and the y axis are
guidance control is initiated. The other end of the profile is picked 0.01257% and 0.006% respectively. Hence, this deviation is small
up by the operator and the profile is lifted out of the rack. and has not affected the success rate with which the manipula-
The translational offset value of the TCP with respect to the tor picks up the aluminum profile. Table 2 illustrates the measured
point of gripping along the X and the Y axis is computed. A force position of the mobile platform positioned at Home and P1 posi-
condition is set to measure the magnitude of the force in the carte- tions. The average difference between the measured and the actual
sian X and Y coordinates. The flowchart shown in Fig. 3 shows poses are shown in Table 3.

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A.K. Ramasubramanian and N. Papakostas Procedia CIRP 97 (2020) 217–223

Fig. 3. Process flowchart diagram for co-manipulation task.

Fig. 4. Pseudocode of the method that initiates the co-manipulation task.

4.2. Human-robot team

4.2.1. Safety
The minimum separation distance required to enable safe HRC
with the mobile platform here is approximately 0.5 m. The laser
scanners detect the presence of the human operator if the oper-
ator is within the above range and thereby stops its motion, as
shown in Fig. 5. The force torque sensors enable a safety feature
that is in charge of stopping the motion of the arm when a colli-
sion is detected. Therefore, the collaborative platform is overall safe
to support physical human-robot collaboration (Lee et al., 2016,
Hentout et al., 2019).
The first subtask of the collaborative task involves the mobile Fig. 5. Mobile platform in stop as operator is in proximity.
manipulator grasping the aluminum profile. In Fig. 6 the gripper’s
open and close status is shown.

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A.K. Ramasubramanian and N. Papakostas
Fig. 6. Collaborative arm gripping the Aluminum profile.
After the profile is grasped by the gripper, cartesian impedance
control is initiated. In the next step, the human operator assists the
robot to remove the profile from the rack.
The arm is at this point in compliance mode, measures the po-
sitional offset and the force condition values. Based on the haptic
feedback from the human operator, the mobile platform moves ac-
cordingly along the X or Y axis.
The next step corresponds to the human operator teaming up
with the mobile manipulator and moving on towards transferring
the part in a synchronized manner. To initiate the motion along
the X-axis, the operator is required to move the arm up as shown
in Fig. 7. This enables the mobile platform to move relative to its
last position. The relative X and Y coordinates for the mobile plat-
forms are computed based on the offset of the arm from its grasp
position.
Fig. 8 shows the real time data from the robot moving along
the X axis. In that particular point of time, for instance, the X, Y
and  are 8.2903 m, 11.5163 m and 0.0524 deg respectively with
velocities vx =−0.064 m/s, vy =0.0 0 0 m/s and  ˙ =0.006 deg/s. The
blue light on the platform indicates the direction along the motion
of the mobile platform shown in Fig. 7.
Similarly, the operator needs to move the arm to the side to
initiate motion along the Y axis. The human operator moves the
arm towards the left to start the motion of the platform to move
along +Y axis.
Fig. 9 illustrates the human operator moving the arm towards
the left and the blue light indicates the direction along which the
platform moves.
Fig. 10 displays the real time position and the velocity
of the mobile platform along Y axis. The X, Y and  are
8.0537 m, 11.6901 m and 0.0953 deg respectively, with vx =0 m/s,
vy =0.008 m/s, and  ˙ =0.085 deg/s.
The result of the co-manipulation task discussed here enables
the control of the mobile platform based on the haptic feedback
provided by the human operator. The arm acts like a joystick to
Fig. 7. Haptic feedback to move the robot along X axis.
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Procedia CIRP 97 (2020) 217–223
Fig. 8. Motion of the robot along the negative X axis.
move the platform to the location desired. This case scenario is an
example of how human operators and robots may work together
in transportation tasks in shop-floor environments.
In this paper it is demonstrated how the safety features and
control parameters of modern mobile manipulators could be used
for allowing the cooperation with human operators in tasks where
synchronized motion of the mobile platform, the manipulator and
the human operator is required. A number of other similar tasks
may also be considered in industrial settings.
5. Discussion
This paper presents a straightforward approach that allows hu-
man operators to collaborate with mobile robotic manipulators.
The capability of these platforms to move in a typical industrial en-
vironment expands the range of applications that could potentially
be carried out jointly by human operators and robots. Instead of
using special expensive platforms or devices, such as AGVs, which
are capable of moving from a predefined position to another, with-
out interacting with human operators, mobile collaborative plat-
forms may still be interacting with operators in the context of a
plethora of tasks, thus potentially increasing the production flexi-
bility and overall manufacturing performance.
At the same time, replacing human intuition and dexterity with
fully automated robotic cells may not always be a cost-efficient
solution, especially in the case of SMEs, where resources are in
most cases limited. Depending on the complexity of the task it-
self in the case of fully automated robotic solutions, special fix-
tures might need to be built, a multitude of sensors might have
to be installed and programmed and specific, highly reliable con-
trol strategies will have to be deployed. On the contrary, combin-
ing the programmability advantages of collaborative manipulators
with the safe, autonomous operation of mobile platforms may in
many cases prove to be a more cost-efficient solution. Especially in
the case of highly flexible production environments, where heav-
ily customized or one-of-a-kind products need to be produced, the
introduction of fully automated robotic solutions many not always
A.K. Ramasubramanian and N. Papakostas
Fig. 9. Motion of the robot along the positive Y axis. By pulling the arm towards left, the mobile platform moves along +Y axis.
Fig. 10. Real time positional and velocity parameters of the mobile manipulator
while moving along the Y axis.
be the best option or may not even be an option at all. Therefore,
keeping the human operator in the loop, while integrating the ca-
pabilities of mobile manipulators may still be the best option for
many processes in typical manufacturing environments.
On the other hand, it is important that further research and de-
velopment be carried out in the future for allowing mobile robotic
technologies to be further developed so that it be easier to control
and adapt mobile robotic platforms to the needs of human opera-
tors and to the requirements of manual tasks.
It is important to note that the flawless and reliable operation
of the mobile robot’s safety subsystems is the only way to fos-
ter the development of trust on the operator’s side, which in turn
would have a profound positive effect on the overall performance
of human-robot systems.
6. Future work
The approach presented in this paper may in principle be
adapted to the needs of cases where the part is much longer and
heavier, given that both the robotic arm and gripper can still meet
the corresponding payload requirements. A part of the plans for
future research is to test the proposed approach in more challeng-
ing tasks, including cases where parts are much bigger and heavier.
It is this kind of cases where the safety aspects pertaining to the
process will have to be tested in a structured and thorough way
in order to ensure that the process is entirely safe for the human
operators and the associated environment, even when the task is
not executed as planned, as in the case of the part slipping, or
the gripper failing to grasp the part. At the same time, additional
safety measures might have to be implemented.
Part of the future research plans could also involve the devel-
opment and use of reinforcement learning algorithms in order to
make the mobile manipulator more adaptive to the special charac-
teristics of the environment so that the platform be navigated and
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Procedia CIRP 97 (2020) 217–223
controlled in an easier way. Those plans include the development
of a ROS-based digital twin model of the process, involving the op-
erator and mobile manipulator carrying out joint co-manipulation
tasks. Such methods can be used for evaluating the performance of
collaborative tasks (including the ergonomic performance) as well
as for assessing the safety of the operation before and after de-
ployment.
Furthermore, a series of experiments could be designed and
conducted to enable the dynamic modification of the stiffness of
the collaborative arm while in the cartesian impedance control,
computing, at the same time, an optimum force condition to trig-
ger in order for the mobile manipulator to adapt to the intrinsic
characteristics of the operator. Such an approach could contribute
to the reduction of the operators’ fatigue and would also lead to
the more robust control of the system.
Another challenge would be to use the input of wearable de-
vices or vision systems to better understand the status of the oper-
ator as well as to predict in a more accurate manner the intentions
of the operator, thus achieving better real-time cooperation.
Overall, it is expected that more tasks will be jointly executed
by operators and mobile robots in the future.
Acknowledgements
This work has been partially supported by the H2020 research
project SHERLOCK “Seamless and safe human centered robotic ap-
plications for novel collaborative workplaces” (Grant Agreement
820689), and by the ERDF-funded INTERREG NWE project Machin-
ing4.0 “Towards the machining shop-floor of the future”.
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