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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Received on 4th October 2009
Revised on 29th December 2009
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0553

ISSN 1751-8687

Optimal controller design of a doubly-fed

induction generator wind turbine system
for small signal stability enhancement
L. Yang1,* G.Y. Yang2 Z. Xu2,3 Z.Y. Dong3 K.P. Wong3,4
X. Ma1
1
School of Electrical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’ s Republic of China
2
Centre for Electric Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby DK-2800, Denmark
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
4
School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
*L. Yang is currently visiting the Centre for Electric Technology, Technical University of Denmark
E-mail: zydong@ieee.org

Abstract: Multi-objective optimal controller design of a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine
system using differential evolution (DE) is presented. A detailed mathematical model of DFIG wind turbine
with a closed-loop vector control system is developed. Based on this, objective functions addressing the
steady-state stability and dynamic performance at different operating conditions are implemented to optimise
the controller parameters of both the rotor and grid-side converters. A superior 1-constraint method and
method of adaptive penalties are applied to handle the multi-objective problem and the constraint with DE,
respectively. Eigenvalue analysis and time-domain simulations are performed on a single machine infinite bus
system as well as a nine-bus multi-machine system with two DFIG wind turbines to illustrate the control
performance of the DFIG wind turbine with the optimised controller parameters. The electric energy
productions of the studied DFIG wind turbine system with and without optimised controller parameters under
turbulent wind speed are also demonstrated.

1 Introduction grid-connected DFIG has been proposed and comprehensive

The doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) equipped wind
turbine is currently one of the most popular wind conversion
systems due to its high energy efficiency, reduced mechanical
stress on the wind turbine and relatively low power rating of
the connected power electronics converter [1]. As the
penetration level of DFIG wind power generation into the
grid increases, the stability issue of the DFIG wind turbine
system is of particular increasing concern.
The dynamic behaviours of DFIG based on time-domain
simulations have been studied to investigate the performance
of the DFIG system and its impact on power system
dynamics [2–4]. In [5–7] detailed dynamic model of a
small signal stability has been analysed. The analyses identify
and quantify the effects of the system parameters, operating
points and grid strength on the system modes. The purposes
of the behaviour and stability analyses of the DFIG wind
turbine system are offering better understanding of the system
intrinsic dynamics, which can be useful for robust control
design of such system.
In order to achieve decoupled control of active and reactive
power of the DFIG, vector control technique based on
proportional integral (PI) controllers was proposed and has
been widely used in the industry [8 – 10]. The decoupled
control of DFIG has several different PI controllers.
Suitable controller parameters are needed to achieve better

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579 – 597 579
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www.ietdl.org
control performance for system stability. However, the
coordinated tuning of these controllers is a challenging and
cumbersome task.
Recently, optimisation methods have been utilised in
controller parameter tuning for the DFIG wind turbine
system. Particle swarm optimisation (PSO) and genetic
algorithms (GAs) have been applied to optimise the
controller for the rotor-side converter in time domain in
[11, 12], respectively. The objective function is to reduce
the over-current as well as over-voltage in the rotor circuit.
However, as the grid-side converter controller was not
optimised, hence, larger oscillations of the DC-link voltage
cannot be avoided. PSO has been used to optimise all the
five controllers in the DFIG system including both rotor
and grid-side controllers [13]. The objective is to shift all
the eigenvalues as far to the left of the left-hand side of the
S-plane. Bacteria foraging optimisation has been applied
for tuning damping controller to improve the damping
of the oscillatory modes of the DFIG wind turbine [14].
However, [13, 14] only considered single objective and
single operating point. Therefore robust damping
performance and sufficient stability margin for changed
operating conditions (e.g. changed wind speed) cannot be
obtained simultaneously.
Differential evolution (DE), a relatively new member in the
family of evolutionary algorithms (EAs), is a population-based
method and generally considered as a parallel stochastic direct
search optimiser which is very simple, yet powerful [15, 16].
The main advantage of DE is its capability in solving
optimisation problems which require optimisation process
with non-linear and multi-modal objective functions. It
employs a non-uniform cross-over using parameters of child
vectors to guide through the minimisation process. The
mutation operation with DE is conducted by arithmetical
combinations which exploit the difference among randomly
selected vectors, other than perturbing the genes in
individuals with small probability as compared with one of
the most popular EAs and GAs. These special features make
DE a precise, fast as well as robust algorithm. Therefore DE
has been attracting more and more attentions from industry
applications, including the field of power system [17].
Modelling and stability analyses by previous authors [2– 7]
have provided useful theoretical information for controller
design and model justification. While using the previous
research work for reference, the main objective of this paper
is to propose an effective optimal design method to
optimise controller parameters of a DFIG wind turbine for
enhancing its small signal stability under grid connection
conditions. A comprehensive DFIG model including
induction generator, two-mass drive train, pitch control,
converters and close-loop vector control, and so on has
been developed. An effective DE-based multi-objective
optimisation method is used to obtain the optimal
controllers’ parameters of both the rotor and grid-side
converters, so as to obtain robust damping performance as
580
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010
well as sufficient stability margin for all the operating
conditions in considerations. The initial controller
parameters, which compose one individual of the initial
population for DE algorithm, are obtained by the
formal pole placement method. Eigenvalue analysis and
time-domain simulations are carried out on a sample
single-machine infinite bus (SMIB) DFIG system as well
as a nine-bus multi-machine system with two DFIG wind
turbines. The performances of the DFIG wind turbine
with optimised controller parameters and with the
parameters designed by pole placement technique are
compared to demonstrate the control performance of the
system with the optimised controller parameters. As high
energy efficiency captured from wind power is expected, the
impact of the optimised controller parameters on the
electric energy production of the studied DFIG wind
turbine system under fluctuating wind speed is also evaluated.
2 Model of wind turbine
with DFIG
The schematic diagram of a grid-connected DFIG wind
turbine system is shown in Fig. 1. The DFIG wind turbine
system, including wind turbine, drive train, induction
generator, back-to-back pulse width modulation (PWM)
converters and control system, is connected to the infinite
bus through a transformer and the transmission line. In the
overall control system of the DFIG wind turbine, two
control levels can be distinguished: wind turbine control
and DFIG control. The wind turbine control level controls
the pitch angle of the wind turbine and the reference rotor
speed to the DFIG control level. Two-stage control
strategies are used: power optimisation strategy below rated
wind speed and power limitation strategy above rated wind
speed [18]. The DFIG control level, including the rotor-
side and the grid-side controller, is to control the active
and reactive power of the DFIG using vector control
technique. In the following subsections, a detailed model of
the grid-connected DFIG wind turbine system will be
presented. The definitions of the variables and system
parameters are listed in Appendix 1.
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of a DFIG wind turbine system
1. Wind turbine. 2. Gear box. 3. Induction generator. 4. Back-to-
back PWM converters. 5. Transformer. 6. Transmission
line. 7. Infinite bus. 8. Wind turbine control level. 9. DFIG
control level.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579– 597
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2.1 Generator 0.5rpR2 Cp (l, b)Vw3

Tm = (7)
For power system stability studies, the generator is modelled vt
as an equivalent voltage source based on transient impedance
[19]. The differential equations of the stator and rotor circuits where Cp is the power coefficient, and
of the induction generator with stator current and equivalent  
116
voltage behind transient impedance as state variables can be Cp = 0.22 − 0.4b − 5 e−12.5/li (8)
given in a d – q reference frame rotating at synchronous li
speed (we define this reference frame as the generator 1
reference frame in this paper). Since the control design is li = (9)
1/(l + 0.08b) − 0.035/(b3 + 1)
of interest in this paper, it is necessary to use the fourth-
order model of the generator as shown in (1) [7]. (see (1)) where l ¼ vtR/Vw is the blade tip speed ratio. The reference
of the generator speed is set according to the power– speed
where is ¼ ids + jiqs is the stator current vector; es′ ¼ e ds
′ ′
+ jeqs is characteristic curve [18]. In this curve, when the generator
the vector of equivalent voltages behind transient impedance, by speed is higher than the lower limit and lower than the
′ ′
defining e ds ¼ 2 vsLmcqr /Lr , eqs ¼ vsLmcdr/Lr; us ¼ rated value, the rotor speed reference can be expressed by
uds + juqs is the stator voltage vector; ur ¼ udr + juqr is the 
rotor voltage vector; Ls ¼ Lm + Lls; Lr ¼ Lm + Llr; Xs ¼ vs/ Tm
Ls; X s′ ¼ vs(Ls 2 L2m/Lr) and T0 ¼ Lr/Rr . This model adopts vref = (10)
Kopt
the generator convention meaning that stator and rotor
currents are positive and negative, respectively, when flowing By adapting vr to this reference, l can be tuned to the
out of the generator. optimal value over different wind speeds to extract the
maximum power.
2.2 Drive train
When studying the stability of DFIG wind turbine, the two-
mass model of the drive train is important because the wind
2.3 Pitch control
turbine shaft is relatively softer than the typical shaft used in The pitch angle of the blade is controlled to optimise the
conventional power plants [20]. The equations on the two- power extraction of wind turbine as well as to prevent over-
mass model of the drive train are given by rated power production in strong wind. The pitch servo is
modelled as
dv r 1
= (T − Te − Bvr ) (2) db 1
dt 2Hg sh = (b − b) (11)
dt Tb ref
dut
= vb (vt − vr ) (3) For the sake of simplicity, the reference of the pitch angle bref
dt
is kept zero when wind speed is below the rated value. When
dvt 1 wind speed is higher than the rated value, the power
= (T − Tsh ) (4)
dt 2Ht m limitation is active by adjusting the pitch angle using the
pitch control scheme shown in Fig. 2 [18].
where vr and vt are the generator and wind turbine speeds,
respectively. ut is the shaft twist angle. The electromagnetic
torque Te , the shaft torque Tsh and the mechanical torque
Tm , which is the power input of the wind turbine, are

Te = Lm (iqs idr − ids iqr ) (5)

Tsh = Ksh ut + Dsh vb (vt − vr ) (6) Figure 2 Schematic diagram of a pitch control

⎧  
⎪ 1 dids v Xs − Xs′ v ′ 1 ′ vL v
⎪
⎪ = − ′ Rs +
s
ids + vs iqs + r′ eds − ′ eqs + s′ m udr − s′ uds
⎪
⎪ vb dt Xs vT Xs Xs T0 Xs Lr Xs
⎪
⎪  s 0
⎪
⎪ 1 diqs ′
⎪
⎪ v X − X 1 ′ v ′ v L v
⎪
⎨ v dt = −vs ids − X ′ Rs + v T
s s s
iqs + ′ eds + r′ eqs + s′ m uqr − s′ uqs
b s s 0 XT s 0X XL
s Xs r s
′ (1)
⎪
⎪ 1 deds 1 ′ vL
⎪
⎪
⎪ = − [eds − (Xs − Xs′ )iqs ] + (vs − vr )eqs
′
− s m uqr
⎪ b
⎪ v dt T Lr
⎪
⎪ ′
0
⎪
⎪ 1 deqs 1 ′ vL
⎪
⎩ = − [eqs + (Xs − Xs′ )ids ] − (vs − vr )eds
′
+ s m udr
vb dt T0 Lr

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2.4 Rotor-side converter expressed as [21]

The generic control scheme of the rotor-side converter is


 w

illustrated in Fig. 3. In order to decouple the electromagnetic ydr cos w −sin w ydr
= w (14)
torque and the rotor excitation current, the induction yqr sin w cos w yqr
generator is controlled in the stator-flux-oriented reference
frame, which is a synchronously rotating reference frame, with
where y can be current i or voltage u and w ¼ arctan(cqs/cds)
its d-axis oriented along the stator-flux vector position [9].
is the angle between the stator-flux vector and the d-axis of
The typical PI controllers are used for regulation in both rotor
the generator reference frame.
speed (outer) control loop and rotor current (inner) control
loop. In Fig. 3, superscript w denotes the variable is in the
stator-flux-oriented reference frame.
2.5 Grid-side converter
Based on the stator-flux orientation, the stator flux can be Fig. 4 shows the control scheme of the grid-side converter. In
described as cwds ¼ Cs and cwqs ¼ 0 [9]. According to the order to obtain the independent control of active and reactive
control scheme of the rotor-side converter shown in Fig. 3, the power flowing between the grid and the grid-side converter,
equations regarding the rotor voltage equations can be written as the converter control operates in the grid-voltage-oriented
reference frame, which is a synchronously rotating reference
⎧w w w
⎨udr = −(vs − v r )sLr iqr + KPir (Idrref − idr ) + xidr

frame, with its d-axis oriented along the grid-voltage vector
CL position [9]. Similarly, the typical PI controllers are used
⎩uwqr = (vs − vr ) sLr idrw
+ s m + KPir (iqrref w w
− idr ) + xiqr for regulation in both DC-link voltage (outer) control loop
Ls
and grid-side inductor current (inner) control loop. In
(12) Fig. 4, 1 denotes the variable is in the grid-voltage-oriented
reference frame.
where s ¼ 1 2 L 2m/LsLr is the leakage factor.
The differential equations of the grid-side converter are
The control equations of the rotor-side converter become given by
⎧ ⎧
⎪
⎪
K
ẋv = Pv (vref − vr ) ⎪di v
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨ dL = b (uds − RL idL + vs LiqL − uda )
⎪
⎪ TIv
⎪
⎪ dt L
⎪
⎪ KPir ⎪
(15)
⎪ w
⎨ẋidr = T (Idrref − idr ) ⎪
⎩
di qL v
Iir
= b (uqs − RL iqL − vs LidL − uqa )
(13) dt L
⎪
⎪ w Ls
⎪
⎪iqrref =− [K (v − vr ) + xv ]
⎪
⎪ Lm Cs Pv ref
⎪
⎪ where iL ¼ idL + jiqL is grid-side inductor current vector and
⎪
⎪ K
⎪ w
⎩ẋiqr = Pir (iqrref − iqr
w
) ua ¼ uda + juqa is grid-side converter voltage vector.
TIir
Under the grid-voltage-oriented reference frame, the grid
where KPv and TIv are the proportional gain and integral time voltage can be described as u 1ds ¼ Us and u 1qs ¼ 0. According
constant of the rotor speed control loop, respectively. KPir and to the control scheme of the grid-side converter shown
TIir are the proportional gain and integral time constant of the in Fig. 4, the equations regarding the voltage of grid-side
rotor current control loop, respectively. For the sake of converter can be written as
simplicity, we assume the parameters are the same for d- and
q-component of the rotor current control loop. 
u1da = Us + vs LiqL − [KPiL (idLref
1
− idL
1
) + xidL ]
(16)
uqa = −vs LiqL − [KPiL (IqLref − iqL ) + xiqL ]
1 1
The relationship between the generator reference frame
and the stator-flux-oriented reference frame can be
The equations regarding the controller of the grid-side

Figure 3 Control scheme of the rotor-side converter Figure 4 Control scheme of the grid-side converter

582 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579– 597
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010 doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0553
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converter are described as in a compact form

⎧
⎪ K ẋ = f (x, u) (21)
⎪
⎪ ẋv = Pv (Udcref − Udc )
⎪
⎪ TIv
⎪
⎪ √
⎪
⎪ where x and u are the vectors with respect to the state and the
⎪
⎪ 2 ′ ′
⎨ iqLref =  [KPv (Udcref − Udc ) + xv ]
√
1
input variables which are defined as x ¼ [ids iqs e ds e qs vr ut vt b
3m (17) T
xv xidr xiqr xv idL iqL xidL xiqL Udc] and u ¼ [Idrref IqLref Udcref
⎪
⎪ KPiL 1
⎪ ẋidL =
⎪ (idLref − idL
1
) Vw bref E0]T.
⎪
⎪ T
⎪
⎪ IiL
⎪
⎪ K
⎪
⎩ ẋiqL = PiL (IqLef − iqL 1
TIiL
) 3 Pole placement controller
design
where KPv and TIv are the proportional gain and integral time
The pole placement technique is a standard methodology
constant of the DC-link voltage control loop, respectively.
when designing the PI derivative controllers. The idea of the
KPiL and TIiL are the proportional gain and integral time
pole placement method is to specify the closed-loop
constant of the grid-side inductor current control loop,
performance by placing the poles and zeros at any desired
respectively. Similarly, the parameters are assumed to be the
position. The controller parameters are tuned to obtain the
same for d- and q-component of the grid-side inductor
specified pole and zero locations for the closed-loop transfer
current control loop.
function. In this paper, the pole placement methodology is
used to obtain the PI controller parameters for the DFIG
The relationship between the generator reference frame
wind turbine as the initial value of the proposed DE-based
and the grid-voltage-oriented reference frame can be given
optimisation algorithm. In addition, the performances of the
by [21]
DFIG wind turbine with optimised controller parameters


 1
and with the parameters designed by pole placement
yda cos 1 −sin 1 yda technique are compared in Section 5.
= 1 (18)
yqa sin 1 cos 1 yqa
3.1 Rotor current controller
where y can be current i or voltage u and 1 ¼ arctan(uqs/uds) is
From the equations of the generator model and using the
the angle between the grid-voltage vector and the d-axis of
Laplace transform, the plant for the rotor current control
the generator reference frame.
loop is given by

2.6 DC-link capacitor idr (s) iqr (s) 1

F1 (s) = ′ = ′ = (22)
The equation which describes the energy balance of the udr (s) uqr (s) sLr s + Rr
DC-link capacitor can be expressed as
According to the control scheme of the rotor-side controller
Cdc Udc dUdc 3 and considering the PWM converter as a first-order system,
= pa − pr = (uda idL + uqa iqL − udr idr − uqr iqr ) the block diagram of the rotor current control loop can be
vb dt 2
shown in Fig. 5, where Ts is the switching frequency of the
(19) converter.

where Udc is DC-link voltage, pa and pr are powers supplied From Fig. 5, the open-loop transfer function for this
to the grid-side converter and the rotor circuit, respectively. system can be obtained as

2.7 Interfacing with power grid KPir (TIir s + 1)

G(s) = (23)
TIir s(Ts s + 1)(sLr s + Rr )
The voltage equation describing the interface with the
external system can be written as Equating G(s) to a typical second-order system where the
cut-off frequency is five times smaller than the switching
Us /us − E/u = (ZT + ZL )(is − iL ) (20) frequency of the converter, the integral time constant and
the proportional gain of the rotor current loop controller
where E/u is the voltage of the external bus. If it is an
infinite bus system, E/u ¼ E0/0. ZT and ZL are the
impedance of the transformer and transmission line,
respectively.

From (1) –(20), we can obtain a set of differential equations

to present the DFIG wind turbine system. They can be written Figure 5 Rotor current control loop

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579 – 597 583
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www.ietdl.org

can be given by substitutions:

sLr idr , iqr  idL , iqL

TIir = (24)
Rr
u′dr , u′qr  u′da , u′qa
(31)
KPir = v2n sLr Ts (25) Rr  RL
sLr  L
where vn is the natural frequency of the closed-loop system.
With the designed rotor current controller parameters, the
Considering the rotor speed control loop cut-off frequency is
closed-loop transfer function of the rotor current control
five times smaller than the switching frequency of the grid-
loop can be obtained. Since Ts is small, to simplify the
side converter, the PI parameters can be calculated using
design of the rotor speed control loop, the closed-loop
(32) and (33).
transfer function of the rotor current control loop can be
approximated to a first-order system as shown in (26). L
TIiL = (32)
RL
KPir /(sLr ) 1
F(s) = ≃ (26)
Ts s + s + KPir /(sLr ) (sLr /KPir )s + 1
2
KPiL = v2n LTs (33)

3.2 Rotor speed controller 3.4 DC-link voltage controller

From (2), the transfer function of the plant for the rotor From the control scheme and the model of DC-link voltage
speed control loop is written as controller, it can be seen that the plant for the DC-link
voltage control loop design is similar to the case of rotor
vr (s) 1 speed controller with the following variable substitutions:
F2 (s) = = (27)
Te (s) 2Hg s + B
vr  Udc
According to the control scheme of the rotor speed controller, Te  ios
(34)
the rotor speed control loop is shown in Fig. 6. 1 1

2Hg s + B Cdc s
From Fig. 6, the open-loop transfer function for the rotor
speed control loop can be presented as
Considering the DC-link voltage control loop cut-off
frequency is ten times smaller than the grid-side inductor
KPv (TIv s + 1)
G(s) = (28) current controller, the PI parameters can be calculated using
TIv s(sLr s/KPir + 1)(2Hg s + B)
(35) and (36).

Similarly, the PI parameters can be calculated using (29) and 4L

(30), considering the rotor speed control loop cut-off TIv = (35)
KPiL
frequency is ten times smaller than the cut-off frequency of
the current control loop. KPv = v2n TIv Cdc (36)

2Hg
T Iv =
B
(29) 4 DE-based multi-objective
optimal control of DFIG wind
KPv = v2n 2Hg sLr /KPir (30) turbine system
3.3 Grid-side inductor current controller 4.1 Brief description on DE
From the control scheme and the model of grid-side inductor As a member of EA, DE was first proposed by Storn and
current controller, it can be found that the plant for the grid- Price at Berkeley during 1994– 1996 [16, 22]. DE requires
side inductor current control loop design is similar to the case initial population, iterative progress and operators of
of rotor current controller with the following variable mutation, recombination and selection to explore the search
space. DE is known for simplicity, easy implementation
and capability of solving optimisation problems with
non-linear and multi-modal objective functions [23]. DE
has been proved to be an effective and robust optimisation
algorithm which can be easily extended to handle different
types of variables and non-linear/non-trivial constraints
Figure 6 Rotor speed control loop [15, 24, 25]. The features of DE are described in the sequel.

584 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579– 597
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010 doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0553

1. Encode: Binary coding scheme is commonly used in
conventional EAs. Binary coding uses limited number of
binary digits and therefore has disadvantages at the
limitation of ability to effectively represent variables within
different ranges and preserving the continuum’s topology.
Unlike conventional EAs, DE uses floating number instead
of binary string to achieve better variable representation
with higher precision.
2. Population initialisation: DE is a population-based direct
search algorithm. For the Gth generation, the population
contains NP n-dimensional vectors [X1,G , X2,G , . . . , XNP,G].
If there is no prior knowledge on the problem, the first
generation of population can be initialised by the equation below
Xi,1 = X min
+ rand (0, 1) · (X max
−X min
) (37)
where rand(0, 1) is a random scalar within [0, 1]. X max and X min
represent the upper and lower bounds of variables, respectively.
However, if there is prior knowledge of the solution, such as a
primary solution is known, this solution may be exploited in
initialising the population by adding probabilistic distributed
deviations. In this paper, since no preliminary solution is
known before, the initial population is formulated based on (37).
3. Mutation/recombination: The mutation operator of DE
exploits the differences among individuals to probe the
solution space. A non-uniform recombination operator is
integrated with mutation process to obtain the variance of
child vectors. The key characteristic of DE mutation/
recombination lies in that it utilises the difference among
vectors to obtain a trial population of NP vectors. In
implementation, mutation and recombination are almost
finished simultaneously in operation. A population of NP
trial vectors will then be formed.
For the ith vector Xi,G , a simple example of DE mutation is [16]
X′i,G = Xr1,G + c · (Xr2,G + Xr3,G ) (38)
Figure 7 Pseudo-code of DE mutation/recombination process
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579 – 597
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0553
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where Xr1,G , Xr2,G and Xr3,G are vectors randomly selected in
′
the current population and r1 = r2 = r3 = i. X i,G is the
mutated vector which is used for recombination. c is a
constant scalar normally selected in [0, 1]. The mutation in
DE is integrated with recombination/cross-over process
which is operated between Xi,G and Xi,G′ . Unlike in GA,
recombination operator is only a supplementary operator of
DE to ensure the diversity of vectors. For conventional DE, a
probability index CR is introduced to control the
recombination process. Some digits of vector may be
predetermined to be recombined. To illustrate the whole
process, a pseudo-code for implementing mutation and
recombination operation used in this paper is given in Fig. 7.
4. Selection: The selection operator of DE is simple. The trial
Tl
vector Xi,G will be presented to the objective function. If the
result is better than original vector Xi,G , then the current
population will be updated by replacing Xi,G with XTl i,G;
otherwise Xi,G will be retained in the running population.
4.2 Multi-objective optimisation
4.2.1 Objective function: Considering small signal
stability, the main purpose of the control system is to increase
the system damping ratio as well as to guarantee enough
stability margin. When both the damping ratio and the
stability margin are considered in objective function, the
system eigenvalues can be restricted within a D-shape area,
where both robust damping performance and relative stability
margin can be achieved [26]. Furthermore, the DFIG wind
turbine system works in the varying wind speed condition at
most of the time. Consequently, the eigenvalues related to
different operating points, which are changed along with the
wind speed, should be considered during the optimal design.
Therefore the objective is formulated as follows:
Maximise
F1 (X ) = min{zik } (39)
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Minimise
F2 (X ) = max{sik } (40)
Bound
XL ≤ X ≤ XU (41)
where X is the solution vector, zik and sik represent the
damping ratio and the real part of the ith eigenvalue for
the kth operating point, respectively. It is obvious that the
proposed model is actually a multi-objective optimisation
problem with incompatible objectives. So it is necessary to
find a proper fitness function and method to solve such
problem when using DE algorithm.
4.2.2 1-Constraint method: One common approach to
handle the two objectives defined in (39) and (40) is to simply
combine the two objectives into one by using the weighted-sum
method [27]. Although the weighted-sum approach is easy to
implement, there are major drawbacks that may affect the
final solutions negatively. Since both objectives F1 and F2
have different units and magnitudes, when summing them
up, not only appropriate normalisation of F1 and F2 , but also
the weight coefficients become exceptionally critical to obtain
the optimal solution. Furthermore, this weighted-sum
approach also suffers from the difficulty in finding certain
Pareto-optimal solutions in the case of non-convex objective
space.
In order to alleviate the major drawbacks of the weighted-
sum approach as mentioned above, a superior multi-objective
optimisation technique, namely the 1-constraint method, is
being employed in this paper which is capable of
identifying true Pareto-optimal region regardless of
whether the objective space is convex, non-convex or even
discrete.
The 1-constraint method keeps one of the objectives, while
restricting the rest of the objectives within user-defined values.
In this application, objective F2 is retained and the problem
results in a typical non-linear single-objective optimisation
problem, which can then be expressed as follows [27]:
Minimise
F2 (X ) (42)
subject to
G(X ) = F1 (X ) − 1 . 0 (43)
and bound
XL , X , XU
where objective F1 becomes a soft constraint bounded by a
pre-defined 1 vector. Note that 1 represents the lower
bound of objective F1 and 1 is usually chosen in the range
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within the minimum and maximum values of objective F1 .
The solutions obtained from the 1-constraint method are
very much dependable on the values chosen for 1; thus
inappropriate values used for 1 can also produce inaccurate
or erroneous results. In this paper, 1 can be selected as the
required damping ratio of the DFIG wind turbine system.
4.2.3 Constraint handle method: Using the
1-constraint method, the multi-objective optimisation
problem has been transferred to a constrained single-
objective optimisation problem. Since constraint handling is
not straightforward in the algorithms of EA family, several
methods have been proposed for handling constraints in EA
in the past few years [28]. Generally, the method based on
penalty function is the most widely applied with all types of
non-linear optimisation algorithms. In order to design an
appropriate penalty, the method of adaptive penalties is
applied in this paper. It uses a penalty function; however,
the coefficient of the penalty function uses the feedback
from the search process. Each individual is evaluated by [29]
eval(x) = F2 (x) + l(t)[min{0, G(x)}]2 (44)
where l(t) is updated every generation t in the following way
⎧
⎪
⎨ b1 l(t), b′ [ S − F, for all t − k + 1 ≤ i ≤ t
l(t + 1) = (1/b2 )l(t), b′ [ F, for all t − k + 1 ≤ i ≤ t
⎪
⎩
l(t), otherwise
(45)
where S is the search space; F is the feasible region; b ′ denotes
the best individual, in terms of the evaluation function, in
generation i; b1 , b2 . 1 and to avoid cycling, b1 = b2 .
This method tries to seek good solutions subject to the
constraint by concurrently adjusting l while running the DE
algorithm. Choose an initial value for l, first. After running
the DE algorithm for a certain number of generations k,
check the top solutions for these k generations. If all the best
individuals in the last k generations were infeasible, that
means l is too small. In this case, l is increased, and then
all solutions of the current generation are re-evaluated with
the new l. If all the best individuals in the last k generations
were feasible, l will be decreased for the next k generations.
If there are some feasible and infeasible individuals as the
best individuals in the last k generation, l remains without
change. Typically, the increasing rate b1 is larger than the
decreasing rate b2 to allow for a fast improvement at the
early stage of the algorithm.
5 Simulations and results
The above-mentioned DE-based multi-objective optimisation
technique is applied to find out the optimal controller
parameters of the DFIG wind turbine system. Eigenvalue
analysis and dynamic simulations are carried out in order to
verify the effectiveness of the proposed optimal controller
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design. To compare the results obtained from the proposed
DE-based optimal design approach, the controller parameters
are tuned initially by the formal pole placement methodology.
A SMIB system and a nine-bus multi-machine system in
which two DFIG wind turbines are integrated are used in
simulations and analysis.
5.1 Performance of the DFIG wind
turbine under small perturbation
on a SMIB system
The SMIB DFIG wind turbine system is shown in Fig. 1. The
value of the system parameters are listed in Appendix 1. The
controller parameters to be optimised are X ¼ [KPv , TIv ,
KPir , TIir , KPv , TIv , KPiL , TIiL], including all the controllers of
both the rotor and grid-side converters. To obtain robust
small signal stability performance at numbers of different
operating points, we consider the wind speed range from 5 to
12 m/s, which covers sub-synchronous, synchronous and
super-synchronous speed of DFIG rotor for the optimal
design. The damping ratio constraint 1, which is mentioned
in the last section, is selected as 0.3 in this study. The
parameters used during optimisation are listed in Appendix 2.
The eigenvalues at the operating points associated with
various wind speeds covering the main DFIG operating plane
are considered in the proposed design approach, and the
corresponding equilibrium points at different operating points
are computed for every set of controller parameters. This
procedure guarantees the optimality of the solution. In
simulation, the proposed DE-based optimisation algorithm
was implemented in Matlab, and was carried out on a
Pentium-IV 2.2 GHz PC with 1 GB of RAM. The
overall procedure took 2520 s to obtain the optimal set of
parameters.
The controller parameters with and without optimisation
are presented in Appendix 3. Table 1 shows the eigenvalues
along with their damping ratios and participation factors at
three representative operating points, for both cases when
controllers are with and without optimised parameters. For
ease of reference, the eigenvalues at different operating
points are also portrayed in the complex S-plane as shown in
Fig. 8. It can be seen that with the optimised controller
parameters, the stator modes at three operating points shift
to the left in the S-plan, the damping ratios increase
significantly and the frequency decreases. The damping
ratios of the mechanical modes increase obviously.
The damping ratios of the oscillation modes associated with
the DC-link voltage increase. However, the real parts of the
modes shift to the right but are still large enough (e.g. from
287.2 without optimisation to 224.8 with optimisation
when Vw ¼ 8 m/s). This is because the 1-constraint
method can obtain a compromised optimal solution
depending on preference, which is the damping ratio in
this case. So ensuring the large damping ratio, the
oscillation modes still have enough stability margins,
although shifting to the right. Overall, it can be found
that at the three different operating points, the damping

Table 1 Eigenvalues, damping ratios and participation factors with and without optimal controller parameters on a SMIB
system

Operation points Without optimal design With optimal design

Eigenvalues Damping Associated Eigenvalues Damping Associated
variables variables
Vw ¼ 8 m/s, 260.9 + j386 0.156 ids , iqs 2131 + j367 0.336 ids , iqs
vr ¼ 0.729 p.u.
26.06 + j12.8 0.427 vr, ut 24.30 + j3.71 0.757 vt , ut , xv, vr
sub-synchronous speed
21.15 + j2.58 0.406 xv, vt 224.8 + j9.51 0.934 Udc , xv
′
287.2 + j77.5 0.747 Udc , idL 277.0 + j229 0.319 e ds , e′
′ ′ ′
2153 + j15.4 0.995 e qs , e ds 2148 + j198 0.599 e ds , xidr
24.95 + j0.0062 1 xidr, xiqr 2300 – iqL , xiqL
2199 – iqs , iqL 2246 – idL , xiqL
211.5 – xv 212.3 – vr, ut , xv
23.15 – xiqL 25.46 – xv, vt
23.14 – xidL 280.7 – xiqr
24.00 – b 24.00 – b
– – – 2114 – xiqL , idL
Continued

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Table 1 Continued

Operation points Without optimal design With optimal design

Eigenvalues Damping Associated Eigenvalues Damping Associated
variables variables
Vw ¼ 11 m/s, 260.1 + j385 0.154 ids , iqs 2128 + j365 0.332 ids , iqs
vr ¼ 1 p.u.
26.08 + j12.9 0.428 vr, ut 24.40 + j3.74 0.763 vt , ut , xv, vr
synchronous speed
21.17 + j2.57 0.414 xv, vt 224.9 + j9.43 0.935 Udc , xv
′ ′
295.4 + j74.3 0.789 Udc , idL 281.7 + j230 0.335 e ds , e qs
′ ′ ′
2146 + j24.1 0.987 e qs , e ds 2148 + j199 0.597 e ds , xidr
2199 – iqs, iqL 2296 – iqL , xiqL
23.15 – xiqL 2246 – idL , xiqL
23.14 – xidL 2114 – xiqL , idL
211.5 – xv 212.3 – vr, ut , xv
24.95 – xidr 25.25 – xv, vt
24.96 – xiqr 280.8 – xiqr
24.00 – b 24.00 – b
Vw ¼ 12 m/s, 259.8 + j385 0.153 ids , iqs 2128 + j365 0.330 ids , iqs
vr ¼ 1.09 p.u.,
26.09 + j12.9 0.428 vr, ut 24.45 + j3.75 0.764 vt , ut , xv, vr
super-synchronous
speed 21.18 + j2.57 0.417 xv, vt 224.9 + j9.41 0.935 Udc , xv
′ ′
299.0 + j72.6 0.806 Udc , idL 283.6 + j229 0.343 e ds , e qs
′ ′ ′
2143 + j26.5 0.983 e qs , e ds 2148 + j199 0.596 e ds , xidr
2199 – iqs , iqL 2294 – iqL , xiqL
23.15 – xiqL 280.8 – xiqr
23.14 – xidL 2248 – idL , xiqL
211.5 – xv 25.18 – xv, vt
24.95 – xidr 2114 – xiqL , idL
24.97 – xiqr 212.3 – vr, ut , xv
24.00 – b 24.00 – b

ratios are kept within the permissible limit (larger than 0.3).
In the meantime, the maximum real part of all the
eigenvalues is decreased from 21.15 to 24.0, which means
that all the eigenvalues shift into the region which has
larger stability margin.
Dynamic simulations are carried out in Matlab/Simulink
environment to observe the response of the SMIB DFIG
wind turbine system under small perturbation. The system
is subjected to small disturbances with the wind speed
around 8, 11 and 12 m/s at the fifth second, respectively.
The dynamic responses of the output active power,
reactive power, rotor speed and terminal voltage at
different wind speeds, with and without optimised
controller parameters, are shown in Figs. 9 – 11,
respectively. It can be seen that, with optimised controller
parameters, the dynamic performances of the studied
SMIB DFIG wind turbine system at different wind
speeds are well improved where the oscillations after the
small disturbances are well damped.
5.2 Performance of the DFIG wind
turbine under small perturbation
on a multi-machine system
In practical installation of wind turbines, there are large
numbers of wind turbines in a power system. So
eigenvalue analysis and dynamic simulations are carried

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Figure 8 Eigenvalues associated with and without optimal controller parameters

a Vw ¼ 8 m/s, sub-synchronous speed
b Vw ¼ 11 m/s, synchronous speed
c Vw ¼ 12 m/s, super-synchronous speed

Figure 9 Responses of DFIG wind turbine under small decrease of 4.4% in wind speed (from 8 to 7.65 m/s)
a Output active power
b Output reactive power
c Rotor speed
d Terminal voltage

out on a nine-bus multi-machine system, including two parameters. The studied multi-machine system is
DFIG wind turbines, to verify the improvement in small modified from the classical Western System Coordinating
signal stability of the DFIG wind turbines by the Council nine-bus system [30], which consists of three
controllers of wind turbine systems with the optimised synchronous generators and three loads. The details of

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Figure 10 Responses of DFIG wind turbine under small decrease of 4.5% in wind speed (from 11 to 10.5 m/s)
a Output active power
b Output reactive power
c Rotor speed
d Terminal voltage

Figure 11 Responses of DFIG wind turbine under small increase of 4.3% in wind speed (from 11.5 to 12 m/s)
a Output active power
b Output reactive power
c Rotor speed
d Terminal voltage

the system can be found in [30, 31]. Two DFIG wind The DFIG 1 and DFIG 2 are operating at the wind speed of
turbines (DFIG 1 and DFIG 2) are connected to buses 12 and 9 m/s, respectively. The controller parameters to be
2 and 3, respectively. The single-line diagram of the optimised are X ¼ [KPv1 , TIv1 , KPir1 , TIir1 , KPv1 , TIv1 ,
network is depicted in Fig. 12. KPiL1 , TIiL1 , KPv2 , TIv2 , KPir2 , TIir2 , KPv2 , TIv2 , KPiL2 ,

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with and without optimised parameters are calculated and

Figure 12 Diagram of the analysed nine-bus system
TIiL2], including the entire rotor and grid-side converters’
controllers of the two DFIG wind turbines. The parameters
of the optimisation algorithm are the same as in Section 5.1.
The optimised controller parameters are presented in
Appendix 3. Eigenvalues along with their damping ratios
and participation factors for both cases when controllers are
shown in Table 2. It can be seen that with the optimised
controller parameters, the stator modes of the two DFIG
wind turbines shift to the left in the S-plan and the damping
ratios increase significantly. Although the mechanical modes
shift to the right slightly (e.g. from 26.18 without
optimisation to 24.49 with optimisation in DFIG 1), the
damping ratios increase obviously (e.g. from 0.439 without
optimisation to 0.712 with optimisation in DFIG 1). This is
because the 1-constraint method can obtain a compromised
optimal solution depending on preference, which is the
damping ratio in this case. So ensuring the large
damping ratio, the mechanical modes still have
enough stability margins, although slightly shifting to the
right. Overall, the damping ratios of the two DFIG wind
turbines are kept within the permissible limit (larger than
0.3). In the meantime, the maximum real part of all the
eigenvalues is decreased from 21.18 to 23.86, which
means that all the eigenvalues of the DFIG wind turbines
shift into the region which has larger stability margin.
The eigenvalues associated with the three synchronous

Table 2 Eigenvalues, damping ratios and participation factors with and without optimal controller parameters on the studied
multi-machine system

Without optimal design With optimisation design

Eigenvalues Damping Associated variables Eigenvalues Damping Associated variables
268.3 + j441 0.153 DFIG 2: ids2 , iqs2 2131 + j368 0.333 DFIG: ids2 , iqs2
241.9 + j368 0.113 DFIG 1: ids1 , iqs1 2105 + j324i 0.308 DFIG: ids1 , iqs1
26.18 + j12.7 0.439 DFIG 1: vr1 , ut1 24.49 + j4.43 0.712 DFIG:ut1 , vt1 , vr1
26.18 + j12.7 0.437 DFIG 2: vr2 , ut2 23.94 + j1.97 0.895 DFIG:ut2 , vt2 , vr2
′ ′
2149 + j21.5 0.989 DFIG 1: e q1 , iqL1 , e d1 25.70 + j4.18 0.806 DFIG: vr2 , xv2
′ ′
2149 + j3.22 0.999 DFIG 1, 2: e q1 , idL1 , idL2 , Udc2 2608 + j31.0 0.999 DFIG 1: ids1 , iqs1 , e q1 , iqL1
′ ′ ′
2124 + j16.4 0.991 DFIG 2: e d2, e q2 , iqL2 , e d2 2262 + j74.5 0.962 DFIG 1: idL1 , Udc1
′
21.19 + j2.53 0.426 DFIG 1: xv1 , xirq1 2304 + j69.3 0.975 DFIG 2: ids2 , iqs2 , e q2
21.18 + j2.56 0.419 DFIG 2: xv2 , xirq2 226.6 + j15.7i 0.862 DFIG 2: xv2 , Udc2
23.18 + j0.180 0.998 DFIG 1, 2: xiLq1 , xiLq2 23.86 + j0.754 0.982 DFIG 1: xv1 , xirq1
′
2196.20 – DFIG 2: ids2 , iqs2, idL2 , iqL2 2536 – DFIG 1: iqL1 , idL1 , e q1 ,
2196.25 – DFIG 1: ids1 , iqs1, idL1 , iqL1 2423 – DFIG 2: iqL2
244.0 – DFIG 2: Udc2 2394 – DFIG 2: idL2
240.2 – DFIG 1: Udc1 2101 – DFIG 1: xiqL1
214.6 – DFIG 1: xv1 , Udc1 267.9 – DFIG 1: xidL1
214.3 – DFIG 2: xv2 , Udc2 215.8 – DFIG 1: vr1 , ut1
25.33 – DFIG 1, 2: xirq1, xirq2 215.2 – DFIG 2: vr2 , ut2
25.14 – DFIG 1, 2: xird1, xirq1, xird2, xirq2 27.40 – DFIG 1: xv1
25.03 – DFIG 1, 2: xird1, xirq1, xird2, xirq2 26.99 – DFIG 2: xv2
Continued

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Table 2 Continued

Without optimal design With optimisation design

Eigenvalues Damping Associated variables Eigenvalues Damping Associated variables
24.99 – DFIG 1, 2: xird1, xirq1, xird2, xirq2 24.62 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLq1, xiLq2
23.16 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLq1, xiLq2 24.39 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLq1, xiLq2
23.15 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLd1, xiLd2 24.38 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLd1, xiLd2
23.14 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLd1, xiLd2 24.45 – DFIG 1, 2: xiLd1, xiLd2
24; 24 – DFIG 1, 2: b1; b2 24; 24 – DFIG 1, 2: b1; b2
25.32 + j7.94 0.557 G2: Efq2 , VR2 25.32 + j7.94 0.557 G2: Efq2 , VR2
25.25 + j7.85 0.556 G3: Efq3 , VR3 25.25 + j7.85 0.555 G3: Efq3 , VR3
′ ′ ′ ′
20.456 + j1.03 0.404 G2, G3: E q2 , Rf2 , E q3 , Rf3 20.456 + j1.03 0.404 G2, G3: E q2 , Rf2 , E q3 , Rf3
′ ′ ′ ′
20.451 + j0.547 0.636 G3, G2: E q3 , Rf3 , E q2 , Rf2 20.451 + j0.547 0.636 G3, G2: E q3 , Rf3 , E q2 , Rf2
21.09 + j11.3 0.0958 G3: d3 , v3 21.09 + j11.3 0.0958 G3: d3 , v3
20.390 + j7.48 0.0521 G2, 1: d2 , v2 , d1 , v1 20.373 + j7.49 0.0497 G2, 1: d2 , v2 , d1 , v1
′ ′ ′ ′
24.69 – G2, 3: E d3 , E d2 23.25 – G2, 3: E d3 , E d2
20.218 – G1: v1 20.222 – G1: v1
0 – G1: d1 0 – G1: d1

Figure 13 Responses of multi-machine system under small decrease of 4.2% in wind speed at DFIG 1 (from 12 to 11.5 m/s)
a Output active power of DFIG 1
b Rotor speed of DFIG 1
c Terminal voltage of DFIG 1
d Terminal voltage at bus 3

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Figure 14 Responses of multi-machine system under small increase of 5.5% in wind speed at DFIG 2 (from 9 to 9.5 m/s)
a Output active power of DFIG 2.
b Rotor speed of DFIG 2
c Terminal voltage of DFIG 2
d Terminal voltage at bus 2

Figure 15 Simulations with turbulent wind speed with mean

a 6.89 m/s
b 8.35 m/s
c 9.6 m/s
d 11.27 m/s

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generators do not have great changes, because this paper
only focuses on the optimal controller design of the DFIG
wind turbine, and the controllers of the synchronous
generators have not been concerned. The optimal design for
the whole power system stability enhancement is our future
work.
Dynamic simulations are performed to observe the
improvement stability of the DFIG wind turbines in
studied multi-machine system under small perturbation.
The step decrease of 0.5 m/s is applied to the wind speed
at DFIG 1. The dynamic responses of the DFIG 1 output
active power, rotor speed and terminal voltage, with and
without optimised controller parameters are shown in
Figs. 13a –c, respectively. Bus 3 is close to DFIG 1, so its
dynamic is affected significantly. The dynamic responses of
the terminal voltage at bus 3 are illustrated in Fig. 13d. A
step increase of 0.5 m/s is applied to the wind speed at
DFIG 2. The dynamic responses of the output active
power, rotor speed, terminal voltage of DFIG 2 and the
terminal voltage of bus 2 are shown in Figs. 14a – d,
respectively. From Figs. 13 and 14, it can be seen that,
with optimised controller parameters, the dynamic
performances of the two DFIG wind turbines are enhanced
and the oscillations of the terminal voltage of the bus,
which is near the disturbed DFIG are well improved.
5.3 Electric energy production
As wind speed has the important characteristic of turbulence,
the output power of a DFIG wind turbine system is
fluctuated as the wind speed varies. It is obvious from the
above simulation results that the controller parameters have
great effect on the dynamic performance of the system.
Consequently, it is necessary to analyse the impact of the
controller parameters on the output power and electric
energy production of such system, as high energy efficiency
is expected.
The output active power of the studied SMIB DFIG wind
turbine system simulated with real wind speed data [32] are
illustrated in Fig. 15. Four cases are studied. Case (a):
a relative low wind speed with some oscillatory gusts is
introduced. The mean value of wind speed V mean
w is 6.89 m/s.
In this case, lower generator speed limitation is active when
vr , vmin. Case (b): the wind speed, with mean value
V mean
w ¼ 8.35 m/s, rapidly decreases to 5 m/s and recovers at
t ¼ 160 s. Case (c): V mean
w ¼ 9.6 m/s, the system operates in
power optimisation zone with variable reference speed. Case
(d): V mean
w ¼ 11.27 m/s. Power limitation by adjusting pitch
angle is active during the period when Vw . V rated
w .
It can be seen that with optimal controller parameters, the
fluctuations of the output active power in the four cases are
smoother. The total electric energy production of the
studied system associated with and without optimal control
parameters during the studied 10 min are listed in Table 3.
The system without optimal controller parameters can
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& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010
Table 3 Total energy production during 10 min
Case Electric energy production, kWh Relative
difference, %
Without With
optimisation optimisation
(a) 49.70 49.64 0.13
(b) 90.42 89.68 0.82
(c) 140.43 139.37 0.76
(d) 210.33 209.99 0.16
provide 1% more electric energy than the system using
optimal controller parameters at most. It needs to be
mentioned that the relative differences of energy production
in cases (a) and (d) are less than in (b) and (c). This is
because the generator speed and power are limited when
wind speed is lower than the low limit and higher than the
rated value according to the overall control strategies.
The results show that although the small signal stability
can be enhanced with optimal controller parameters, the
electric energy production during the studied 10 min is
limited slightly. So the trade-off between system small
signal stability and energy production needs to be
considered when designing the controller parameters in our
future work.
6 Conclusion
A DE-based multi-objective method has been proposed for
the coordinated tuning of the controllers’ parameters of the
rotor- and grid-side converters of a DFIG wind turbine
system. In this optimisation, multi-objective including the
damping ratios and real parts of eigenvalues at a number of
operation points are considered so that both robust
damping performance and sufficient stability margin for
changed operating conditions can be achieved. The
superior 1-constraint method is applied to deal with the
proposed multi-objective problem. It retains the stability
margin as the objective, while restricts the damping ratio
within a pre-defined value. Using adaptive penalties
method, the appreciate penalty function has been designed
so as to handle constraints with DE. Simulation studies
have been carried out on a SMIB system as well as a nine-
bus multi-machine system with two DFIG wind turbines.
The eigenvalue analysis and time-domain simulation results
obtained with optimised controller parameters and with the
parameters designed by the formal pole placement
technique are compared. Results show that damping
performance and the stability margin of the DFIG wind
turbine are well improved simultaneously with the
optimised controller parameters. In addition, the electric
energy production of the DFIG system under turbulent
wind speed has been analysed. The electric energy
production is slightly limited with the optimised control
parameters. Therefore the trade-off between small signal
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stability and energy production of the DFIG wind turbine
system needs to be considered in the future work.
7 References
[1] HANSEN A.D.: ‘Generators and power electronics for wind
turbines’, in ACKERMANN T. (ED.): ‘Wind power in power
systems’ (Wiley, New York, 2005)
[2] AKHMATOV V. : ‘Analysis of dynamic behaviour of
electric power systems with large amount of wind
power’. PhD dissertation, Technical University, Lyngby,
Denmark, 2003
[3] SLOOTWEG J.G.: ‘Wind power modelling and impact on
power systems dynamics’. PhD dissertation, Delft University
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(Wiley, New York, 2008) for DE-based multi-objective
optimisation
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2009 b1 ¼ 4, b2 ¼ 2.8, l0 ¼ 0.1, k ¼ 16

8 Appendix 1: parameters of DFIG

wind turbine system

base power Sbase ¼ 1.5 MW base frequency vbase ¼ 314 rad/s

rated power of DFIG Srated ¼ 1.5 MW rated rotor speed vrated ¼ 1.1vs
stator frequency vs ¼ 1 p.u. stator voltage Us ¼ 575 V
stator resistance Rs ¼ 0.00706 p.u. leakage inductance of stator Lls ¼ 0.171 p.u.
rotor resistance Rr ¼ 0.005 p.u. leakage inductance of rotor Llr ¼ 0.156 p.u.
mutual inductance Lm ¼ 3.5 p.u. DC-link capacitor Cdc ¼ 0.06 F
inertia constant of generator Hg ¼ 0.5 s friction coefficient of generator B ¼ 0.01 p.u.
inertia constant of wind turbine Ht ¼ 3 s shaft stiffness coefficient of wind turbine Ksh ¼ 0.5
damping coefficient of wind turbine Dsh ¼ 0.01 optimal constant of wind turbine Kopt ¼ 0.579
tme constant of the pitch servo Tb ¼ 0.25 s rated wind speed Vwrated ¼ 12 m/s
resistance of grid-side inductor RL ¼ 0.003 p.u. inductance of grid-side inductor L ¼ 0.3 p.u.
DC-link voltage reference Udcref ¼ 1200 V voltage of the infinite bus E0 ¼ 25 kV
resistance of the transformer and RTL ¼ 4 V inductance of the transformer and the LTL ¼ 0.085 H
transmission line transmission line

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& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010 doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0553
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10 Appendix 3: controller 2. For nine-bus multi-machine system

parameters with and without DFIG1:KPv1 =22.75,TIv1 =0.523,KPv1 =2.76,TIv1 =0.144,

optimal design KPir1 =0.691,TIir1 =0.227,KPiL1 =0.575,TIiL1 =0.0123
† Without optimisation
KPv = 10, TIv = 0.318, KPv = 1.3, TIv = 0.125, KPir = DFIG2:KPv2 =21.38,TIv2 =0.523,KPv2 =1.12,TIv2 =0.0581,
0.198, TIir = 0.203, KPiL = 0.187, TIiL = 0.318 KPir2 =0.377,TIir2 =0.146,KPiL2 =0.431,TIiL2 =0.228

† With optimisation

1. For SMIB system

KPv = 22.67, TIv = 0.5, KPv = 0.83, TIv = 0.067, KPir =

0.33, TIir = 0.0046, KPiL = 0.39, TIiL = 0.016

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2010, Vol. 4, Iss. 5, pp. 579 – 597 597
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0553 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2010