Chapter 2:

Principles And Approaches Of Early Childhood Education

There are certain principles and approaches to teach young children that connect teaching to learning.
Teaching is all about sharing and promoting knowledge, nurturing a culture of the same and building
connections between various fields of knowledge. It is also about creating the meaning, enhancing
understanding and connecting theory with practice. Learning is a process which brings together
cognitive, emotional and environmental influences to shape a person’s life. It results in experiences
through which a person may acquire, enhance or even make changes in his or her views, knowledge and
skills. The process of learning focuses on the results of learning, which comprises of theories of learning.
The theories of learning help us to understand how people and animals learn. These theories have two
major values – one, to provide us with vocabulary and conceptual frameworks and secondly, suggesting
ways of finding solutions to problems. They do not provide us with solutions to problems but provide us
with information that can help us to find solutions. MARIA MONTESSORI’S APPROACH TO TEACHING
Maria Montessori, born in Ancona, Italy in 1870, was the first lady in Italy to graduate from medical
school in 1896. Her clinical observation of children during her medical practice helped her understand
how children learn and led her to conclude that they learn from the environment in which they find
themselves. She developed her unique method of educating children by observing how effortlessly
children learn from their surroundings and their never-ending interest in handling materials. Therefore,
she developed such materials which could be used by children to learn naturally, without the help from
elders. Thus her realisation those children teach themselves, influenced her methods and materials for
training children, her ideas of reforming education, psychology, educational methodology, methods of
teaching as well as of teacher-training. Principles of Montessori Method According to Montessori,
learning is a ‘self-directed’ process that is based on some fundamental laws of human nature. The
children can learn by themselves in the presence of a suitable environment. The adult’s role in this
process is to provide children with such an environment and to keep it intact. Some key qualities that an
adult must have to become successfully a part of the learning process are observation, preparedness
and a sense of individual liberty. The teaching methods commonly associated with the Montessori
Method are: · Teachers must design such activities and tasks which involve all the different kinds of
intelligence in an individual student, i.e. kinaesthetic, spatial, and musical, inter as well as intrapersonal,
linguistic, intuitive and logical. Children should get the opportunities to hone each of these through the
activities and tasks they involve themselves in. · A classroom under this system consists of not more than
30-35 children and 1-2 teachers. The entire process is divided into 3-year span so that children get to be
with the same teacher for at least three consecutive years. The classroom is usually divided into centre
stations which are grouped by category like daily living materials, sensorial materials, academic
materials, artistic materials and so on. These materials are kept arranged in the same place throughout
the school year, so that children do not face difficulties while finding things. ·The materials used in the
classroom are also unique to the Montessori system. Whenever any new material is introduced, the
teacher first demonstrates to the children how it should be used. Then the children are given the
material and asked to use it in the same way as demonstrated. If the teacher finds that a child is using it
the wrong way or for a wrong purpose, he or she again demonstrates the proper use of the material to
the child. For example, if the children are given sheets of paper, pencils and crayons and shown how to
use them to draw and colour something, they are expected to use them for that very purpose and for
nothing else. If a child needs help regarding their use, the teacher guides him or her by showing how to
use these things properly. The Montessori Method, unlike most other methods, offers a lot of freedom
to the child to use their own observation and skills to learn new things. It helps the child to become
more self-sufficient and independent. Given below is a list of things that Montessori herself observed in
children: ·Children like to repeat exercises that they have learnt, in order to master them. ·They like to
be given choices and to make their own choice. ·They like to test themselves (their own knowledge or
skill). ·They like the challenge of having to come up with a solution by them self. ·They like to analyse
movements in terms of how they are made and whether they look good. ·They enjoy silent exercises.
·They like to practise good manners in social environment. They like an environment in which everything
is ordered and familiar because and secure. ·They rely on their senses to explore and learn things by
themselves. ·They like to contribute to keeping themselves clean, by washing themselves, for instance.
·They learn to write first and then to read books. They like an environment in which everything is
ordered and familiar because it makes them feel safe ·They rely on their senses to explore and learn
things by themselves. ·They like to contribute to keeping themselves clean, by washing themselves, for
instance. ·They learn to write first and then to read books. it makes them feel safe ·They like to
contribute to keeping themselves clean, by washing themselves, for instance.

FROEBEL’S KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION As another great educator of children, Friedrich

Froebel, the founder of the Kindergarten system of education, believed, play is like the highest form of
spirituality in young children and is an instinct that all children have. Play is a young child’s best resource
for learning. So Froebel sought to help children, learn by providing them with materials that would serve
both as playthings and tools for learning (like: shaped wooden bricks, balls and so on). In this way,
children could play and learn at the same time about important concepts like space, shapes, matter and
so on. Froebel’s most important concern was about children learning through play in the safety of their
homes. Therefore, the schools that he later designed for young children had proper provisions for the
care and development of children. His approach to education, which he labelled as ‘self-activity’ and
which allowed children a lot of freedom regarding individual interests and learning through exploration,
is still important as a system of educating children. In his kindergarten approach, the teacher plays the
role of a guide instead of that of a lecturer. The basic features of Froebel’s Kindergarten system are as
follows: · Physical activity. · Development of physical agility and sensory perceptions. · Creative
expression. · Exploration of ideas and concepts. · The pleasure of singing and music. · Experience of living
as a social creature · Satisfaction of the mind and soul THE KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM The materials,
gifts and occupations that Froebel devised for children were meant to stimulate the child in such a way
as to cause them to learn fundamental concepts. The materials and gifts were fundamental forms that
had, in addition to their actual physical forms, a hidden meaning. They are: • Six soft, coloured balls •
Wooden cylinders, spheres and cubes • A large cube divided into eight smaller cubes • A large cube
divided into eight oblong blocks • A large cube divided into twenty-one whole, six half and twelve
quarter cubes

• A large cube divided into eighteen whole oblongs • Quadrangular and triangular tablets for arranging
figures

• Sticks and whole and half wire-rings for outlining figures

• Various materials for drawing, paper-folding, perforating, embroidery and so on Besides the materials
mentioned above, there were also provisions for other materials like clay, cloth etc. which the children
could use for being creative. The activities for children were such that they encouraged them to work in
pairs or small groups so that they could learn social values and how to socialise in a miniature social
setting in the classroom. These games and physical activities as well as music lessons catered to the
physical as well as aesthetic development of these children. In this way Froebel’s kindergarten system
helped children to grow into able-bodied, intelligent, social individuals who were ready to step into a
larger world.

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The renowned Swiss psychologist and biologist, Jean Piaget (1896-1980), famous for his highly
remarkable model of learning and development, discovered that children reasoned differently at
different stages and periods of learning and that all individuals passed through four invariable stages of
cognitive development. The only variable in the entire process is the age at which different individuals
attain each individual stage. The four stages are, namely, sensor motor, preoperational, concrete
operational and formal operational. Sensor motor Stage- The key features of this stage are: The child
uses its senses and motor abilities to experience and learn from the environment, at a tremendous pace
in a relatively short amount of time. The development of the idea of object permanence in the child’s
brain by which it starts to understand that things continue to exist even if they cannot be seen or heard.
The child’s responses are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. The child uses its
innate abilities like looking, sucking, grasping etc. to learn about the environment.

The span of this stage is from 0-2 years of age.

Pre-operational Stage – The key features of this stage are:

• During this stage children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to use symbols, though they still
cannot understand concrete logic.

• Language development

• Ego-centrism or an obsession with the self and inability to understand the views of other people due
to a child’s inability to understand logic or use information

• Role-playing and pretending by which children tend to act like an elder by imitating him or her and
attaching symbolic or imaginary meaning to commonplace objects, like pretending that a piece of
furniture is a horse.

• This stage extends from 2-7 years of age. Concrete Operational Stage – The key features of this stage
are:

• Development of Inductive Logic, which involves going from specific information to general
understanding, which helps a child to understand concrete ideas and events, though he still faces
difficulty in understanding abstract ideas.

• The idea of Reversibility (actions can be reversed and different concepts can be connected).

• Development of the idea of Conservation by which a child comes to realise that change in appearance
or shape doesn’t essentially change a thing.

• The disappearance of ego-centrism

• This stage extends from 7-11 years of age

Formal Operational Stage–The key features of this are:

• The child begins to develop an understanding of abstract concepts and ideas.

• Development of Deductive Logic, use of systematic planning and usage of logic to come up with
creative solutions to problems which are the major steps associated with this stage.

• This stage starts from around 12 years of age and extends into adulthood.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS ASSOCIATED WITH PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY Schema – A schema is a

physical or mental action associated with acquiring knowledge. In Piaget’s view, a schema includes both
the category of knowledge and the process of acquiring the same. Schemas help us understand and
interpret the world. As we continue to gain more experience, our previously existing schemas are
modified, added to or even changed to give us a broader understanding of the universe. Assimilation –
The process of adding to already existing schemas by absorbing new information is called assimilation. It
helps us understand more about our surroundings. Accommodation – The process by which existing
schemas are modified or changed through the absorption of new information is called accommodation.
Accommodation may also lead to creation of new schemas. Adaptation – The process of assimilation
and accommodation together result in a new process called adaptation. Through adaptation, we learn to
use acquired knowledge to deal with different and everchanging situations. Classification – It is a process
by which things having similar characteristics are grouped together. Class Inclusion – It is a more
advanced process by which classes of objects can be identified as being part of a larger whole.
Conservation – It is the realisation that objects stay the same in nature though they may be changed in
appearance or shape. Decantation – It is the ability to modify one’s ideas of classification in favour of
another classification that is more fitting. Ego-centrism – It is the process of viewing oneself as the
centre of the universe and of, therefore, being unable to appreciate or even understand other points of
view or ideas.

THE REGGIO EMILIA APPROACH The Reggio Emilia approach is an alternative method of pre-school and
primary education founded by Loris Malaguzzi (1920-1994), a teacher by profession. It is named after
the city in Italy where this approach was first developed. This approach believes in teaching children
through a strong sense of community. The aim of this approach was to train children to be useful in daily
life. The curriculum under this approach is selfguided based on the interests of learners. The approach is
based on the following set of principles: • Children must enjoy some control over the direction of their
learning. • They should be able to learn through their senses by touching, listening, observing and
moving. • They must be allowed to explore their relationships with other children and material things in
their environment. • They should have the freedom to express themselves in various creative ways.
Under this approach, children are believed to be bearers of knowledge and to have potential that must
have the freedom to develop. Therefore, the learning environment should be conducive to the children.
Also the children are believed to play the active role of apprentices and researchers instead of just
passive learners. They are also viewed as active constructors of knowledge. So, much of the learning in
Reggio Emilia schools take place in the form of projects where children have opportunities to explore,
observe, hypothesize, experiment, question and discuss in order to clarify ideas and concepts. This
approach also focuses on the development of children as social beings through interactions with other
children, family, teachers and the community at large. The Reggio Emilia schools try to incorporate the
key ideas of educationists like Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REGGIO EMILIA APPROACH

The children are given the freedom to learn according to their own interests and therefore, no strict and
pre-planned curriculum is followed. It is progressive with a purpose but doesn’t have scope and
sequence. The drabness of colourless and small classrooms is believed to be limiting to the abilities of
children. So, classes are held in spacious rooms that are decorated with plants and well-lit. Some
classrooms try to limit the limitations of the classroom by encouraging students to interact and explore
from the earliest stages. Since parents and friends play an important part in this system, they are
encouraged to involve themselves and actively participate in various activities and programmes
including the framing of the school curriculum. Role of the Teacher - The teacher is seen as a co-learner,
instead of an instructor. So, the materials used in the classroom are designed to be instructional to both
teachers and students. The learning methodology focuses on using the senses to explore the
environment. More importance is given to practical learning the students and the teachers instead of on
examinations, which are limited. This approach gives parents and children the freedom to design the
curriculum by incorporating individual needs and perceptions. Children are encouraged to express
themselves through writing, drawing and play-acting. Their work is shared with their peers who even
revise their work as a means of encouraging collective participation. Role of the Environment - The
environment plays a significant role in the instruction process. The atmosphere in the classroom is kept
rich in possibilities which can provoke children to explore and learn. There are opportunities for
problem-solving activities, cooperation, discussions and amicable disputes. The work done by children,
things they have collected and which have special importance to them as well as indoor plants are
decorated in the classroom at both children’s and adults’ eye-levels. The classrooms also have common
work tables and play-acting spaces where children from different classrooms can come together and
interact. The ‘hundred languages of children’ which refers to the many different ways children have of
expressing themselves under this system. The teachers provide children with multiple avenues of
thinking, experiencing, constructing, negotiating, developing and expressing their thoughts and feelings,
with the goal of helping adults and children understand each other better. As children proceed with
their exploration, creating hypotheses and testing them, they are encouraged to share their
understanding through any of the different symbolic ways available to them, like drawing, play-acting,
writing and so on. Teachers facilitate their work and encourage debates regarding the success of their
symbolic expression in expressing their true intent. Revision and repetition of activities are encouraged
to get the children to work collectively. The Reggio Emilia approach thus reflects a constructivist
approach to early education of children. One of its most important aspects is the multiple ways of
expression it encourages regarding children’s needs, abilities and interests and the faith expressed in
parents, teachers as well as children regarding the shaping of the learning environment. This approach
to learning is therefore as beneficia