An Exploration of School Gardening and Its Relationship to

Holistic Education

A Major Paper
Submitted to
The Rural Extension Studies Program in
The School of Environmental Design and Rural Development
of
The University of Guelph

by

Valerie Green

April, 2004

In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

© Valerie Green, 2004

 Abstract

An Exploration of School Gardening and Its Relationship to

Holistic Education

Valerie Green Advisor:

University of Guelph, 2004 Glen Filson

My major paper includes an integration of diverse disciplines, past personal

experiences, and an exploration of school gardening as a potential vehicle for holistic

education. It explores the commonalties between the disciplines of urban agriculture,

ethnobotany, human issues in horticulture, landscape architecture, environmental

education and holistic education. It investigates the school gardening movement,

particularly in North America, as well as holistic education theorists and themes.

Specifically this paper is an exploration of school gardening in Ontario, with an emphasis

on vegetable gardens, and their relationship to holistic curriculum. Holistic curriculum

seeks to establish relationships between mind and body, disciplines, persons and the

natural world. In effect this research seeks to answer the question: Can the design,

development and integration of school gardening in school curriculum provide a means

in which to achieve holistic education. My major paper is an account of the process

taken in search of the answer to this question. The answer I found: In the process of the

realization of the human-Nature connection a potential exists for school gardening to

enhance the connections within community, subjects and Self, thereby achieving

components of holistic education theory and practice. Multiple qualitative methods

including published and unpublished documents, dialogue and interviews were utilized in

data collection.
 Acknowledgements

A special thanks to friends and family with whom I have shared

in the last two years much laughter and a few tears, insightful

and well, not so insightful conversations, support, strength and

love. My most sincere thanks to my advisor Glen Filson and my

committee member Alice Hovorka whose continuing enthusiasm

and guidance have made the completion of this paper possible.

To the professors who have challenged and encouraged me I

am grateful. And finally, a very special thank you to all my

students from whom I have learnt so much.

I
 Table of Contents

Page

Abstract
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................I
Table of Contents........................................................................................................II
List of Tables...............................................................................................................IV
List of Figures.............................................................................................................. V

Chapter 1: Introduction..............................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem..................................................................................1
Definition of Terms....................................................................................2
A Personal Perspective.....................................................................................3
Research Question............................................................................................4
Objective............................................................................................................4
Research Design...............................................................................................4
Case Study...............................................................................................5
Data Collection of the Case Study............................................................5
Data Analysis............................................................................................6
Theoretical Framework.............................................................................6
Limitations of the Study.....................................................................................7
Significance of the Study...................................................................................7

Chapter 2: Holistic Education...................................................................................8

Introduction........................................................................................................8
Theorists Past and Present................................................................................8
Three Holistic Educators and their Schools...............................................9
Additional Theorists/Educators................................................................11
Education Models and Holistic Education Theory and Practice.......................13
Instruction & Curriculum Approaches......................................................14
Six Relationships of Holistic Education ...................................................17
Connections with Self, Subject, Community and Nature.........................19
Integrated Curriculum..............................................................................23
Chapter Summary............................................................................................26

II
Chapter 3: Human-Nature Connection .................................................................27
Introduction......................................................................................................27
Human Issues in Horticulture...........................................................................27
Ethnobotany....................................................................................................31
Environmental Education Theory, Practice and the Nature Connection...........33
Chapter Summary............................................................................................38

Chapter 4: A Historical Perspective of School Gardening

Introduction......................................................................................................40
The History of School Gardening.....................................................................40
School Gardening in Present-day....................................................................42
Findings: School Gardening in Ontario ...................................................50
Chapter Summary............................................................................................53

Chapter 5: Discussion and Final Reflections......................................................54

Discussion.......................................................................................................54
Final Reflections..............................................................................................56

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations ..................................................59

Conclusion.......................................................................................................59
Recommendations...........................................................................................60

References ................................................................................................................ 62

Appendices ................................................................................................................ 69
Appendix A......................................................................................................69
Appendix B......................................................................................................71
Appendix C......................................................................................................74
Appendix D......................................................................................................76

III
IV
 List of Tables

Table Page

1 Curriculum and Instruction Models.................................................................... 15

2 Approaches to Environmental Education...............................................16

3 Connections in Holistic Education Curriculum.........................................17

V
 List of Figures

Table Page

1 A Holistic Stance........................................................................................................ 14

2 Connections within Education..................................................................18

3-7 Sketches........................................................................................................57-58

VI
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

As individuals and communities search for meaning and identity in a society

driven by consumerism and rushed transactions, they look to education for answers.

Unfortunately, traditional education is not meeting the current needs of all students, the

community or the environment. What is needed is an alternative form of education with

goals of individual growth and empowerment for social change. This should be an

educational system that is capable of addressing the ever-increasing loss of biological

and cultural diversity and the fragmented view of life and knowledge that is so common

in Western culture. In Western society, many humans view themselves as being

separate from Nature. This separation is understandable given that today’s youth are

growing up in an industrialized society with limited connections to the natural world. The

public’s general lack of awareness of agricultural practices and production is an example

of this separation.

Holistic education offers an alternative to traditional education. School gardening

may be able to provide a means through which to practice a holistic education. Through

integration of real life experiences and academic learning, school gardening provides a

place for students to explore connections with Self, community and Nature and gain

appreciation for agriculture. Yet few studies or published works have explored school

gardening as it relates to education theories, and in particular to a holistic curriculum, nor

have they provided a critique of school gardening or an analysis of its position within the

context of education in the 21st century. Results from this study will provide needed data

to a growing area concerning the design and integration of school gardening within the

curriculum and to the field of holistic education.

1
Definition of Terms

Holistic education is an education in which spiritual, social, emotional, moral, and

physical growth are valued in addition to cognitive development. Thus, in holistic

education, intelligence and abilities are not measured solely by cognitive development,

that is, by test scores. Holistic education acknowledges the existence of multiple

learning paths and individual students’ experiences. It also acknowledges the social,

environmental, and historical context in which learning and teaching occurs. At the heart

of holistic education is the creation of connections, including students’ connections to

Self, community, and the natural world. It is believed by those espousing holistic

education that identity, worth and a purpose in life is gained through the development of

these connections. Through an emphasis on hands-on learning, the arts, learning as a

process and reflection, holistic education seeks to instil a reverence for life, a love of

learning and a sense of wonder in the learner. The goal of holistic education is one of

personal growth while empowering students to make positive social changes and to

develop environmental responsibility (Miller, 2004).

“Perennial philosophy” is the basis for holism. It views all things as part of an

individual unity or whole (Miller, 1993). The rise in interest of holism and holistic

curricula in Western society is in part due to new ideas arising from emerging disciplines

such as sub-atomic physics, deep ecology and eco-feminism. Furthermore the

fascination of many within Western culture with the philosophies and worldviews of

Eastern religions and indigenous societies has increased the awareness and

participation in the holistic way of thinking (Pike and Selby, 1988).

2
 A school garden is a garden consisting of edible plants including herbs, fruits and

vegetables. It may also contain livestock and non-edible plants. It is located on school

property and is used by educators as a means to enrich school curriculum and to

provide opportunity for a diversity of teaching and learning approaches.

A Personal Perspective

This paper was researched and written with two goals in mind. The first goal was

to familiarize myself with the school gardening phenomenon and the holistic education

movement throughout North America to become a better advocate for both. The second

goal was to assist in bridging the gap that often exists between education researchers,

theorists and practicing teachers.

My interest in school gardening initially began eight years ago with my

participation in several school gardening and environmental education projects in

Canada and internationally. This experience encouraged me to become a high school

teacher in Canada. I became interested in trying to incorporate components of the

different subjects (Agriculture, Biology, Spanish and ESL) that I taught, in order to

encourage students to see the connections between their various subjects and their

daily life experiences. I also focused on providing as many opportunities as possible for

hands-on learning. Seeing the benefits of integrating curriculum sparked my interest in

exploring holistic education. I have a particular interest in the potential role that school

gardening can play in an integrated curriculum. I have witnessed first hand the

accomplishments achieved through school gardening projects and felt the pride and joy

by those who participated. Witnessing the increase in creativity, self-esteem and

respect for others in students through their interactions with each other, plants, and their

natural environment, lead me to believe that school gardens can be an integral

component of holistic education.

3
Research Question

To what extent does school gardening, as an educational tool, provide a means

towards achieving holistic education?

Objective

The broad objective of this research is to examine the role of school gardening

as an educational tool and its relationship to curriculum development.

The specific objectives of this research are as follows:

• To explore the themes and guiding principles of holistic education theory and

practice;

• To examine the literature pertaining to human-Nature connections with particular

emphasis on people-plant relations;

• To explore and describe the phenomenon of school gardening as a teaching

strategy.

Research Design

This exploratory and descriptive study examines the role of school gardening as

an educational tool and its relationship to a holistic curriculum. It provides a

comprehensive review of existing literature on holistic education theory and practice,

human-Nature connections and the history of school gardening. The aim of the

literature review is the discovery and bridging together of various disciplines to create a

more thorough picture of the school gardening phenomenon. To meet the goals and

objectives of my research study, several avenues of research were employed. As it is

an exploratory study based on observations, an inductive approach was taken using

grounded theory (Palys, 1997). Through the collection and analysis of data a theory was

4
formed. The primary source of data consisted of personal communications, books,

academic journals, theses, and Internet sites.

Case Study

My research included a case study consisting of interviews with six

employees/volunteers from three schools and two “school greening” organizations all

actively involved in school gardening projects in Ontario. The case study was conducted

primarily as a supplement to the literature review, which was the main body of this

research. Definitions were created for both school garden and holistic curriculum.

Data Collection of the Case Study

Five schools were purposively selected in consultation with Toronto District

School Board/Evergreen Associate, Heidi Campbell. Ultimately, participants from three

of these schools were willing to take part in the case study and discuss their experiences

as active participants of school garden projects. In addition to interviews from the

Toronto District School Board, I was able to make contact with a “school greening”

organization in Ottawa. All together the interviews included the head science teacher of

a secondary school, two elementary school principals, and three employees/volunteers

from two “school greening” organizations. Open-ended questions were prepared in

advance of the interviews (Questionnaire, Appendix B). Semi-structured interviews were

conducted in person, via email and/or phone. Site visits included tours of two school

gardening projects and attendance at the workshop, “Designing for Shade and Energy

Conservation” put on by the School Ground Greening Initiative- a joint partnership of

Toyota Evergreen and the Toronto District School Board. All interviews and site visits

took place during January and February 2004. Although these interviews were only a

supplement to the main body of my research, I found them to be extremely beneficial in

understanding the practice and role of school gardening in Ontario.

5
Data Analysis

Indicative of a qualitative study, data in the form of literature and interviews was

collected, brought together and categorized. Followed by further literature search and

reflection, new categories and theories were constructed. This process was continued

until the literature on this subject was exhausted. At this point themes, connections and

theories were integrated and finalized.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of my major paper was based on a constructivist

approach. It is an approach that acknowledges a learner’s prior experiences, promotes

challenging situations and impromptu tangents and supports learning that is imaginative

and creative (Kahn, 1999). Constructivism views learning as a process of transformation

versus a replacement or mere stacking of one’s former knowledge. In his book The

Human Relationship with Nature, Kahn (1999) states from the perspective of a

constructivist that research and education are quite similar and provides the following

quote from Dewey [(1916)1966] “all thinking is research and all research is native,

original with him who carries it on, even if everybody else in the world already is sure of

what he is still looking for.” (p. 148).

6
Limitations of the Study

The research would have benefited from a more in-depth case study but being as

it was exploratory, it provided preliminary findings from which to base future research

studies. Timing was also a factor in the case study as visits occurred during the winter

months when school gardens were covered by snow. Although I tried to conduct this

research with an open mind, personal bias may have played a role in the selection of

literature, which were used to support the theory that school gardens are an integral

component of holistic education.

Significance of the Study

School gardening as a component of holistic education can provide the

opportunity for individuals and communities to form connections with Self, subject,

community and the natural environment thereby finding meaning and purpose in a

fragmented society. It is hoped that this study will contribute to the dynamic and exciting

fields of urban agriculture, ethnobotany, holistic education, environmental education and

landscape architecture. It is intended to link theory and practice and assist those

wishing to gain insight into the school gardening movement and holistic education in

North America. It is also hoped that the research findings will benefit educators in

Ontario through the provision of recommendations that will assist in the incorporation of

school gardening within the curriculum. As the need for an education holistic in nature

grows, this study provides the foundation for further research studies.

7
 Chapter 2: Holistic Education

Introduction

Chapter two presents a literature review of the guiding principles and themes of

holistic education. Section one examines the ideas of holistic education theorists past

and present. Section two presents several models illustrating educational approaches

within holistic education. Specifically, models representing the approaches to instruction

and curriculum, the relationships of holistic education, the connections within education

and the three forms of integrated curriculum. The philosophies of holistic education

most reflect my own ideologies and approaches to education. It is for this reason that

the theory and practice of holistic education is examined and in subsequent chapters

juxtaposed with the pedagogical tool of school gardening.

Theorists Past and Present

The theory and practice of holistic education is not a recent phenomenon.

Socrates, Plato, Rousseau, Froebel, Pestalozzi and Dewey are considered early

scholars in the field of holistic education. It is a dynamic field that continually evolves

and is enriched by models, strategies, and perspectives developed by educators and

philosophers who are holistic in orientation (Steiner, 1986; Miller, 1993; Orr, 1994; Miller;

1996). The following section highlights holistic education theorists of the last two

centuries. Their ideas and beliefs vary as do the topics they express which include: eco-

literacy, sense of place, historical and social context of education, dialogue, spirituality

and education, multiple intelligences and integrated curriculum, to name a few (Gardner,

1983; Drake et al., 1992; Orr, 1992; Miller, 1993; Wilber, 1995; Abram, 1996; Miller,

1996; Bowers, 1998; Bell, 2000). In the subsequent section, theorists whose

8
approaches and concepts provide support and framework for this paper are explored in

greater depth.

Three Holistic Educators and their Schools

Montessori (1916-1965), founder of the Montessori School in Italy and advocate

of sensory-based pedagogy, was one of the first educators to acknowledge the

significance of school gardens in providing hands-on experience (Andrews, 2001).

Steiner (1861-1925) an Austrian philosopher, holistic scholar and creator of Waldorf

education used “the arts” to unite teaching and learning (Childs, 1991). Malaguzzi,

(1920-1994) an early childhood education specialist and founder of the Reggio Emilia

school, celebrated the hundreds of ways in which children learn and grow (Luera and

Hong, 2003). All three educators and their schools are often cited in literature as

examples of holistic education theory and practice.

For Steiner, a student’s intellectual achievements are but a component of the

aims of education. In fact, the Waldorf curriculum mandates the use of artistic teaching

and learning approaches in early grades prior to the introduction of intellectual

approaches in the later years. Steiner disagreed with the widespread belief that human

beings are mere machines devoid of spirit and soul. He saw education as the

development of the “whole” child. Illustrated in the Waldorf School curriculum is

Steiner’s interest in the integration of spiritual thinking and experience with that of the

scientific method (Childs, 1991). In addition, Waldorf education places strong emphasis

on the relationship between the teacher and student. Steiner, himself, even

recommended that teachers visit their students at home in an aim to better the student-

teacher relationship. In addition, Steiner criticized the reliance by educators and the

educational system on textbooks and other teaching resources as he felt they weakened

relationships that the learner had with Self, subject, teacher, community and natural

9
environment (Childs, 1991). This is also an opinion common among educators of

diverse disciplines including other holistic educators (Courtenay-Hall, 1998; Bowers,

1998). Steiner also stressed the utmost importance for teachers to create and recreate

curriculum in the spirit of the philosophy of the school. He believed it was beliefs and

practices that unified a school, not the principal or headmaster. The only compulsory

subject in the Waldorf School curriculum is eurythmy- ‘soul gymnastics’. Much like

Froebel, Steiner believed exercising and strengthening the connection between body

and mind was essential to education. As summarized by Childs (1991), “Steiner claimed

that for true personal freedom and social liberty to come about, there must be a

progressive emancipation from every externally imposed constraint on behaviour, with

each individual discovering the realities of truth and freedom from within” (p. 206). This

is a view held by many holistic theorists and educators.

The Reggio Emilia approach is named after the Italian town where Malaguzzi

worked to create an educational community, consisting of teachers, parents, community

members and students, which continues to this day. As highlighted by Luera and Hong

(2003) “the Reggio Emilia approach emphasizes the social construction of knowledge,

the utilization of the environment as a teacher, and the representation of ideas in

multiple symbolic modes” (p. 9). It is an approach interested in the intellectual, moral,

social and emotional growth and development of the learner (Edwards et al., 1998).

Malaguzzi’s poem, No Way. The Hundred Is There, is an excellent representation of his

beliefs of the multiple intelligences, talents and abilities of students and the manners in

which they learn and develop (Poem, Appendix A). Malaguzzi’s approach to education

acknowledges the importance of the teacher-student relationship, the value of dialogue

and the context in which learning and teaching takes place. Teachers at the Reggio

Emilia School are encouraged to view students in a holistic manner- to see them in

relation to their family, classmates, their community and the environment, as a whole. In

10
addition, the Reggio Emilia philosophy emphasizes the need for continual revision of its

educational theories and practices to reflect the dynamic and cultural context in which

education occurs. The significance of the physical environment to education is

represented in the Reggio Emilia philosophy (Edwards et al., 1998). The environment is

used as a pedagogical tool to provide a place for exploration, problem solving,

discoveries, imagination and motivation. Other holistic education theorists including

Froebel, Rousseau, Dewey, Orr, Moore and Hart would agree with the importance of

linking the environment with education and the benefits that it can provide (Rousseau,

1979; Alexander, 1987; Orr 1992; Miller, 1993; Moore, 1995; Hart, 1997). In addition,

the Reggio Emilia approach challenges the prevalent dichotomies of ‘play versus study’,

‘achieving versus harmony’, ‘science versus art’, ‘individual versus community’, and

‘child versus adult’, a stance common among holistic theorists and educators (Edwards

et al., 1998). Finally, Malaguzzi viewed teaching and learning as a process, a belief

shared by many in holistic and environmental education (Orr, 1994; Pivnick, 1997;

Bowers, 1998; Bell, 2000).

Additional Theorists/Educators

David Orr, as a philosopher, an author of several books including Earth in Mind:

On Education, Environment, and the Human Prospect and chair of an Environmental

Studies program at Oberlin College, is often cited in holistic education literature. In his

book Ecological Literacy, Orr highlights the importance of educating students to be able

to make connections inherent in themselves and the world around them. He also

proposes six essentials to creating an ecological education.

First, all education is environmental education. Second, environmental issues

are complex and cannot be understood through a single discipline or department.
Third, for inhabitants, education occurs in part as a dialogue with a place and has
the characteristics of good conversation. Fourth, the way education occurs is as
important as its content. Fifth, experience in the natural world is both an

11
 essential part of understanding the environment, and conducive to good thinking.
Sixth, education relevant to the challenge of building a sustainable society will
enhance the learner’s competence with natural systems (pp. 90-92).

In describing his new approach to education, he imagines what Nature as a teacher

would provide, “…one might imagine the earth would teach us: silence, humility,

holiness, connectedness, courtesy, beauty, celebration, giving, restoration, obligation

and wildness” (Orr, 1994, p. 52). In addition, he states, “an ecological education means

changing the substance and process of education contained in curriculum, how

educational institutions work, the architecture within which education occurs and most

important the purposes of learning“ (Orr, 1994, p. 33). In doing so, he echoes the

thoughts and ideas of many within the field of holistic education, and provides a guide for

much discussion in subsequent chapters.

Holistic education theorists and progressive schools argue that multiple

intelligences exist and that cognitive development is but one form of intelligence.

Linguistic, logical/mathematical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, musical, kinaesthetic and

visual/spatial are the seven intelligences as presented by Gardner (1983). Although

Miller, a professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), admires the

seven intelligences theory he does not agree with the belief that all learning occurs in the

brain. He makes the claim, “…some learning cannot be connected to a physiological

place in the body but is characterized instead by paradox, spontaneity and mystery”

(1996, p. 104). He sees the soul-based approach to learning as presented by Moore

(1992) as being a complement to Gardner’s multiple intelligences framework. For that

reason Miller argues for a curriculum that includes intuition and thus a means in which to

“bring soul, life and vitality back into the classroom” (1996, p. 105).

On publishing the 2nd Edition to Holistic Curriculum in 1996, Miller wrote that

“Holistic Curriculum is about connections and this book has its own set of connections”

(p. ix). He also described his view on holistic education as being in a state of continual

12
evolution. A divide exists within holistic education between those that view personal

development as the ultimate goal and those that view social transformation as the

ultimate goal. Miller (1996) argues for both personal growth and social change as the

goals of holistic education. Personal growth and social change are also considered to

be at the heart of the transformative approach, an approach that is described shortly.

Similarly Prakash and Waks (1985) reason that, “…self actualization without social

responsibilities is an illusion” (p. 85). In addition Orr (1994) argues, that with knowledge

comes responsibility and thus the two are inseparable. Miller’s models, specifically

those pertaining to his three approaches to holistic education, and the connections to

Self, subject, community and the natural world, provide a framework for discussion and

analysis in this paper. Combined with theories and practices from various disciplines,

these models provide the basis from which the relationship of school gardening as a

pedagogical tool and holistic curriculum is explored.

Education Models and Holistic Education Theory and Practice

Intelligence is framed and developed by all kinds of interactions with the world,
including human communication, both linguistic and nonlinguistic; thus, language
plays a strong - but not the only- role in the refinement of thinking (Snyder, 1995,
p. 178).

Educational scholars have developed a variety of frameworks to illustrate and

explain educational approaches that apply to both formal and non-formal education. The

following section presents several models in relation to holistic education.

13
Instruction & Curriculum Approaches

MilIer (1996) developed a model representing three educational approaches or

positions. The three positions- transmission, transaction, transformation- are described

as being interrelated and cumulative as illustrated in the following diagram.

Figure 1: A Holistic Stance

Transformation

Transaction

Transmission

(Miller, 1996, p.8)

While Miller emphasizes the transformation position as the best approach to achieving

Holistic Education, he acknowledges that each position has relevance depending upon

the educational context in which they are used.

In the transmission position knowledge is viewed as content, the educator as a

powerful holder of knowledge and the learner as a passive participant (Miller, 1996).

Freire (2002) has labeled this approach as “Banking”. In contrast, in the transaction

position knowledge is viewed as a process and the emphasis is on the individual learner

and the interaction between the learner, the educator and the environment. While

student-educator dialogue is emphasized, the nature of this interaction is intellectually

based “since analysis is stressed more than synthesis and thinking more than feeling”

(Miller, 1996, p. 7). Cognitive growth and the acquisition of problem solving skills are

key objectives of the transaction position with the scientific method providing the

framework for learning and the learner is viewed as the problem solver. Dewey’s (1859-

14
1952) pragmatic approach to education is often citied as representative of the

transaction position. In addition the transaction approach is an approach in which

humans are typically viewed apart from Nature. The transaction position is the most

commonly used approach in environmental education and perhaps in education, in

general (Russell, 2001).

In the transformation position a holistic approach to thinking is assumed. The

development of an individual’s aesthetics, moral, physical, and spiritual Self is seen as

important as the development of cognitive abilities. The focus of the transformation

position is on the development of the whole individual. Students, teachers and

curriculum are connected. Teaching techniques include cooperative learning, whole

language and creative problem solving (Miller, 1996). As represented by the outer most

ring in Figure 1, the transformation position is the most inclusive of the three approaches

to education. Miller’s model of three approaches to education is presented by Russell

(2001) (Table 1) together with several models reflecting similar themes of education

instruction and curriculum.

Table 1: Curriculum and Instruction Models

Miller (1993a) Transmission Transaction Transformation
Eisner (1979) Technology Cognition Social
Personal Relevance Reconstruction
Social Adaptation
Prakash & Waks Technical Rational Personal
(1985) Social Responsibility
Greig, Pike & Selby Fragmentalism Pragmatism Holism
(1989)
Bowers & Flinders Technocratic Academic Rationalist Critical Pedagogical
(1990)
Berlak & Berlak (1983) Knowledge as Knowledge as Personal and Public
Content Process Knowledge
Russell, 2001, p. 52

15
 The three worldviews - fragmentalism, pragmatism, holism, - as identified by

Greig, Pike and Selby (1989) correspond well with the positions described by Miller. In

her analysis of environmental education theory and practice Russell (2001) identifies the

usefulness of Miller’s model. She uses the three positions - transmission, transaction

and transformation - to observe the differing beliefs held by educators towards Nature

and environmental education. In doing so, she not only highlights the differences but

also the interrelatedness of the three approaches (Table 2).

Table 2: Approaches to Environmental Education

Curriculum Position Transmission Transaction Transformation
(from Miller,1993a)
Approach to Nature as resource Nature as resource Nature as more than
Nature a resource, nature as
Nature as series of Nature as home
building blocks complicated system
but manageable All life interconnected
Humankind through rational and interdependent
separate from and planning and the
superior to nature, use of science and Biological and cultural
ie. anthropocentric technology diversity valued

Technical solutions Humankind separate Relationships both

to environmental from and superior to among humans and
problems nature between humans and
other life important
Approach to Banking Student-centred Student-centred
Environmental
Education Behavioural Problem-solving Personal growth and
modification and social change
technofix solutions Skill development
Development of
Science dominant Action-oriented “whole” person

Other disciplines Commitment to social

valued but science and environmental
dominant justice

Collaborative,
participatory

Interdisciplinary
Russell, 2001, p. 53

16
Six Relationships of Holistic Education

If my course has no direct application to or utility within other courses being

taught in this school as well as the world outside these walls, and I can find no
way to help my students make those linkages and relate them to their own lives,
then I can only conclude that the course should not be offered at all (Wigginton,
1986 p. 201).

Miller (1996) defines holistic education and in doing so outlines six relationships

(Table 3). These relationships include “the relationship between linear thinking and

intuition, the relationship between mind and body, the relationships between various

domains of knowledge, the relationships between the individual and community, the

relationship with earth and the relationship between self and Self” (p. 86).

Table 3: Connections in Holistic Education Curriculum

Analytical-Intuitive Thinking Community Connections

• Metaphor • Cooperative Learning

• Guided Imagery/Visualization • Invitational Education
• Critical Thinking • School Community Connections
• Global Education
Body-Mind Connection Earth Connections

• Movement • Indigenous People’s Literature

• Dance • Environmental Education/
• Drama/Improvisation Deep Ecology
• Mindfulness
Subject Connections Self Connections

• Theme-Based Learning • Literature, Story and Myth

• Integration Through the Arts • Journal Writing
• Story Model • Story/The Universe Story
(Miller, 1996, p. 87)

I have combined the relationships between linear thinking and intuition, mind and

body, and Self into one; therefore representing Self in its entirety as mind, body and

spirit. It is through the development of relationships with Self, school subjects,

community, and the natural world that students gain purpose and meaning. And it is the

17
acknowledgement of these relationships and gaining of skill by which to transform these

relationships that defines holistic education curriculum. The following is a diagrammatic

representation of how I envision each of these relationships as outlined by Miller (1996)

in relation to one another.

Figure 2: Connections within Education

Nature

Community

Subject

Self

This diagrammatic representation illustrates the core of holistic education philosophy as

it relates to the development of connections a learner creates with Self, subject,

community and Nature. The rings, each representative of a multitude of connections,

are interrelated, cumulative and of equal importance. At the centre is located the

connections the learner has with Self. These include the connections between mind,

body and spirit. The second ring represents the connections between the learner and

their school subjects including learner-subject and subject-subject connections. The

third ring represents connections between learner and community. These include the

learner-classroom, learner-school and learner-city connections. The fourth and final ring

represents connections between the learner and Nature.

As mentioned previously in the definition of holistic education, connections are

the central focus of holistic education theory and practice, and it is through connections

18
within Self, subjects, community and Nature that a learner gains personal meaning and

identity. This idea is very much in contradiction to Western popular belief, which views

self-worth and purpose as being primarily associated with the mind (Greig, Pike and

Selby, 1989). In subsequent chapters the potential of school gardening to provide

opportunity to either uncover or create each of these four connections is discussed.

Connections with Self, Subject, Community and Nature

The following section identifies the meaning and significance of each of the

connections in relation to holistic education theory and practice appropriate to each.

Self

As we journey outward to learn of the world, we also engage in a journey into self
(Selby, 1999. p.132).

Holistic education curriculum provides opportunity for intellectual, social,

emotional, moral, intuitive and creative potential of the students to be cultivated and

guided. It provides skills training in combination with growth of character and spirit of

each child. Exploring connections between mind, body and spirit is very much at the

heart of holistic education philosophy. In his book Holistic Curriculum, Miller (1996)

examines separately analytic-intuitive thinking, body-mind connection and Self

connections (Table 3). I have chosen for this paper to combine them under the concept

Self as demonstrated by Figure 2. However, the emphasis of balancing cognitive and

intuition-direct knowing in educational approaches; incorporating various forms of

movement and dance to link the entities of body and mind; and enhancing spirituality

through an exploration of world religions and educational theorists and their

philosophies, meditation, and imagery.

19
Subject

The goal of education is not mastery of subject matter but master of one’s
person. Subject matter is simply the tool (Orr, 1994, p. 13).

Throughout education literature, and more specifically holistic education

literature, the importance of a learner’s connection to subject matter is emphasized. It is

often referred to as the authenticity or relevance of subject matter to the learner. The

manner in which a subject is presented impacts what is learned and how a subject is

learned is often more valuable than the subject itself. Holistic educators argue for

multiple approaches to teaching and learning and discourage learner passivity,

memorization, and overuse and dependency on textbooks, as they tend to diminish

subject-Self and teacher-learner connections. They also encourage teachers and

student to make the connections between classroom instruction and personal life

experiences.

In her book, Teacher, Ashton-Warner (1963) describes her teaching experience

with Maori children in New Zealand. Her educational approach, founded in the

connections with Self and Nature, is visible in her teaching practices. For example, she

taught numeracy lessons in Nature incorporating the natural environment in her

teachings. She also emphasised the importance of students as the central focus of

education rather than the subjects, adding to the relevancy of connections with subject

matter. In addition, Wigginton’s (1986) quote, as presented under the heading “Six

Relationships of Holistic Education” highlights yet another educator’s view of the

importance of learner-subject and subject-subject connections in providing relevance

and authenticity to education.

20
 In a conversation between Abram and Jardine (2000), Abram, a cultural ecologist

and environmental philosopher, discusses the importance of subject-Self connections in

regards to his own personal experiences at school. “I would love to have been assigned

in high school math class: “what sort of mathematics might an octopus devise (or a

consortium of octopi) devise? Or: Consider the web-weaving spider” (p. 170). “The

chance to ponder such questions in the classroom would link mathematics to the bodily

imagination as well as to the analytical intellect- would likely help students recognize

early on, that mathematics is an imaginative endeavour as well as a ready-made set of

abstract tools” (p.170). In school curriculum, knowledge and experience have been

parceled into various school subjects for the convenience of study. Often, what a

student learns remains contained within these arbitrary divisions as little linkage is made

between subjects. Holistic education theory and practice encourages the integration of

subjects. Approaches to integrating subjects are discussed shortly under the heading,

“Integrated Curriculum”.

Community

They are their subject matter, and for them, the inescapable linkages between
that subject matter, their communities, their student and the globe come so
automatically that for them to teach otherwise - to teach a course in isolation from
the world outside the school facility - would be literally impossible (Wigginton,
1986, p. 200).

A holistic educator views the culture of classroom, and of school to be in

continual interaction with the culture of society. Thus, in identifying the connections

within community there are really three types. First, is the student-classroom

connection. This connection includes those relationships with peers, teachers and the

physical space. The significance of environment to learning is repeatedly discussed by

scholars, educators, and philosophers of landscape architecture, environmental

education, and holistic education (Sebba and Churchman, 1986; Orr, 1994; Edwards et

21
al., 1998; Kahn, 1999). By linking “place and pedagogy” students are better able to link

experience and learning; to observe while integrating concepts and ideas from a

diversity of disciplines; and to gain a sense of place through a feeling of rootedness

derived from an understanding of the surroundings in which they live and grow.

The student-classroom connection is important, not only because it enhances

student self-esteem and in return student learning, but also because in the creation of a

sense of community, student needs are more likely met, reducing the issues of

unwanted behaviour and issues pertaining to classroom control (Wigginton, 1986).

Once again it promotes a sense of belonging. In holistic education the teacher is viewed

as a co-learner (Greig, Pike and Selby, 1989). Teachers learn with their students from

the multitude of experiences, perspectives, personalities, abilities and insights each

student brings to and develops within the class. Student-community is the second

connection.

The Reggio Amelia approach illustrates the creation of an educational community

consisting of students, community members, teachers and parents dynamic in nature

and ever-changing in relation to a social and political context. Wigginton (1986)

emphasized the importance of connections with community and the success of the

school’s newsletter. The physical environment is also a part of the community.

Wigginton (1986) provided an example of integrating culture and environment in a

wandering discussion on the wonders of plant and bee communication, honeycomb

architecture, and human inspiration for poems written about flowers.

Nature

Connections with the natural world are acknowledged in the stories and myths of

indigenous peoples, the writings of environmental philosophers and in the academic

literature from the fields of environmental education, deep ecology and eco-feminism.

22
However, in Western culture the interaction of youth with the natural world is often

limited. Children are spending less time outdoors exploring and more time indoors in

front of televisions and computers (Hart, 1994). Iltis (1973) describes the loss in people-

plant connections among industrialized societies. In a discussion between Abram and

Jardine (2000), Abram in discussing his school experience states, “schooling did indeed

hurt me, wounded me bad. The schools I went to didn’t leave any room between their

four walls for such folks as myself…they didn’t recognize any value in the sort of

delicious somatic empathy I inadvertently felt in relationship to creatures and grasses

and rock faces, and in general, every sensorial thing I met and pondered…” (p. 174).

Holistic education aims to unite everything to an ultimate reference point, the universe

and in so doing provides an education that is more inclusive. It links knowledge of Self,

others, and surroundings into a holistic understanding of the magnificent world in which

we live.

Integrated Curriculum

Three Variations

As previously mentioned, integrated curriculum is an approach to teaching

whereby courses are taught in a manner emphasizing relationships among disciplines.

Holistic education theory and practice encourages the use of integrated curriculum.

However, within integrated curriculum variations exist. Multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary

and transdisciplinary are three variants of integrated curriculum, which differ in relation to

the kinds of connections created between the various disciplines.

In a multidisciplinary approach, subjects (ie. geography, language and science)

remain separate but are linked by a common theme or issue, such as food. Each

subject then studies the theme independently. In an interdisciplinary integrated

curriculum the separation existing between the subjects is lessened. School subjects

23
are still identifiable but are brought together for study of a particular theme or topic.

Common essential learning requirements such as literacy, science and research skills

form the basis for connections between the various subjects (Drake et al., 1992). Often,

the interdisciplinary approach to teaching and learning involves the integration of two or

three subjects in problem solving. A discipline or field of research can also be classified

as interdisciplinary such as ethnobotany or environmental studies.

A transdisciplinary integrated curriculum involves the integration of nearly all

subjects around broad themes or activities. In a transdisciplinary approach, division

between subjects is non-existent, and content and theme are one and the same. In

addition to connecting subjects, a holistic curriculum approach also aims to create

connections within Self. van Dusseldorp (1992) describes the transdisciplinary approach

as, “An overarching paradigm encompassing a number of disciplines “ (p. 40). The

Waldorf School is an example of the use of “the arts” including storytelling, painting,

music and eurythmy to unite curriculum as well as mind, body and spirit (Childs, 1991).

Miller (1996) describes the role of a holistic educator as a source of relatedness and

wholeness, in comparison to other approaches to education where educators are viewed

more as facilitators or trainers or “knowers” of all knowledge. In essence, knowledge is

transdisciplinary when learnt in a generic sense. The transdisciplinary approach offers

an alternative to educators struggling to keep up with the ever-increasing supply of new

knowledge.

Examples

Drake et al. (1992) developed an integrated curriculum using the story model as

the central organizer. Their aim was to develop an integrated curriculum based on

holistic education theory and practice. Developing Integrated Curriculum Using the

Story Model, is more of a personal account of the process that the authors took while

24
developing the integrated curriculum than “step by step instructions” to be followed. An

important objective of integrated curriculum and learning is the ability to make

connections with Self, subject, community and the natural world, a skill and process that

Drake et al. (1992) acknowledged both teacher and student must participate in. As

presented in holistic education theory it is through participation that authenticity is

enhanced and the relationship between student and teacher strengthened. However,

Drake et al. (1992) do acknowledge the factors of time and practice that are required by

both teacher and student. Drake et al. (1992) also describe the process of moving from

a multidisciplinary curriculum to an interdisciplinary curriculum and eventually to a

transdisciplinary curriculum as highly valuable and highlight the shift in perspective,

which needs to occur at each stage. In addition, they acknowledged the difficulty they

faced in identifying curriculum objectives and evaluation methods that were

representative of holistic learning theories and their personal teaching practices.

However, a list of potential evaluation techniques was provided which include:

observation journal by teacher, student portfolio, peer/self evaluation, teacher-student

interviews, graphic representation (concept maps, summary diagrams, and flip chart

presentations), and independent study projects, which the student chooses.

Clipsham and Charbonneau (1994) provided an additional example of educators

coming together to create integrated curriculum. In this case, an integrated thematic unit

was developed using food as the topic. Food was chosen for its relevance to youth and

because it was considered by educators to offer the greatest opportunities for integrating

traditional subjects. Poltkin (1994) also agrees that the topic of food and food production

provides an excellent opportunity for connections to be made between urban and rural,

local and global and even within a community. A process oriented democratic student

driven approach was incorporated rather than the traditional teacher driven content

oriented approach often used. An awareness – analysis – action model was developed

25
and represented the learning process of the students. The goal was one of “processed

mindedness” (Pike and Selby, 1988). Evaluation methods utilized included summative

evaluation techniques targeted at specific subjects, formative evaluation techniques

focused on evaluating the process and peer evaluation methods. In general the

evaluation of skill development was more the focus than the actual content learned.

Additional examples of integrated curriculum in relation to topics from the disciplines of

environmental education and ethnobotany are presented in Chapter three.

Chapter Summary

In summary, in Chapter two holistic education, is presented as a dynamic field

continually being enriched by new theories, models and approaches. Early holistic

scholars and theorists include Socrates, Rousseau, Froebel, Pestalozzi and Steiner,

Montessori, Malaguzzi and Dewey. Also identified were several themes and concepts of

holistic education including eco-literacy, integrated curriculum, dialogue, sense of place,

experiential learning and multiple intelligences. In addition, particular emphasis is

placed on several theorists including Steiner, the founder of the Waldorf School;

Malaguzzi the founder of the Reggio Emilia School; Orr, the philosopher who coined the

term ecological literacy and believes all education should be environmental education;

and lastly Miller, the author of Holistic Curriculum and the creator of two educational

models.

It was Miller’s models that formed the basis of my own model, the “Connections

within Education”. My model provides a means by which educators can examine the

connections of Self, subject, community and Nature within education. It also helps to

visualize the categories and acknowledge the interconnectedness of these categories.

Additionally, this chapter presented the process necessary to achieve integrated

curriculum and highlighted the significance of it for educators and students.

26
 Chapter 3: Human-Nature Connection

Introduction

In Chapter one a definition of holistic education was provided. As previously

identified, it is the formation of relationships within Self, school subjects, community and

the natural environment that is at the core of holistic education. In essence it is through

these connections that a learner gains identity and purpose. The belief in multiple forms

of intelligence and the emphasis on the learning process, sense of place and

experiential and authentic learning were also identified in Chapter two as integral

components of holistic education theory and practice. The human-Nature connection,

particularly as it relates to people-plant relations, is the focus of Chapter three. Three

disciplines: human issues in horticulture, ethnobotany and environmental education, are

identified to help illustrate the human-Nature connection and its relationship to holistic

education. Each discipline offers a different perspective of the human-Nature

connection and a variety of methods to achieve an education holistic in nature. It is

through the human-Nature connection that I argue other connections and components of

holistic education can be achieved, with the integration of school gardening within the

curriculum. This notion is further supported and discussed in subsequent chapters.

Human Issues in Horticulture

It’s time we were placing plants where they belong, as the centerpieces of
civilization that make our culture, industry, medicine and agriculture possible”
(Poltkin, 1994, p.12).

A relatively new and promising area of research within the discipline of horticultural

sciences is “human issues in horticulture”, also at times referred to as ”human

horticulture relationships”, “people-plant interactions” and “sociohorticulture”. This

emerging field combines horticulture expertise with human well-being. Research studies

27
within human issues in horticulture are often designed to investigate the nutritional,

therapeutic, physical, and social benefits derived from horticulture and Nature (Bradley

and Skelly, 1997). The disconnection felt in Western society between people and Nature

combined with economic pressures to place monetary value on all items is considered to

be the reason the field of humans issues in horticulture was created (Lohr and Relf,

2000). Whether or not researchers agree with E.O. Wilson’s coined concept of

”biophilia”, referring to an innate love of Nature, most agree that a significant connection

exists and has existed historically between people and plants, be it innate or cultural.

Within human issues in horticulture the three areas of study are: horticulture therapy,

community gardening and children’s gardening, including school gardens (Bradley and

Skelly, 1997).

The psychological and physiological connections between people and plants are

shown in the work of horticultural and environmental psychologists such as Chawla

(1994), Kaplan (1983), Kaplan and Kaplan (1978), Kahn (1999) and Ulrich (1983). The

landscape preference theories, developed by Kaplan and Kaplan, for the purpose of

“valuing” State parks, are now used in studies examining people’s preference to

vegetation in hospitals, federal prisons, retirement homes and childcare centres (Lohr

and Relf, 2000). Other studies have been conducted to examine the role played by

horticulture in relation to indoor air quality and shade for schoolyards and school

buildings (Campbell, H., Evergreen Foundation, personal communication February 4,

2004; Lohr and Relf, 2000). Additionally, research has documented benefits of

horticultural programs designed for “youth at risk”. Research has also shown that plants

play a role in boosting self-esteem, reducing stress and enhancing interpersonal

relationships (Lohr and Relf, 2000). In addition, research on children’s interactions with

plants and the natural world have found correlations between interactions with the

28
environment and the development of respect for interrelationships among all living things

and increased environmental stewardship (Hart, 1997).

Enthusiasm for children’s gardens is increasing at botanical gardens, community

gardens and public schools, as these gardens are seen as a means to enrich the

educational experience (Bradley and Skelly, 1997). The design of children’s gardens at

botanical gardens and universities across North America is on the rise, as investigations

on the impact of gardening on child development grows. The National Gardening

Association, the American Community Gardening Association and the American

Horticultural Society, along with numerous botanical gardens, are readily promoting the

integration of gardening into the school curriculum (Bradley and Skelly, 1997). Leading

North American universities, including Texas A&M, Virginia Tech, Cornell and York

University are conducting research on school gardening.

In the last ten years scholarly research on school gardening has increased. The

focus of these studies has consisted of: the impact of school gardening on student

nutrition, academics and environmental attitudes, social and psychological benefits for

children and the essential requirements for a successful school garden, including

teacher needs (Skelly and Bradley, 2000; Lohr and Relf, 2000; Waliczek et al., 2000 and

2001). Documented research is still limited as it is a new field and further research on

personal growth, social skill development and environmental awareness is needed. The

most commonly documented benefits of children’s gardens thus far include:

opportunities for hands-on experiences, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary curriculum,

imaginative learning and play; development of self-esteem and pride; increased

awareness about healthy eating, food production, and environmental issues; and

increased socialization among children and adults.

29
 Research conducted within the field of human issues in horticulture appears to

be driven by profitable gains for the horticultural industry. It is true that there are specific

studies conducted by and for marketing initiatives as pointed out by the following quote.

Studies that focus on the human side of horticultural enterprises will be

essential in the future as horticulture competes against an ever increasing
multitude of options for the consumers of goods and services (Lohr and Relf,
2000, p. 31).

In addition Lohr and Relf (2000) state,

Businesses in the United States have begun to promote these newly

documented impacts of plants on people. Data are being used to promote
the green industries both by individual companies in the United States and by
industry trade groups (p. 31).

The horticulture industry is also mentioned in relation to the “significance” or “current

impact” of the research findings of studies conducted on school gardening. For

example, Waliczek et al. (2000) highlight the benefits of their study for industry,

“Knowing that parents are a large consumer group and that they are interested in

teaching children about gardening at home allows the industry to direct efforts towards

selling products to this market.” (p. 76). Teachers are also mentioned by this study as a

profitable group to target by this study.

I agree that a partnership between industry and school can further school

gardening projects, allowing students to learn about healthy lifestyles and the origins of

food and gain hands-on learning experience, benefits highlighted by human issues in

horticulture researchers. However, I am hesitant about the influence of industry on

school gardening projects. There are additional benefits that school gardening can

provide, that relate more to the philosophies of holistic education and a view of living in a

more-than-human-world. “Pre-designed” and “pre-packaged” school gardening

materials and resources might hamper holistic education goals, and restrict the gains of

school gardening. It is argued by some in the field of environmental education that the

30
focus on the production of profit-oriented programs and activities and the publication of

glossy resources and videos has taken away from the real goals and objectives of

environmental education. Gains derived from the process of learning, the collaborative

effort of students and teachers and the development or reawakening of connections with

Nature – the goals of holistic education – might be missed with such partnerships.

In her article, Exploring Horticulture in Human Culture: An Interdisciplinary

Approach to Youth Education (1994) Eames-Sheavly examines the role of horticulture in

human culture. She acknowledges that plants are often ignored in the curriculum,

despite being valuable, and having significantly impacted and influenced historical

events and culture. In addition, she argues that in linking human culture and horticulture

through the exploration of food production, a potential “framework for integrating diverse

subject matter with a multi-cultural focus” (p.77) can be developed. The proposal is an

integrated curriculum or specific course that emphasizes the value of plants across

cultures and provides an opportunity to examine differing worldviews. This is significant

as elementary and secondary school curricula are often criticized for excessive

emphasis on Western cultural perspectives and failing to provide an integrative

framework.

Ethnobotany

In every case the scientific quest served as a metaphor, a lens through which
to interpret a culture and acquire personal experience of the other…the
means to rediscover and celebrate the enchantment of being human (Davis,
2001, p. 8).

An exploration of academic literature on people-plant connections would not be

complete without a look at the discipline of ethnobotany. Ethnobotany, coined in 1895

by the American botanist Dr. Harshberger, is a study of connections between human

culture and plants (Davis, 1995). Its origins can be traced back to the writings and

illustrations of early explorers, botanists, adventurers, missionaries and naturalists,

31
describing indigenous peoples’ uses of plants (Davis, 1995). Its approach to knowledge

is interdisciplinary, drawing upon the disciplines of botany, economics, anthropology,

psychology, chemistry, folklore, ecology and history, to name a few. As a result,

ethnobotanists are often broadly trained in a discipline such as botany, with interests and

expertises in another such as linguistics, an anomaly among researchers of highly

specialized disciplines (Anderson, 1995). In the words of Anderson (1995),

ethnobotany, as an academic course, has the ability to unite disciplines by illustrating the

interrelationships that exist, to challenge students to think about the “whole picture”, to

encourage them to pose questions not considered by narrowly specialized disciplines,

and to provide knowledge “responsive to human needs”.

Ethnobotany may have originated as a means to identify and extract resources

for Western society: “Ethnobotany was a strategy that sought to satisfy an economic

imperative by yielding new natural products of commercial potential” (Davis, 1995, p.41).

“From the start, then, ethnobotany has been intimately linked to botanical exploration,

and its history has run parallel to the evolution of both systematic and economic botany”

(Davis, 1995, p. 41). However, it also provides opportunity for active dialogue on

differing worldviews and cosmological perspectives in regards to belief systems and

lifestyles. In the words of Davis (1995), “On the contrary, it reveals traditional healers for

what they are – active scientific experimenters whose work reflects social needs and

whose laboratory happens to be the rainforest” (p. 41).

Balick and Cox (1996) state several reasons why ethnobotanists prefer to study

pre-capitalist societies versus capitalist societies. Consumers in capitalist societies are

often ignorant to the origins of manufactured goods and processing practices. However

such knowledge compartmentalization, common in industrialized societies, is rare

among pre-capitalist societies (Balick and Cox, 1996). Connections with plants, be it

spiritual or material, are still revelled and celebrated, and knowledge pertaining to plant

32
sources and preparations continues to exist. In addition, individuals in pre-capitalistic

societies often take a more holistic perspective, in which they see themselves

interconnected to Nature, the universe and the spiritual realms.

Schmidt (1995) acknowledges the potential of ethnobotany as a communicative

science. Ethnobotany could be a bridge between science and the public and in so doing

“engenders respect, sensitivity and opens thought to importance of plants and the value

and validity of other cultures in today’s telescoping and fast changing world“ (Schmidt,

1995, p.191). In addition, ethnobotany exposes the loss in human culture diversity and

world perspectives due to their vulnerability to the economic and social pressures of

Western culture.

Environmental Education Theory, Practice and the Nature Connection

To see a wren in a bush, call it “wren”, and go on walking is to have (self-

importantly) seen nothing. To see a bird and stop, watch, feel, forget yourself for
the moment, be in the bushy shadows, maybe then feel “wren”- that is to have
joined in a larger moment with the world (Snyder, 1995, p. 179).

In the late 1960’s environmental education incorporated several themes and

principles from the areas of “nature study”, “conservation education”, “outdoor education”

and “progressive education”. From “nature study” the importance of “first hand

observations” was acquired. The emphasis on process versus teaching objectives or

content and the use of the schoolyard and community habitat for instruction were

obtained from “outdoor education”. The emphasis on education awareness of

environmental problems and the need for resource management originated from the

concepts of “conservation education”. “Learning by doing”, the holistic approach and a

focus on integrated and interdisciplinary curriculum were the contributions of the

progressive education movement of the 1930’s (Disinger, 1993).

33
 In the 1970’s the focus on the interrelationships between humans and their

environments was added to the practice of environmental education. Depending on the

emphasis individual educators place on the previously mentioned themes and principles,

the environmental education approach varies. For example, there are those who use a

science-based environmental education curriculum, with emphasis on science and

technology, problem solving and economic rationalization (Disinger, 1993). While others

seek to challenge mainstream scientific ideologies, placing emphasis on spiritual and

aesthetic understanding, encouraging discussion and debate on educational theories

and strategies and viewing environmental education as a life long journey of adventure

and discovery (Bowers, 1998; Courtenay-Hall, 1998; Hart et al., 1999).

‘Friluftsliv’ as a concept, a philosophy and even a form of environmental or

outdoor education in Scandinavia and, in particular Norway and Sweden, refers to a

feeling shared by outdoors people all over the world, i.e. a love of Nature and a view of

living in more-than-human-world. This is also expressed as “…a comprehensive view of

nature and the universe in which humans are perceived as but an element inextricably

linked to the whole” (Davis, 1995, p. 49). Comparing Friluftsliv and environmental

education provides an avenue in which to observe the varying ideologies, as previously

mentioned, within the field of environmental education. Many environmental educators

share a similar philosophy with Friluftsliv, in regards to emphasis placed on personal

growth, connections and ecological responsibility. Additionally, the belief that love and

respect for Nature requires first-hand and sensory rich experiences outside the

classroom, where an emotional identity between learner and environment can be

established, as opposed to in-class instruction and textbook learning, is also shared

(Courtenay-Hall, 1998). Furthermore, they share the philosophy that emphasizes the

importance of questioning human activities and their influence on environmental

degradation, and they call for a shift in lifestyle perspectives from those of a Western

34
society driven by consumerism and technology, to a lifestyle attuned to the ecological

ways of the earth (Bowers, 1998; Hallen, 2000).

Gelter (2000) describes Friluftsliv as pedagogy with no curriculum, an approach

promoted by some within environmental education (Pivnick, 1997; Bowers, 1998; Hart et

al., 1999). The prescriptive nature of educational resources and curriculum guidelines,

even within the discipline of environmental education, often limits teachers from

examining their own educational beliefs, principles and practices. Linking education

philosophies and practice is not always easy, but as stressed by Steiner, the founder of

the Waldorf School, and many environmental educators, it is essential. The content

learned in itself is not as important as the approach taken. Within Friluftsliv, a

commercialization of activities has occurred. This commodification of knowledge is a

thorn of contention among environmental educators who disagree with the reliance on

industry for the development of curriculum materials. Rather, they prefer that

educational resources be constructed through the interactions of teachers, students, and

the environment using a variety of themes or activities.

Running-Grass (1996) proposes a new discipline called multicultural

environmental education. It is a discipline that combines critical pedagogy,

environmental justice and multicultural education with environmental education. Its

themes, both integrative and dynamic, include ecology, culture and community

(Running-Grass, 1996). As a discipline, it incorporates a multitude of cultural

perspectives and acknowledges the social and political context within which education

occurs. Its goal, similar to that of holistic education and environmental education, is the

development of individuals who take responsibility for their actions.

Ecological literacy, a term Orr (1994) coined, refers to an education where

people begin to see the connections all around them, including from within themselves,

their community and the universe. In his words, it is “an education that is dedicated to

35
search for patterns, unity and connections between people of all ages, races,

nationalities and generations and between people and the environment” (p. 95) and is

“driven by the sense of wonder, the sheer delight of being alive in a beautiful,

mysterious, bountiful world” (p. 86). In his writings, Orr (1994) stresses the importance

of the learning process, the need for integration of experience, learning, and disciplines

and the significance of the environment in which learning occurs. Orr believes the place

of learning should reflect the philosophies and practices being taught. He agrees that

this is rarely achievable as classrooms, school buildings, and schoolyards often do not

illustrate environmental stewardship, community nor connectedness even when these

are the topics and themes being discussed by students and teachers.

Orr (1994) proposes, as one of his six principles to an ecological education, that

all education should be environmental education. However, the infusion of

environmental education in elementary and secondary school curriculum is a rarity.

When included, it is often integrated by subject and not integrated by themes and issues

(Disinger, 1993; Simmons, 1996). An alternative to the integration of environmental

education throughout the curriculum is the provision of isolated environmental education

programs usually in secondary schools. One or two teachers often teach the

environmental education program or elective as this is often called. The program is

generally arranged as an intensive program in which students can earn several credits

from a range of courses including co-op education, physical education and geography.

Russell and Burton (2000) conducted a study of a grade 12 environmental education

elective at a secondary school in Ontario. Students registered in the course were asked

to describe the three items they felt they most gained from the course. In reply, they

expressed their excitement at learning by doing, the development of interpersonal skills

and personal growth. Their responses are similar to holistic education objectives and

are also what many environmental educators would deem favourable. Russell and

36
Burton (2000) also identified four interrelated characteristics of environmental education

programs. These include: 1) experiential learning – an engagement in real-life

environmental and social projects bringing authenticity and purpose to learning, 2) a

holistic approach to learning where kinaesthetic, affective and sensory learning and even

moral and spiritual exploration are emphasised as much as cognitive development, 3) an

interdisciplinary exploration of concepts and themes and 4) attention to relationships

among humans, and between humans and Nature, and within the natural environment.

The connection between human beings and the natural world is a common

theme within the prose of Nature writers (Carson, 1962; Berry, 1977; Berry, 1988;

Pollan, 1991; Snyder, 1995; Abram, 1996; Kingsolver, 2000; Davis, 2001). However,

since the 17th century, originating with the works of philosophers and scientists of the

Western Scientific Revolution, this connection which had been described across cultures

for thousands of generations appears to have been lost within Western society beliefs.

The human world and Nature are very much considered separate entities in Western

culture due to the prevalent beliefs in reductionism, materialism, rationalism and

utilitarianism (Greig, Pike and Selby, 1989). Human beings isolated from Self, from

others and from the natural world in which they live is how Miller (1996) describes an

urban setting in Western society.

Fragmentation is a term used frequently by Nature writers and environmental

education scholars when portraying the mentality, way of life and education system

found in modern society. Within our schools fragmentation is readily observed, as

competitiveness and individualism are highly valued, the separation of mind and body

and reason and emotion are learnt and the compartmentalization of knowledge into

unrelated school subjects is taught. Nature writers, philosophers and educators alike

are attributing the current social, ecological and cultural dilemmas to fragmented ways of

thinking.

37
 Interestingly, a debate exists within the field of environmental education on

whether the human-Nature connection has really been lost in Western society, and

therefore whether the focus of environmental education should be on creating, or merely

unveiling, the connection between student and Nature. Pivnick (1997) would argue the

latter, “that human nature connectedness is not lost or dead but rather vaguely distant,

obscured, misted over” (p. 59) and that educators need to direct a student’s “attention to

the wisdom which already exists within each of them by pointing to the small incidents

which are bursting with signs of connection”(p. 62). Environmental educators, Pivnick

states, ”… are required to muddle through the mess of ambiguous, uncertain, ever-

changing life with their [our] students” (p. 62) thereby re-emphasizing the fact that

environmental education, and education in general, should be authentic in the

experience of the student and educator. As Pivnick (1997) claims, living ecologically is

not so black and white; there is no easy solution to achieving environmental

sustainability. Simply by instilling a sense of connection between student and the earth

will not solve environmental issues and degradation, contrary to what many think.

Instead, Pivnick (1997) recommends students and educators need to experience and

travel the journey for themselves: an educational journey with no specified destination.

Time, opportunity, and encouragement for students to discover, to explore, to

experience and to reflect upon their learning journey is what environmental education

and education, in general, needs to provide.

Chapter Summary

In summary, three diverse disciplines are presented in Chapter three to illustrate

varying perspectives of the human-Nature connection and its relationship with holistic

education theory and practice. Both human issues in horticulture and ethnobotany are

academic disciplines that study the connection between people and plants. While

38
research studies in human issues in horticulture tend to examine industrialized societies,

ethnobotanical studies tend to explore pre-industrialized societies. However, both

acknowledge the value of plants to human well-being be it spiritual, therapeutic,

medicinal, material or nutrition, to name a few. In addition, both disciplines provide

opportunities to explore connections beyond those of people-plant or human-Nature.

Studies in both human issues in horticulture and ethnobotany provide insight into

connections with Self and community in addition to Nature. In addition, ethnobotany as

an interdisciplinary discipline, provides a framework for integrating curriculum with a

multicultural focus. The human-Nature connection is also identified in the writings of

Nature writers and philosophers and in the approaches to environmental education.

Holistic education theory and practice is reflected in the philosophies and approaches of

some environmental educators. Specifically, in regards to the emphasis on experiential

learning, authenticity, sense of place and the connections with Self, subject, community

and Nature.

39
 Chapter 4: A Historical Perspective of School Gardening

Introduction

This chapter presents a historical review of the literature pertaining to the school

gardening phenomenon. Section one focuses on the history of school gardening.

Section two describes current research studies on school gardening and highlights a

diverse array of school gardening projects occurring across North America. Section

three presents a case study on school gardening in Ontario. The aim of Chapter four is

to examine school gardening as a pedagogical tool and its relationship to holistic

education theory and practice presented earlier in Chapter two. In particular, the

potential of school gardening to provide an opportunity for the realization of connections

within Self, subjects, community, and the natural world. In addition, the ability of school

gardening to promote holistic education concepts of experiential learning, authenticity,

multiple intelligences, and sense of place in contemporary education.

The History of School Gardening

The incorporation of school gardening within educational curriculum is not a

novel idea. School gardens have been around for centuries and have served a

multitude of purposes from their very beginning. They have been a place for children to

play, to gain vocational and interpersonal skills, to produce and prepare food, to

participate in hands-on learning activities and to explore connections within Nature.

Education theory and practice is heavily influenced by social, political and economic

factors at a given time and place (Youngman, 2000). The role of a school garden is not

exempt from these influences and often mirrors the prevailing ideas and educational

philosophies.

40
 Comenius, a 16th century educator who believed schools should be a place for

exploration, adventure and imagination, is considered to be one of the first advocates in

Western society for a school garden in every school (HORT 6400, 2004). By the late

19th century many European countries including Austria, Hungary, Germany, France,

and Great Britain had adopted the mandate requiring all urban schools to include a

school garden (HORT 6400, 2004). This was at the time of the Industrial Revolution

when more and more people were flocking to the ever growing and congested urban

areas. The appeal of school gardens was in part to counter the ill effects city life had on

children due to the lack of fresh country air. Enthusiasm for school gardening rose as

European educators including Montessori and Froebel, strong believers in experiential

learning, promoted the use of school gardens.

In North America, the first school garden was established in the late 1800’s

(Green, 1999). School gardens were seen within the education system as a tool to

improve teaching methods, to increase interest among students in learning, to promote

interactive sciences and interdisciplinary learning, to provide vocational training and to

develop social interpersonal skills (Jarvis, 1916; Ontario Department of Education,

1909). In response to the “back to nature movement” of the 1930’s, school gardens in

North America were created to enhance spiritual connections with Nature and inspire a

love for country life. Much as it had been during the British Industrial Revolution, school

gardening during the Industrial Revolution in America was used to encourage outdoor

activity to fight illness, such as tuberculosis, among urban dwellers. During both World

War I and World War II, the production of food, the training of youth to become future

labourers and the rousing of patriotism were the goals of school gardening (Green,

1999).

With the emerging environmental movement in the 1960s, school gardens were

once again seen as a means to promote environmental awareness and to counteract the

41
mainstream attitudes and ways of life of an ever-increasingly industrialized society.

Another boom in school gardening has occurred since the 1990s, with a significant rise

in the number of school gardens designed throughout North America (Bell, 2001a). In

1995 the California Department of Education launched the “Garden in Every School"

initiative and since then many other States have followed suit to integrate gardens and

food systems curriculum in schools (California Department of Education, 2002).

School Gardening in Present-day

By deepening your students’ understanding of and connection to food, you will do

them a cultural, historical, scientific, physical and ethical service (Federico, 2001
p. 10).

Interest by teachers, staff and parents in North America continues to grow as

scholarly journals in the disciplines of education, horticulture and landscape architecture

document and describe school gardening practices. While the majority of research

studies examine the positive attributes associated with school gardening, a number of

recent studies have also highlighted barriers and challenges faced by educators wishing

to include school gardening within the curriculum. In addition, research studies have

investigated the importance of children’s participation in the design aspect, and the

actual needs of the educators using school gardens, and have also identified success

stories of school gardening integration. The interest in school gardening has not only

resulted in the production of scholarly publications, but also books and internet sites

directed at educators and parents with “steps to” designing successful school gardens

(Appendix C). At present, the main interest in school gardening is its role as a teaching

tool within the education system in relation to education about nutrition, food preparation

and the environment (Bradley and Skelly, 1997). It is also viewed by some as a means

42
to apply constructivist learning theory and to create garden-based interdisciplinary

educational units (DeMarco, 1997).

In regards to school gardening experiences within Canada, literature is limited

and tends to be descriptive and narrative in nature (Pennington, 1994; Bell 2001a; Bell

2001b; Houghton, 2003; Pevec, 2003). The book, A Breath of Fresh Air: Celebrating

Nature and School Gardens published in 2003 beautifully presents an array of school

gardening projects taking place in Toronto (Houghton, 2003). In addition, Grounds for

Learning: Stories and Insights from Six Canadian School Ground Naturalization

Initiatives published by the Evergreen Foundation highlights a group of diverse and

innovative gardening projects across Canada (Bell, 2001a).

The following provides a summary of research studies investigating benefits

gained by students active in school gardening programs. Researchers Eames-Sheavly

(1994), Pevec (2003) and Midden and Chamber (2000) reported that school gardens

provide students an opportunity to learn horticultural techniques, as well as the origins of

food, medicine and cultural traditions. Studies conducted by Nagata and Raid (1998), as

well as, Lineberger and Zajicek (2000) concluded that vegetable gardens in schools

aided nutrition curriculum and are an effective educational tool in enhancing nutrition

knowledge and nutritional attitudes of elementary students. Additional studies by Morris

et al. (2000 and 2001) emphasized the role school gardens play in developing healthy

lifestyles, diet and nutrition and food preparation.

Research by Waliczek (1997) found students self-esteem, confidence and pride

increased with school gardening. Increased respect, knowledge and appreciation for

Nature amongst students are further benefits associated with school gardening (Midden

and Chambers, 2000; Skelly and Zajicek, 1998). Studies conducted by Skelly and

Bradley, (2000) and Wagner and Fones (1999) examined the benefits of hands-on

experience in school gardens and found instruction of traditional subjects including math,

43
language arts and science were enhanced, and a diversity of skills gained including

student responsibility and co-operation. Additional studies found school gardens to be

effectively incorporated into multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary curriculum (Luera and

Hong, 2003; Marturano, 1995; Skelly and Zajicek, 1998). As Moore (1995) states,

As a vehicle for interdisciplinary environmental education, gardens are

unsurpassed. This is because they are constantly changing, highly attractive,
interactive, motivational setting-a fertile source of language and scientific
investigation (p. 230).

The ability of school gardening to provide opportunities for kinesthetic and active

learning is documented by Federico (2001). She also described a variety of school

gardening programs originating from the project “Kids Growing Food” presently run by

New York Agriculture in The Classroom at Cornell University. One example of this is,

an “after-school reading program” based on a school garden in which the students learn

to read with the use of “gardening” books and activities in the garden. Also referenced is

an inner city elementary school that makes use of a garden in an abandoned lot to teach

world cultures, history and literacy.

A number of studies identified the barriers and challenges faced by those wishing

to integrate school gardening within the curriculum. DeMarco (1997) highlights several

factors under the categories of logistical, conceptual, educational and attitudinal that

impact the successful use of school gardening. Results from surveys indicated, “The

most essential factors were a person, or persons, who take on the responsibility for the

gardening program, the availability of a site to grow plants, and adequate funding for

gardening materials.” While interview results indicated, “Student ownership of the

gardens and the integration of school gardening into the curriculum…” were most

important. Additional influential factors identified included a “lack of preparation time for

school gardening activities” and “lack of instructional time for learning using school

gardening” (pp137-138).

44
 In 2001 a number of ‘Growing Schools Initiative’ consultation seminars attended

by the education community were conducted throughout England to identify those

factors that might hinder the success of school gardening projects. Factors identified as

most troublesome included: issues of health and safety, in particular foot and mouth

disease outbreaks; shortages of skilled teaching staff to deliver activities and to make

the most of all learning opportunities; bureaucracy of present school curriculum;

obsession with good grades; and success often reliant on one person’s

enthusiasm/dedication. Additional limiting factors included: lack of funding and other

resources, demands of maintaining farm or allotment, current pressures in teaching and

lack of experience/confidence in farming and growing, and a National curriculum too

restrictive (Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens, 2003). Interestingly

these limitations are very similar to those highlighted in 1916 by Jarvis in Gardening in

Elementary City Schools.

The needs of teachers using school gardening as a pedagogical tool was

investigated by several studies. In a National Gardening Association survey of nearly

one million elementary teachers in North America, over 50% stated their interest in

introducing gardening in schools to enrich the curriculum. In addition 78% of teachers

stated that they already garden at home (Gywnn, 1988). In a study conducted in the

state of Virginia by Dobbs et al. (1998), 88% of elementary school teachers expressed

an interest in introducing horticulture or school gardening, as a teaching strategy to

satisfy Virginia’s curriculum requirements. Teachers in this study stated that teacher

resources, lesson plans, audiovisual materials, volunteer support and workshops to

integrate school gardening within the curriculum were the greatest need and essential to

increasing school garden use among teachers. As a result of this study a course called

“Integrating Horticulture into the Elementary School Curriculum” was created at Virginia

Tech University. In addition, teacher workshops and fact sheets highlighting ways a

45
garden can be used to meet curriculum guidelines were also developed (Dobbs et al.,

1998).

A comprehensive review of Gardens in Every School Survey published in 2000

by the University of Massachusetts, questionnaires of participants of Growing Minds

Through School Gardens Conference in 2001, and mini-grant applications to

Massachusetts Agriculture in the Classroom from 1995 to 2001 also identified the needs

of teachers interested in school gardening. These needs included hands-on and easy to

use activities, garden related ideas and activities, activities that show connections,

opportunity and means to network with other teachers, sources of grant funding,

classroom community building and life skills, workshops and professional development.

(Massachusetts Agriculture in the Classroom, 2003). In response to the University of

Massachusetts review, a report was compiled on potential initiatives to assist teachers,

and presented to the Board of Directors of Massachusetts Agriculture in the Classroom

to aid in future planning of school gardening programs. Curriculum frameworks, a

listserv for school gardeners, a guide for school-community-business partnerships,

school gardening grants, a school garden institute, yearly/bi-yearly conferences on

school gardening, and school garden award recognition were among the ideas

proposed.

The focus of teacher resources regarding school gardening is often to assist the

teacher in becoming more knowledgeable of gardening activities and to provide detailed

information, steps and guidelines for them to follow. This could be very beneficial in one

sense, but it can also take away from the development of personal connections and the

learning process of both the student and teacher. A number of studies acknowledged

teachers’ apprehension in not being able to answer all questions asked by students as a

barrier to integrating school gardening activities (Midden and Chambers, 2000).

However as Midden and Chamber found (2000), “In cases where a teacher did not

46
know the answer, researching the topic with the child became a shared activity” (p. 390).

Strict guidelines and book-centred activities prevent constructive learning by teachers

and students and reduce authentic personal experiences and involvement. Educational

resources can in fact put more onus on teachers. When in fact, it should be the student,

in collaboration with other students and the teacher, who needs to do the work, and in

the process learn from it (Courtenay-Hall, 1998; Wigginton, 1986).

Ethnobotany is an investigation into people’s relationships to plants. As an

academic discipline, it explores cultural uses and views of plants and is interdisciplinary

in nature. Plants are a basic need of humans. Research studies linking ethnobotany

with school gardening are limited. However, documented throughout the literature are a

few examples of gardens, activities or programs that have integrated them. Pevec

(2003) Ethnobotanical Gardens: Celebrating the Link Between Human Culture and the

Natural World is a great example of a school gardening program that connects a

community in an exploration of its history, culture and ecology. Also Thibault (1994)

discussed the use of a school garden as a means to explore culture and geography with

students. This is achieved through student involvement in planning the garden including

choosing the seeds and researching festivals and celebrations. She also discussed the

ability of multiethnic gardens to “bridge communities” within urban settings regardless of

language barriers through incorporation of parents and community members in

gardening activities. The gardens provided opportunity for insight and reflection on local

and world cultures and the environment observed through the perspective of food.

“Schoolyard gardening offers students a hands-on opportunity to expand their

awareness and deepen their understanding of how the peoples of the world go about

meeting these basic needs” (Thibault, 1994 p. 15).

The garden as described by Gwynn (1988) provided “an opportunity to teach

children about different cultures” (p. 23) and to reflect upon the multiethnic make-up of

47
the school and community. The Three Sisters Garden is an example of a garden theme

that has been incorporated into educational curriculum. The three sisters garden,

based on a Native American legend, involves the planting of three crops, typically corn,

beans and squash together in a circular formation (Sustainability Education Center,

2001). Garden designs such as these provide opportunity for dialogue on culture and

tradition, as well as an exploration of horticulture techniques and symbiotic relationships

in Nature. In addition, an ethnobotanical garden allows students to observe and reflect

upon the significance of living within the limits of a local environment.

Learning to live in tune with Nature is a concept expressed by countless Nature

writers and environmental education scholars in response to an ever-increasing reliance

on technology and sophisticated transportation systems which is causing disconnection

between habitants and habitats, and a loss of local knowledge about plants and their

uses. As in the words of Pevec (2003) “Planting a vegetable garden, caring for it, and

harvesting its fruits offers students opportunities to participate in natural cycles and in

harvest festivals, ceremonies as ancient as human agriculture on Earth” (p. 26).

Ethnobotanical gardens offer students an opportunity to reflect on what they eat, what

they wear, why they celebrate certain festivals, where they live and how the things they

use were made. It also provides an opportunity for students to gain insight into different

world perspectives and human interrelationships with the natural world.

The design of school gardens from a landscape architecture perspective is the

focus of several research studies. A common remark repeated in literature on school

garden design is the need for student involvement in all stages of the development of the

garden (Hart, 1994). Students’ ideas and interests are often not taken to heart by

educators and architects who assume they know best. In all fairness, the links between

education objectives and design concepts are not easily visible (Sebba and Churchman,

1986). However, a garden designed to embrace students’ desires is a garden most

48
likely to meet their needs (Lucas 1995; Whiren, 1995). Interestingly, Lucas (1995) points

out in “Learning Through Landscapes“ that there is a difference in students’ response to

specific school garden design questions depending upon the manner in which the

questions are posed. Furthermore, he recommends that students be asked the

question, “what would you like to do in a school garden?” rather than “what do you want

in the garden?” because a response to the latter question is more likely to be based on

consumerism desires.

Heffernan (1994) states that the garden design should allow children to “directly

experience more of the sights, smells, sounds, textures, tastes, cycles and mysteries of

nature.” (p. 225), a view held by many who create gardens for children. Located on the

Michigan State University campus is a half-acre plus 4-H Children’s Garden comprised

of 60 theme gardens including the “sense-ational” herb garden, the cloth and color

garden, enchanted garden, the perfume garden, the pharmacy garden, and the pizza

garden, to name a few (Taylor, 1994). When asked, “children requested no “NO” signs in

the garden” (Taylor, 1994, p. 24) and thus gardens were created with signs saying,

”please gently touch”.

Sebba and Churchman (1986) published a paper called Schoolyard Design As

An Expression of Educational Principles. In it they state,

In existing schools, the yard should complement the building, to allow the
implementation of educational principles difficult to achieve in the built context-
free social organization, experience in movement, play and contact with nature in
an open environment (Sebba and Churchman, 1986, p. 75).

Unfortunately, schoolyards typically remain empty and neglected, as they are not often

considered part of the school environment, regardless of the principles and philosophies

of the school curriculum. In a way, this illustrates how in a fragmented society, the

philosophy of the school curriculum does not even extend to the school grounds.

49
Findings: School Gardening in Ontario

During the Winter of 2004, several interviews - in person, by telephone or by

email - were conducted with school principals, teachers, volunteers and staff of “school

greening” organizations. All interviewees were actively involved in school gardening

initiatives in Ontario. This included two elementary school principals and one secondary

school teacher in suburban Toronto and Ottawa and downtown Toronto as well as one

volunteer and two staff members of two “school greening” organizations in Toronto and

Ottawa. School size varied from 300 students to close to 1000 students.

A questionnaire (Appendix B) was provided prior to the interview as a guide for

the semi-structured interviews, but questions on additional related topics were generated

during the interviews. According to grounded theory methodology, the responses from all

interviews were analyzed to identify common themes. The following is a summary of the

data collected during these interviews.

It was noted that all participants interviewed were very enthusiastic about school

gardening. Both of the principals and the teacher interviewed were instrumental in the

development of the garden project at their schools. With the exception of one, none of

the interviewees had a formal education in horticulture or landscape architecture. The

vegetable gardens were in general part of much larger “school greening” projects. One

school included a permaculture garden. Permaculture, “permanent agriculture” a term

coined by Bill Mollison is,

"the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystem,

which have the diversity, stability and resilience of a natural ecosystem"
(Permaculture, March 22, 2004).

Additional greening activities included wildflower and butterfly gardens, a peace

garden, a winter garden, composting areas, a circular outdoor teaching classroom, a

mini pond aerated by solar panels, groves of trees and even a chicken coop. The

vegetable gardens were relatively small in size and were located in close proximity to the

50
school building, and in one case, situated in a central courtyard. Questions were

targeted towards the use of school vegetable gardens, however answers often reflected

the more encompassing project visions. While some projects had been in existence for

10 or more years, two in particular had begun in 1999 as “Millennium projects” with an

environmental theme. However, all gardens, and projects reflected a dynamic and ever-

evolving nature.

School garden activities included silent reading, observation, exploration,

meditation, art and science curriculum, environmental education and the history and

origins of food. In one school, the school garden was integrated with the grade two and

three curriculum on food and nutrition. Student involvement was encouraged in all

stages of the design, development and maintenance of the gardens. However, the use

of the school vegetable garden was sporadic with the greatest activity occurring during

the planting season. Multicultural education was not a theme of any of the vegetable

gardens discussed.

An increase in student awareness of nutrition and food production, an

appreciation for plant life, an increase in student self-worth and recognition of their

achievements, a sense of responsibility to the Earth, community support and pride and

cleaner air were all noted as benefits of school gardening. Participants of the interviews

also mentioned several studies on the impact of schoolyard design and “greening” in

relation to noise reduction, shade, wildlife habitat and student behaviour. In reference to

the latter, a direct correlation between school grounds with grass versus black asphalt

and reduction in number of suspensions and fights was mentioned.

Additional benefits reflecting themes of holistic education included improvements

in student behaviour, an enhancement in student curiosity, spontaneity, and

observational skills (encouraged at one school with PA announcements) and the ability

of the gardens to meet a diversity of student needs and personalities. School gardens,

51
were seen to provide relevance to learning and to provide an environment conducive to

learning and in some cases as a teaching tool by which to integrate curriculum. In

addition, the school gardens provided opportunity for increased interaction between

students and their teachers and the Principal. Enhanced community spirit and

aesthetics of the natural environment were also mentioned as benefits of the school

garden. Connections among community members arose from the involvement of

parents, volunteers, students, Principal and teachers in garden maintenance, an

encouragement of older students who had graduated to return to visit the gardens, and

in one school in particular, the delivery of letters to residents who lived near the school

written by students about the gardening project.

Concerns or limitations acknowledged included the lack of integration of the

school garden in all subjects. In some cases, a trip to garden was seen as a separate

activity, and more of an excursion or break, from the learning occurring in the classroom.

In addition, issues pertaining to Canada’s short growing season, the lack of storage

facilities, the lack of funding opportunities, a shortage of time to meet mandated

curriculum guidelines, overworked teachers and staff and concerns of liability were

commented on.

Recommendations provided by the interviewees included: ensuring the garden

has the support of the Board, the Principal and the teachers; ensuring the involvement of

students in all stages of garden design; and establishing a gardening group or

committee that will stick with the project. An additional recommendation included the

hiring of a part-time gardener/instructor to look after the garden, to boost creativity and

imaginative ideas, and to assist teachers and students to make connections between

subjects, cross-disciplinary themes and personal experiences.

Chapter Summary

52
 In Chapter four, a historical perspective is presented of the interest in school

gardening during the last four centuries. A summary of research studies on school

gardening is provided. Highlighted are the benefits gained by students active in school

gardening projects including increased self-esteem, confidence, nutrition and agriculture

awareness, and an appreciation for Nature. In addition, barriers and challenges such as

lack of funding and time constraints and the needs of educators including activities that

show connections and opportunities to network are presented. Interestingly, many of the

strengths and weaknesses of school gardening and the needs of the educators identified

in the early 1900’s are the same of those acknowledged today. What is new is the

interest, of a few, in the use of ethnobotanical gardens at schools. By integrating the

academic discipline of ethnobotany with the practical use of a school garden, it provides

an opportunity for teachers and students to investigate the material, medicinal, nutritional

and spiritual use of plants and to explore a diversity of world cultures and perspectives.

Also identified are several studies on the importance of student involvement in garden

design conducted by researchers in the field of landscape architecture. Findings from

the case study conducted in Ontario during the Winter of 2004 supported the literature

that school gardens provide opportunities for holistic learning. However, as mentioned

by several participants, there was a lack in integration of school gardening within

curriculum as a whole.

53
 Chapter 5: Discussion and Final Reflections

Discussion

School gardening is certainly not a new concept. Educators have promoted it for

centuries and its strengths and weaknesses are well documented. School gardening

provides an opportunity for students to learn about local food production, and enhance

their nutrition. It provides an opportunity for them to gain an appreciation for Nature, its

diversity and for the ecological and cultural diversity within their communities. School

gardening also provides opportunities for active learning and enhanced instruction of

traditional subjects including science and language arts through hands-on learning. In

addition, through participation in school gardening projects, students’ self-esteem and

achievements are enhanced and student behaviour improved. School gardens provide

a place for youth and adults to grow as individuals and as a community and to conduct

themselves accordingly while respecting one another and the natural world that they

share. However, school gardening projects are also hampered by a lack of funding for

gardening resources, issues of health, safety and liability, garden maintenance

demands, a lack of teacher preparation time for school gardening activities and

restrictive curriculum guidelines.

In describing the mentality, way of life and education system found in Western

culture, fragmentation is a term used frequently by Nature writers and environmental

education scholars. In modern society the human world is often viewed as separate

from Nature. Fragmentation is readily observed within our schools, as knowledge is

divided arbitrarily into subjects, which are taught with little acknowledgement of each

other. In addition, much emphasis is placed on intellectual learning and reasoning with

little attention paid to intuition, experiences and connections between mind, body and

spirit. As students search for meaning and purpose, their needs are often not met in

54
traditional schools. An alternative education that is holistic in nature, that seeks to

develop the ‘whole’ child through a balanced and interrelated curriculum and celebrates

diversity in its teaching and learning approaches is required. I believe school gardening

can play a vital role in providing an education that meets the needs of students.

School gardening, typically viewed in terms of its strengths and weaknesses

could alternatively be viewed in relation to the opportunities it provides in the realization

of connections within education. School gardening is a process - a process of defining

connections. In the design and integration of a school garden, a transformation occurs

not just in the aesthetics of the school grounds, but also within the relationships of the

participating individuals. School gardening provides an opportunity to focus on

connections within Self, subjects, community and Nature. It is a place of discovery,

exploration and imagination where the diversity of intelligences, abilities and

personalities of each and every student can be acknowledged. It is a place where

connection between mind, body and spirit can be made. In addition, it provides an

opportunity for students and teachers to reflect upon the interrelatedness of disciplines

and a means by which to integrate school subjects through themes such as food and

food production. School gardening provides an opportunity for the incorporation of

hands-on learning and authenticity in classroom instruction. It also provides opportunity

for the enhancement of connections within the educational community including

connections between ‘students’, ‘students and teachers’ and ‘students and society’.

Connections enhanced through dialogue and the sharing of ideas, experiences,

worldviews, and emotions. School gardens also provide the opportunity to create or

uncover the human-Nature connection through an enriched understanding of the

importance of plants in meeting our daily desire including spiritual, material, nutritional

and medicinal needs. School gardening can provide an opportunity for all of this and

more, if viewed in terms of connections.

55
Final Reflections

My major paper is an account of the journey taken to integrate past experiences,

educational philosophies, and diverse disciplines in search of an answer. Due to the

constructivist approach that formed the theoretical framework of this paper, the journey

entailed a process whereby prior knowledge was transformed. I started my Masters with

the idea of identifying the factors that determined the success or failure of a school

garden in part driven by a desire to understand my own experiences with school

gardening projects. As I embarked on an exploration of the literature on school

gardening, I also began to examine and reflect upon my own philosophies of education,

as both a student and a high school teacher, spurred by dialogue with colleagues and

professors. I came to realize that my own beliefs and ideas and my approaches to

education whether it was as a student or educator were similar to those of holistic

education.

The concepts of holistic education including hands-on learning, authenticity,

connections, dialogue, integrated curriculum, multiple intelligences and the learning

process were all themes that I identified within my own practices and beliefs. Thus, I

began to see school gardening in a new light. Maybe the success or failure of a school

gardening project was not as important as the actual process taken by those involved in

its design and integration. The concept of connections became my focus and I began to

wonder about the role school gardening plays in either creating or unveiling such

connections. And thus my question for my major paper became: Can the design,

development and integration of school gardening in school curriculum provide a means

in which to achieve holistic education? The answer I found in short was yes, and my

major paper is a testimony to it.

56
 My interest in world cultures, my love of plants and my advocacy for agriculture

and environmental awareness lead me to an investigation of people-plant connections.

And more specifically, to the academic disciplines of ethnobotany, human issues in

horticulture, landscape architecture and environmental education. I wanted to bridge

together these diverse disciplines to create a more thorough picture of the school

gardening phenomenon. However, much like Drake et al. (1992), I too struggled with

the process of integration. But through analysis and aided by dialogue with friends and

colleagues, connections emerged. I moved from a multidisciplinary focus (Figure 3 and

4), where the disciplines remained separate but linked by a common theme to an

interdisciplinary focus (Figure 5 and 6). In the process I sketched numerous diagrams

as I explored the various modes of connection.

Figure 3: Sketch 1 Figure 4: Sketch 2

People - Plant People - Plant Landscape

Connections Connections Architecture

Holistic Landscape School

Education Education Architecture Gardening

Holistic Relationship
School Education Connections
Gardening

57
Figure 5: Sketch 3 Figure 6: Sketch 4

Self
Self Community

School Nature Connection Subject

Gardening

Nature Subject Community

Eventually, I arrived at a transdisciplinary focus and my model of the

“Connections within Education” (Figure 7). In a transdisciplinary integrated curriculum

the disciplines do not exist on their own but become unified through a theme or activity

where content and objectives become one and the same. In my case, the theme of

connections, the activity of school gardening, and the philosophies and perspectives of

the various disciplines became one. School gardening, in my belief, provides the

opportunity for the realization of connections within Self, subjects, community and the

natural world while achieving additional components of holistic education theory and

practice.

Figure 7: Connections within Education

Nature

Community

Subject

Self

58
 Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion

My major paper explored theorists, themes and concepts of holistic education

and the school gardening movement in North America. In particular, it examined school

gardening as an educational tool and its relationship to holistic education theory and

practice. In the process three distinct disciplines were examined each with their own

perspective on people-plant connections and more broadly the human-Nature

connection. The potential for school gardens to achieve the themes and concepts of

holistic education and provide opportunity for the realization of connections within Self,

subjects, community and Nature was supported by the literature and case study findings.

Food and food production were identified in the literature as topics, relevant to

youth that provided a framework from which to integrate school subjects. Specifically,

ethnobotanical gardens illustrated a means by which to integrate school subjects

through an exploration of plant use in different cultures. Additionally, ethnobotanical

gardens provided an opportunity for students and teachers to examine differing

worldviews and gain a better understanding of the significance of plants to humans.

However, it appears that the integration of subjects through school gardening projects is

less than it could be.

In conclusion, school gardening in theory and practice can provide an opportunity

for individuals and communities to form connections within Self, subjects, community

and Nature and find meaning and purpose in a fragmented society.

59
Recommendations

The following are recommendations that arose from my research. The

recommendations are divided into two sections with the first section pertaining to future

research and the second section pertaining to school garden use.

For Further Research

As an exploratory study, my major paper provides a foundation for further

research. A much broader and in depth study that investigates school gardening

projects over several seasons allowing for observations of gardening activities

throughout the school year is needed. In addition a study that interviews multiple

individuals at each school including teachers, the Principal and students is

recommended. A study that targets students and explores the benefits that they feel

that they have most gained through their involvement in school gardening projects would

also be beneficial. Results from such a study could be compared to the findings in the

study of Russell and Burton (2000) on student perceived benefits from their participation

in a grade 12 environment education program, as highlighted in Chapter three. A study

that explores teachers’ use of school gardens in regards to curriculum integration and

examines their perception of a school garden in relation to their daily teaching activities

would be beneficial. Specific questions could also investigate the use of themes such as

food, food production and multiculturalism with respect to school gardening and the role

the themes play in integrating curriculum. In addition a study that compares school

gardening projects at holistic education schools, such as the Waldorf or Montessori

schools, with school gardening projects at traditional schools, would provide needed

knowledge on whether school garden use reflects individual school philosophies.

60
For School Gardening Initiatives

 It is recommended that the school garden be promoted as a vehicle by which to

integrate curriculum through such themes as food and food production.

 It is recommended that a school gardening project not be regarded in terms of its

success or failure, but in terms of the learning process experienced by those involved.

 It is recommended that students are involved in all stages of garden development.

 It is recommended that the emphasis of school gardening use be placed on the

realization of connections within Self, subjects, community, and Nature.

 It is recommended that the school gardening project be seen as dynamic and evolving,

as changes occur within the education community consisting of parents, students,

teachers, the Principal, and community members.

 It is recommended that the school garden be symbolic of the philosophy of the school.

 It is recommended that a gardening assistant be hired to assist students and teachers

in realizing connections within Self, subjects, community and Nature, to enhance

creativity and imagination and to help in maintenance of the school garden.

 It is recommended that the school garden be looked upon as a place of discovery,

exploration, spontaneity, sharing, dialogue, play and where different worldviews,

perspectives, abilities and intelligences are celebrated.

61
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 Appendix A

No Way. The Hundred Is There.

The child
is made of one hundred.
The child has
a hundred languages
a hundred hands
a hundred thoughts
a hundred ways of thinking
of playing, of speaking
A hundred always a hundred
ways of listening
of marvelling of loving
a hundred joys
for singing and understanding
a hundred worlds
to discover
a hundred worlds
to invent
a hundred worlds
to dream.
The child has
a hundred languages
(and a hundred hundred hundred more)
but they steal ninety-nine.
The school and the culture
separate the head from the body.
They tell the child:
to think without hands
to do without head
to listen and not to speak
to understand without joy
to love and to marvel
only at Easter and Christmas.
They tell the child:
to discover the world already there
and of the hundred
they steal ninety-nine.
They tell the child:
that work and play
reality and fantasy
science and imagination
sky and earth
reason and dream
are things
that do not belong together.

69
And thus they tell the child
that the hundred is not there.
The child says:
No way. The hundred is there.
Loris Malaguzzi,
translated by Lella Gandini

(White Oak School, 2002)

70
 Appendix B

Valerie’s School Gardening Questions

My name is Valerie Green. I am a graduate student in Rural Extension Studies at the

University of Guelph. For my major paper, I am exploring the phenomenon of school
gardening in southern Ontario. Prior to beginning my Masters in the Fall of 2003, I was
a high school teacher of Spanish, ESL, Agriculture and Biology. I have also participated
in a number of school gardening and environmental education projects in Canada and
Internationally.

My research objective for my Masters is to examine the role of school gardening as an

educational tool, and its relationship to holistic curriculum.

If you agree to participate in the research study your identity will remain confidential.
You may refuse to answer specific questions and at anytime you may withdraw your
consent to participate in the research study. Your participation is however greatly
appreciated.

Valerie Green
M Sc. Candidate
University of Guelph

Information on Participant

-Gender

-University Degrees?

-Specialization while at University?

-Subject and Grades Taught

-Size and Location (Urban/Rural) of the School

Specific Questions

1. Describe the school garden at your school.

71
2. How and why did you become involved in the school garden (e.g. was it assigned to
you or did you volunteer and/or originate it)?

3. What role does the school garden play in relation to your daily lesson plans and
teaching practices?

4. In your school garden lesson plans do you incorporate themes such as the origins of
food and other historical and cultural uses of plants by humans? Discuss.

5. In your opinion have student attitudes and/or behaviour changed as a result of their
participation in the school gardening project?

6. What aspects of your teaching practices would you say reflect holistic education, if
any?

72
7. In your opinion has your involvement with the school garden altered your teaching
practices? For example, your interaction with the students, preparation of lesson
plans…

8. Do you see the integration of school gardens as challenging conventional teaching

practices or are they consistent with mainstream practices?

9. What do you see as the role of the school garden in the future?

10. Do you have any other comments about these issues, the relationship between
people and plants, school gardens and holistic education or anything else you would like
to discuss?

11. Would you like to receive a summary report of this Major Paper when it is
completed?

Thanks for your time and effort!

73
 Appendix C

School Gardening Resources

Agriculture in the Classroom State Contacts

http://ageducate.org/links/states_R-U.html

American Community Gardening Association

http://www.communitygarden.org/

British Columbia Agriculture in the Classroom

http://www.aitc.ca/bc/

Canadian Biodiversity Institute

http://www.biodiversityonline.ca/

Cities Feeding People, International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

http://network.idrc.ca/ev.php?URL_ID=5911&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=20

City Farmer: Urban Agriculture Notes

http://www.cityfarmer.org/

Cornell Educational Resource Program at the University of Cornell

http://cerp.cornell.edu/

Diane Relf, Department of Horticulture, Virginia Tech.

http://www.hort.vt.edu/HUMAN/human.html

Edible Schoolyard Garden, California

http://www.edibleschoolyard.org/gardenmanager/

European Federation of City Farm

http://efcf.vgc.be/index.html

Evergreen Foundation, Canada

http://www.evergreen.ca/en/resources/resources.html

Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens

http://www.farmgarden.org.uk/

FoodShare, Toronto, Ontario

http://www.foodshare.net/

Gator Gardening for Kids

http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/ggk/

Greening Canada’s School Grounds

http://www.treecanada.ca/programs/school/

74
Green Teacher
http://www.greenteacher.com/

Horticultural Therapy
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/hort/Hther/kids.htm

Junior Master Gardeners

http://www.jmgkids.com/

LifeCycles
http://www.lifecyclesproject.ca/

Los Angeles Unified School District Nutrition Network

http://www.lausdnutritionnetwork.org/

National Gardening Association

http://www.kidsgardening.com

Natural Learning Initiative, NC State University

http://www.naturalearning.org

National Wildlife Federation

http://www.nwf.org/

School Gardens: Articles/Planning/Lessons

http://www.esb.utexas.edu/nrm2001/food/articles.html

75
 Appendix D

Related Literature

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