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Mechanical properties
level).
Here;
F = applied load
D = diameter of ball (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
t = depth of impression (mm)
Example of the hardness number is "75 HB
10/500/30"
Upper hardness limit with Hardened steel ball is
500HB.
Tungsten carbide can be used up to ~650HB.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
This test utilizes the depth of indentation, under constant load,
as a measure of hardness.
Indenter
120 degree sphero-conical diamond indenter is used for
hard material.
Hardened steel ball indenter with diameter of
1/16,1/8,1/4.1/2 inch.
WWW.07MET.TK
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
A minor of load of 10kg is applied first to seat the sample.
The major load (60, 100, 150kg) is then applied and depth of
indentation is automatically recorded on a dial gage in terms of
arbitrary hardness numbers.
HR = E - e
ROCKWELL SCALES
There are 30 different scales
depending on the combination of
the indenter and the load.
64 HRC means RHN of 64 on
C- scale, (diamond indenter and
150 Kg major load)
100 HRB means RHN 100 on
B-scale (1/16 inch steel ball and
major load 100Kg )
81 HR 30 N means SHN 81 on
30 N-scale (30 N diamond
indenter and major load 30 Kg)
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Scale B and C are most
common.
Selection of scale depends
upon the type of material to be
tested.
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
It is a micro hardness tester and
used to measure hardness of soft
and hard materials alike,
particularly used for extremely hard
surfaces.
The surface is subjected to a
standard pressure ranging up to
approximately 1 to 120 kilograms-
force for a standard length of time
by means of a square based
diamond pyramid indenter. The
included angle between opposite
faces of the pyramid is 136o.
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
The size of the impression (usually no more than 0.5 mm) is
measured by measuring the lengths of diagonals, with the aid of a
calibrated microscope.
𝟐𝑷𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝟐 𝟏.𝟖𝟓𝟒𝑷
HV = =
𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐
Here;
P = applied load, kg
C = a constant
KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
TENSILE PROPERTIES
When a material of standard dimensions is subjected to an increasing
uniaxial tensile load, an engineering stress – strain curve can be
developed by load – extension measurements made on the test specimen.
The engineering stress (S) used in this stress-strain curve is the average
longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen. It is obtained by dividing the
load (P) by the original area of the cross section of the specimen (A0)
𝑷
𝑺=
𝑨𝒐
The engineering strain (e) used for the engineering stress-strain curve is
the average linear strain, which is obtained by dividing the elongation of
the guage length* of the specimen (δ) by its original length (L0)
𝜹 ∆𝑳 𝑳 − 𝑳𝒐
𝒆= = =
𝑳𝒐 𝑳𝒐 𝑳𝒐
*guage length: The distance along the specimen upon which extension
calculations are made.
Stress: it is basically the measure of
the internal forces that resist the deformation in
response to applied forces.
𝑳𝒇 − 𝑳𝒐
𝒆𝒇 =
𝑳𝒐
𝑨𝒐 − 𝑨𝒇
𝒒=
𝑨𝒐
Proportional Limit
It is the highest stress at which the stress is directly proportional to strain. It is
observed by the deviation from straight line of the curve
Stress – Strain Curve
Elastic Limit
It is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any
measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete release of
load.
Yield strength
It is the strength required to produce a small specified amount of
plastic deformation. It is measured at 0.2% or 0.5% of strain.
(strain = 0.002 or 0.005).
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
It is maximum stress that the material can bear in tensile testing
before the necking starts.
Breaking strength
The stress at which the material is fractured is called its breaking
strength.
Necking
After UTS, the cross-sectional area begins to decrease in a
localized region of the specimen, instead of over its entire
length. This is called necking.
Resilience
The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed
elastically and to return it when unloaded is called resilience. This
property usually is measured by the modulus of resilience.
Toughness
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the
plastic range.
Comparison of Stress – Strain Curves
DUCTILE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE IN TENSILE
TESTING