Fire

Protection
Module 1
Engineering
Knowing the fire
Principles
 Characteristics of the
Fire Plumes
• Height of flames
• Plumes
temperatures and
Content velocities
• Entrainment air into
the fire plume
• Rise of plume front
• Horizontal flame jets
Fire plume
Smoke zone

Intermittent
flame zone

Persistent flame
zone
 The fire plume of a gas pool (2.43 m in diameter). The arrows indicate the air
drag inside the plume. This drag provides the oxygen needed for combustion,
but also dilutes and cools fire products, thus increasing smoke production.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-fire-plume-of-a-gasoline-pool-243-m-diameter-72-The-arrows-indicate-the_fig5_337101866
 Flame height

Intermittent
flame zone
2
L  0.235Q
•
5
 1.02 D (m)
•
Q Flame height
Continuous
flame zone Where 50% of the
time persists

Lozano & Asociados 5

 Works out?
The heat generation rate for
gasoline per unit area is 2400
kW/m2
(Principles of Fire Behavior, James G. Quintiere)

Tray diameter 2.43 m.

 D2  (2.43) 2
A   4.64 m 2
4 4

Q  A  q  4.64  2400  11.136 kW

2
L  0.235Q 5
 1.02 D (m) L=0.235(11.136) 2/5  1.02(2.43)  7.29 m

L = 7.29 m
Lozano & Asociados 6
Is the result reasonable?
2.43

2.43 7.29

2.43

Lozano & Asociados 7

 Virtual origin of gas plume

Outline

Air
Air Air

Air

Point of the origin of Virtual source of power

power generation. generation. When heat
generation is not a point

Lozano & Asociados 8

Characteristics of the gas plume

Entrainment
airflow
Speed
profile

Flames

Lozano & Asociados 9

 The virtual origin of the plume
2
Z 0  0.083Q 5
 1.02 D  m
Z
Gas temperature and velocity in the
center of the plume
Tg ΔT0=Tg-T∞

 C, K 
2 5
U0 T0  25Qc 3
 Z  Z0  3 0 o

Air T∞ 1 1
U 0  1.03Qc 3
 Z  Z0  3
m / s
Qc is the convective heat rate in kW

L Qc  X r Q X r  0.6 a 0.8

Z0 There are negative Z0 values for low HRR fires

and large diameters. Positive values are often
D Virtual Origin found in high heat release fires.

G Heskestad, SFPE Handbook Lozano & Asociados 10

 The virtual origin
You want to know the virtual origin of the flames of a fire 1.5 m
in diameter of methyl alcohol that generates 500 kW/m2.

Let's get to know the fire first, determine the heat release rate and then
the average height of the flames:
   (1.5) 2
Z Q  A q   500  884 kW
4
2
L  0.235Q 5
 1.02 D (m)
2.02 m

Ø 1.5 m
L  0.235(884) 2/5  1.02(1.5)  2.02 m
-0.28 m 2
Z 0  0.083Q 5
 1.02 D  m
Origen virtual
2
Z 0  0.083(884) 5  1.02(1.5)   0.28 m

Lozano & Asociados 11

 The virtual origin
You want to know the virtual origin of the flames of a fire 1.5 m
in diameter of heptane that release 2500 kW/m2.
Let's get to know the fire first, determine the heat generation rate and
then the average height of the flames:

Z
   (1.5) 2
Q  A q   2500  4420 kW
4
2
L  0.235Q 5
 1.02 D (m)

Ø 1.5 m
0.85 m L  0.235(4420)2/5  1.02(1.5)  5.21 m
2
Virtual origin Z 0  0.083Q 5
 1.02 D m
2
Z 0  0.083(4420) 5  1.02(1.5)  0.85 m

Lozano & Asociados 12

 Entrainment air
me  0.071Qc1/3 ( Z  Z 0 )5/3  1  0.027Qc2/3 (Z  Z 0 )5/3 
Z (Hosser 2013, Kucera 2009, Heskestad 1984.)

For Z values above the

Tg flames
Air me a T∞
U0

The mass flow at a particular

elevation is assumed to be
entirely due to entrainment
L air by the low contribution of
the fire itself.
Z0
D Virtual Origin

G Heskestad, SFPE Handbook Lozano & Asociados 13

Let's follow the example!
2
Z 0  0.083Q 5
 1.02 D  m
Z0  0.083(11.136) 2/5  1.02(2.43)  0.971 m

Gas temperature and velocity in the

center of the plume

 C, K 
2 5
T0  25Qc 3
 Z  Z0  3 0 o

Z0
1 1
U 0  1.03Qc 3
 Z  Z0  3
m / s

Qc  0.7  Q  0.7 11.136  7795.2 kW

Lozano & Asociados 14

Can we know the temperature and velocity
of the gases at 15 m high?

 C, oK 
2 5
T0  25Qc 3
 Z  Z0  3 0

1 1
U 0  1.03Qc 3
 Z  Z0  3
m / s
Qc  0.7  Q  0.7  11.136  7795.2 kW

15 m

 120.4  0C , o K 
2 5
T0  25(7795.2) 3
15  0.971 3

1 1
U 0  1.03(7795.2) 3
15  0.971 3
 8.47  m / s 
30.5 km/h
Z0  0.971 m

Lozano & Asociados 15

Calculation of entrainment air
me  0.071Qc1/3 ( Z  Z 0 )5/3  1  0.027Qc2/3 (Z  Z 0 )5/3 
Z (Hosser 2013, Kucera 2009, Heskestad 1984.)

For Z values above the

Tg flames
Air me a T∞
U0

The mass flow at a particular

elevation is assumed to be
entirely due to air
L ientrainment by the low
contribution of the fire itself.
Z0
D Origen Virtual

G Heskestad, SFPE Handbook Lozano & Asociados 16

 Calculation of entrainet airflow
at a height of 15 m
me  0.071Qc1/3 ( Z  Z 0 )5/3  1  0.027Qc2/3 (Z  Z 0 )5/3 
Z
Qc  7795.2 kW
Tg Z0  0.971 m
me  0.071(7795.2)1/3 (15  0.971)5/3 
U0
[1  0.027(7795.2)2/3 (15  0.971)5/3 ]
Aire me me  129.84 kg/s
a T∞
The mass flow at a particular
L elevation is assumed to be
entirely due to the induced air.
Z0 Given the little more
D contribution of the fire itself.
Origen Virtual

G Heskestad, SFPE Handbook Lozano & Asociados 17

 Rise of plume front

Measurements made by Professor Tanaka

of the rise time of the front of the plume
for a stable state fire have been
represented by Heskestad in the
following formula:

z
t R*  0.46
t R*  [ g / (C pT  )]1/3 Qc1/3 z 4/3t R

Lozano & Asociados 18

 Rise of plume front
Let's look at an example:
A fire of 100 kW, determine the time it
took to reach the front of hot gases at a
height of 30 m.

t R*  0.46
t R*  [ g / (C pT   )]1/3 Qc1/3 z 4/3t R
30 m
Despejando t R
t R  0.46[ g / (C pT   )]1/3 Qc1/3 z 4/3
C p  1 kJ/Kg.K T  2930 K   1.2 kg/m3
Q=100 kW QC  0.7x100= 70 kW

t R  0.46[9.81/ (1 293  1.2)1/3  701/3  304/3  34 s

Lozano & Asociados 19