315

12

Superabsorbent Fibers
Nuray Ucar and Burçak K. Kayaoğlu
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Textile Technologies and Design, Department of Textile Engineering,
Inonu Caddesi, No: 65, Gumussuyu, Beyoglu, Istanbul, 34437, Turkey

12.1 Introduction
Superabsorbent polymer (SAP) is a commodity product used in a variety of
industries over the last 30 years, from hygiene to filtration and from agriculture
to sportswear and food packaging [1]. These materials have added great value
to their product applications and improved the lives of millions of people every
day. They serve for holding and retaining extremely large volumes of water
and aqueous solutions inside, relative to its own mass [1–3]. Highly absorbing
polyelectrolyte polymer-based materials are able to absorb up to 50 g of fluid
per gram of dry mass; on the other hand, superabsorbent fibers can absorb 100
times its own weight in water [4].
As the population grows, the global demand for absorbent products increases
that triggers the growth in global SAPs market. According to Future Market
Insights’ report [5], by 2020, the value of global SAP market is projected to be
slightly over US$9 billion and reach 2,892,400 tons by volume. Another report
addresses the expected growth of global SAPs market to reach US$11.03 billion
by 2022. BASF SE, Nippon Shokubai, and Evonik Industries are the key
manufacturers of SAPs employing 51% of the production [6].
There are many ways to use SAPs such as SAP powder, SAP granule, and
SAP fiber. Among these, superabsorbent fiber can be handled easily during
processing and may have higher absorption speed than SAP powder/granule,
due to their fibrous shape. Thus, superabsorbent fiber can be transformed into
yarn to be knitted or woven in single or blended form with other fiber types in
order to meet end use expectations. Superabsorbent fiber can also be produced
in micro- or nanoscale that provides higher surface area, leading to improvement
in absorption and vapor transmission properties.

Handbook of Fibrous Materials, First Edition. Edited by Jinlian Hu, Bipin Kumar, and Jing Lu.
© 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
316 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

12.2 Overview of Superabsorbent Fibers

12.2.1 History of Superabsorbent Fibers
The first water-absorbent polymer was synthesized in 1938 by the thermal
polymerization of acrylic acid and divinylbenzene. In the 1950s, the hydrox-
yalkyl methacrylate-based hydrogels were manufactured, finding application in
contact lenses. In the 1970s, hydrolyzed starch-graft-polyacrylonitrile product
was produced as the first commercial SAP. Commercial production and uti-
lization of SAP in feminine napkins and baby diapers started in 1978 in Japan
and in 1980 in Germany and France, which was followed by Asian countries,
United States, and Europe. The worldwide production of SAP reached more
than 1 million tons in the late 1990s [7].
Besides the granular SAP, in the early of 1990s, ARCO Chemical developed
a superabsorbent fiber [8, 9]. In the 1993, Technical Absorbents in the United
Kingdom that was a joint venture between Allied Colloids and Courtaulds has
also been one of the manufacturers of Super Absorbent Fibre (OASIS SAF ) [8,
10–13]. Today, Technical Absorbents (TAL) is a subsidiary company of China
®
National BlueStar (Group) Company Limited, who in turn are wholly owned by
ChemChina [14].

12.2.2 Main Principle of Superabsorbency

SAPs are natural or synthetic cross-linked polyelectrolytes, comprising an insolu-
ble polymer matrix with about 96% water content, starting to swell upon contact
with water or aqueous solutions, resulting in a rubbery hydrogel formation
[15–17]. They can also be tailored to be soluble in water and other solvents [14].
SAPs are able to absorb up to several hundred times water per gram of SAP
[16, 18]. They are able to swell or shrink in aqueous solutions due to the asso-
ciation, dissociation, and binding of various ions to polymer chains. SAPs may
swell in water until an equilibrium state is reached and retain their original shape
[15, 16]. The cross-linking degree of SAP directly affects its mechanical strength,
total absorbency, and swelling degree. Low density cross-linked SAP has a soft
and cohesive gel formation with high absorbent capacity, whereas high density
cross-linked polymer shows a firmer gel formation with lower absorbent capacity
[1, 8].
Figure 12.1 shows a commercial cross-linked polyacrylic acid (PAA)-based
SAP, where negative carboxylate groups are partially neutralized with hydroxides
of alkali metals, usually sodium [3, 16, 17]. The main driving force responsible for
swelling of SAPs includes hydration due to the presence of hydrophilic chemical
groups such as –OH, –COOH, –CONH2 , –CONH–, and –SO3 H and capillary
areas and differences in osmotic pressure inside and outside the gel [15–17].
When a superabsorbent material comes in contact with water, hydration of
sodium ions reduce their attraction to the carboxylate ions and allow them to
move freely within the network, which increases the osmotic pressure within the
 12.2 Overview of Superabsorbent Fibers 317

Figure 12.1 SAP based on polyacrylic acid.

H2O
Na

H2O

COOH
COOH
H2O
Na COOH

Cross-linker

gel [1, 17]. The osmotic pressure is proportional to the concentration of ions in
SAPs [16].
The forces that make hydrogel dissolution impossible and help to maintain
superabsorbent material’s integrity or control the extent of swelling when wet are
the presence of cross-links between polymer chains forming a three-dimensional
network and hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions [15, 17, 19].
Hydrophilic sodium polyacrylate powder is able to absorb up to 800 times its
weight in distilled water and takes the form of a coiled chain (Figure 12.2). When
the polymer interacts with water, the sodium (Na) on its polymer chains detaches
from the carbonyl (COOH) group creating water-attracting carboxyl (COO− )
and sodium (Na+ ) ions. In the presence of water, due to repulsion between the
negatively charged carboxyl groups, the sodium polyacrylate chain uncoils and
generates a gel substance. The dry coiled SAP molecules form hydrogen bonding
during interaction with water, which leads to unfolding and extension of their
chains (Figure 12.2) [20].

SAP in a dry coiled

state

H2O H2O H2O H2O Expansion between SAP chains with

the presence of water

Figure 12.2 Schematic representation of the interaction of a dry superabsorbent polymer

with water.
318 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

Capillarity Diffusion Figure 12.3 Liquid sorption mechanism of a

superabsorbent textile-based product.
ic
ot re

Po
sm u

re
O ess

s
pr

Liquid
sorption

The liquid sorption capacity of superabsorbent textile-based products is con-

trolled not only by the diffusion of liquid into the superabsorbent fibers but also
transport to the pores between the fibers by capillary action [1, 21] (Figure 12.3).
When the solvent is water, hydrophilic interactions between water molecules
and hydrophilic groups of the superabsorbent material and electrostatic
interactions between ionic groups of an aqueous liquid and superabsorbent
material take place [1]. Nevertheless oil superabsorbent materials, based on
polyolefins, are oleophilic (oil attracting) and hydrophobic (water repellent). A
high oil absorption (up to 45 times of its weight) was reported for a polyolefin-
based oil SAP (oil-SAP) [22]. Since the superabsorbent material has affinity to
oil, during absorption, hydrophobic interactions occur between oil and fatty
liquid and the material [1].
Superabsorbent fibers are superior to conventional wood pulp and cotton linter
since they can absorb up to 50 times their mass in water; in turn, wood pulp and
cotton linter absorbents absorb approximately six times their mass in water. Their
small diameter, around 30 μm, and high surface areas allow these superabsorbent
fibers to typically absorb 95% of the ultimate capacity within 15 seconds [23, 24].
The textile-based superabsorbent products are commonly designed to absorb
and retain bodily fluids and exudates [1, 25, 26]. Under 0.5–7 kPa load, repre-
senting real-use conditions, swollen SAP particles in absorbent products were
reported to hold 20–50 g of body liquid per gram of SAP dry mass [19]. When
the absorbent products are worn next to the skin, superabsorbent materials help
to keep the skin dry, which is a necessity for comfort [3].
Das et al. [21] reported that useful combination of normal plus superabsorbent
materials is necessary to achieve enhanced liquid sorption property. Because as
the liquid diffuses into the superabsorbent fibers, since pore space is reduced due
to gel blocking [19] and extensive swelling of the fibers, the rate of liquid absorp-
tion is reduced, preventing further transport of liquid. Therefore Das et al. [21]
developed liquid-absorbent composite nonwoven media by combining superab-
sorbent fibers made from acrylic acid, methylacrylate, and a small quantity of
special acrylate/methylacrylate monomer, with normal polypropylene (PP) and
polyester fibers. It was reported that nonwovens produced by random mixing
of equal proportion of superabsorbent fibers and fine denier circular PP fibers
yielded highest sorption capacity and highest sorption rate [21]. Combination
of equal proportion of superabsorbent fibers and fine denier (2.5 den) PP fibers
compared to the combination of superabsorbent fibers and higher denier (6 den)
PP fibers resulted in higher liquid sorption capacity and rate [21]. As a result, bet-
ter sorption properties can be achieved by the use of finer fibers in the absorbent
 12.2 Overview of Superabsorbent Fibers 319

structure. It was also reported that the noncircular (trilobal and deep-grooved)
fibers displayed poorer sorption characteristics than the circular fibers [21].

12.2.3 Polymer Materials

SAPs are produced by free radical polymerization of partially neutralized
acrylic acid and/or other comonomers such as methacrylic acid, blended with
sodium hydroxide, in the presence of a suitable cross-linking agent such as N,N′ -
methylene bisacrylamide and 1,1,1-trimethylol-propane triacrylate or ethylene
glycol diacrylate [27]. Polyacrylamide copolymer, ethylene maleic anhydride
copolymer, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) copolymers are among different
examples of these polymers [20].
There are different polymerization techniques such as bulk polymerization,
solution polymerization, and inverse suspension polymerization. Among the
mentioned techniques, a high molecular weight polymer with high purity may
be obtained by bulk polymerization [27].
For the production of SAP, solution-based polymerization is most commonly
used, which is an efficient and low-cost method. In this method, a mass of reac-
tant polymerized gel is obtained from a water-based monomer solution. Then
the final granule size is obtained after chopping and drying processes. The sus-
pension process provides a good production control during polymerization step
where a water-based reactant is suspended in a hydrocarbon-based solvent [20].
Research groups have currently focused on producing SAPs from natural
polymers such as cellulose and starch by converting them into carboxymethyl
derivatives followed by structural cross-linking [4].
Among natural polymers, cotton, rayon, wood pulp are superabsorbent
by nature [1, 28]. These fibers may be chemically modified to render them
superabsorbent. Cotton fibers can be chemically modified, i.e. grafting with
acrylonitrite, to produce superabsorbent grafted cellulosic fibers. Absorbency
of rayon fiber was enhanced by introducing additives such as polyacrylic salt
and cellulose sulfates to spinning solution [4]. A superabsorbent material was
produced from pretreated flax yarn waste by grafting acrylic acid and acrylamide
(AM) by free radical graft copolymerization [29].

12.2.4 Production Methods

Besides in the form of powder, foil, or foam, superabsorbent materials are pro-
duced in the form of fibers. Superabsorbent fibers are commonly cross-linked
acrylic copolymers neutralized by a sodium salt [28].
Because of its fibrous shape, superabsorbent fiber can be mixed with other
fibers and can be easily processed through spinning, weaving, and nonwoven
technology, leading to better and easier processability compared with conven-
tional SAP powder and granules [30]. In some structures, it is also possible to
get 8–10 times higher absorption speed than the SAP powder/granules [31].
OASIS superabsorbent yarn (polyacrylate (copolymer superabsorbent)) which is
a type of superabsorbent fiber yarn has a specific gravity of 1.4 g/cm3 , a tenacity
320 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

Figure 12.4 Superabsorbent yarn (containing SAF) [14] (having a permission from Technical
Absorbents dated May 5, 2017). Source: Reproduced with permission from http://
techabsorbents.com/.

Figure 12.5 Swollen superabsorbent yarn (containing SAF) [14] (having a permission from
Technical Absorbents dated May 5, 2017). Source: Reproduced with permission from http://
techabsorbents.com/.

of 0.6–0.7 g/denier, and an elongation at break of 15–30% [32]. In Figures 12.4

and 12.5, superabsorbent yarn can be seen [14].
Superabsorbent fiber is mainly produced by two different ways, i.e. mixing the
superabsorbent material with hydrophobic/hydrophilic material or directly using
a SAP [33].

12.2.4.1 Mixing the Superabsorbent Material with Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic

Material
Some superabsorbent fibers could be obtained by mixing an SAP with any other
®
material. For example, Lanseal F has an outer layer with SAP and an inner layer
of acrylic fiber itself. Whet it contacts with water, outer surface (SAP) absorbs
water and swells (Figure 12.6) [34].
Beskisiz et al. [35] blended polyester staple fiber (PES) with superabsorbent
fiber to produce a knitted fabric. They have concluded that water absorption
performance of knitted fabric produced by blended yarn (superabsorbent fiber
and PES) changes slightly during repeated water absorption test. Although
dry cleaning treatment applied on the knitted fabric results in slight change
on water absorption performance, washing and drying treatments applied to
knitted fabric result in very dramatic change and decrease of water absorbance
performance.
 12.2 Overview of Superabsorbent Fibers 321

Acrylic
fiber SAP
(a)

Swollen
SAP
Acrylic
fiber

(b)

Figure 12.6 (a) Schematic representation of SAP-coated acrylic fiber. (b) After contact with
liquid.

Figure 12.7 “C” cross-sectional shape in which “C”-shaped

the outer surface is polypropylene (PP) and cross section
inner cavity is filled by superabsorbent powder. produced by PP

SAP powder

In one study, it has also been pointed out that as the percentage of SAP fiber
in the blend of PES and SAP fiber increases, the absorbent capacity (cm3 /g)
increases while the absorbency rate (cm3 /g-sec) decreases because of the
transverse diffusion of fluid in the fibers that leads to a reduction in forward
velocity and the swelling of fibers, resulting in a decrease of pore size in the
structure. However, an increase of saline concentration from 0% to 2% has an
opposite effect, i.e. the presence of saline causes a decrease of capacity and
increase of rate. The decrease of capacity has been explained by the reduction in
the coulombic repulsion in the polymer network, which limits the swelling and
penetration of fluid into the fiber [36].
Ucar et al. [37] produced a filament with “C” cross-sectional shape in which
the outer surface is PP and inner cavity is filled by superabsorbent powder
(Figure 12.7). It has been pointed out that the filament with SAP could absorb
water vapor due to the SAP filled into the cavity of C-shaped filament, while PP
at the outer surface provides dry feeling.
Eskin et al. [38] also studied on the “C”-shaped filament yarn whose outer layer
is consisted of a nonpolar polymer such as PP and maleic anhydride PP (MAPP)
and inner cavity is filled by a hydrophilic polymer such as superabsorbent
powder. Authors reported that the filament can absorb water (approximately
23%) because of SAP powder without creating any feeling of wetness due to the
hydrophobic polymer at the outer layer and completely dries in 20 minutes. The
water absorbance performance after washing and drying treatment could be
improved because of MAPP.
In these studies [37, 38], the theory was to absorb moisture and liquid into
SAP powder placed into cavity of C-cross-sectional-shaped filament that outer
surface of filament is hydrophobic polymer (Figure 12.8). Thus, while filament
absorbs liquid such as sweat, the skin that contacts with filament will not feel any
wetness.
322 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

SAP powder placed

into cavity of filament

Figure 12.8 C-cross-sectional-shaped filament bundle where cavity of filament was filled by
SAP powder.

12.2.4.2 Directly Using a Superabsorbent Polymer for Superabsorbent Fiber

Production
In textile industry, there are many ways to produce synthetic fiber such as
melt spinning, wet spinning, dry spinning, dry–wet spinning, etc. For micro-
superabsorbent fiber, dry spinning and wet spinning methods have been widely
used, while it is also possible to produce nano-superabsorbent fiber by the use of
an electrospinning technique.
In dry spinning that can have faster production rate than wet or melt spinning,
the polymer is dissolved in a volatile solvent, and after many times of filtering,
spinning solution is injected through spinneret holes into hot area/drying tower
where hot air or other hot gases can be used (Figure 12.9). Hot air evaporates
the solvent, leading to the solidification of filament (fiber). Before winding on a
take-up cylinder (drawing roller), filaments are drawn for improvement of ori-
entation and crystallization. Evaporated solvent is absorbed or condensed and
then recycled that can be costly. Solvent selection is very important with respect
to boiling point, toxicity, inertness, vaporization, and thermal stability. Nonpolar

Figure 12.9 Schematic representation of dry

spinning.
Polymer
solution

Spinneret
Solvent out

Drawing
roller
 12.2 Overview of Superabsorbent Fibers 323

Polymer
solution

Drawing
roller

Take-up
roller

Coagulation bath

Figure 12.10 Schematic representation of wet spinning.

solvent can be preferred for their low boiling point; however its use can be risky
due to building up of electrostatic charges [39, 40].
In wet spinning, the polymer that is dissolved in a nonvolatile solvent is injected
into a coagulation bath for solidification of filament/fiber (Figure 12.10). During
solidification steps, filament/fiber is also drawn in order to improve the orienta-
tion and crystallization. The solvent can then be recovered from wastewater in
coagulation bath; however this process can be costly [40].
One of the commercial Super Absorbent Fibre that belongs to Technical
Absorbents, UK, is called SAFTM and is produced by solution spinning technique
(Figure 12.11). It has been announced that SAF, which is a cross-linked

Figure 12.11 SAF by Technical Absorbents [14] (having a permission from Technical
Absorbents dated May 5, 2017). Source: Reproduced with permission from http://
techabsorbents.com/.
324 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

polyacrylate polymer, is produced by solution spinning through the water

evaporation. It has an ability to absorb up to 200 times its own weight in
water. SAF with approximately 1.4 g/ml density and 10 cN/tex tenacity with 5%
extensibility has a length range of 6–80 mm, a linear density range of 2–20 dtex,
15 minutes free swelling capacity of 60 g⋅g−1 in saline, and 200 g⋅g−1 in distilled
water and does not melt and decompose at a temperature higher than 200 ∘ C
[10, 14, 41].
There are several studies on superabsorbent fiber produced by wet spinning or
dry spinning technique. For example, Kim et al. [42] prepared superabsorbent
fiber based on sodium alginate using glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent.
Alginate that is dissolved in water and aged for 24 hours was extruded into
hydrochloric acid (HCl, 35%) coagulation bath in order to produce alginic acid
gel filament by wet spinning technique. The gel fiber was then placed in dioxane
solution containing glutaraldehyde and 0.1% HCl (35%) in order to cross-link,
decreasing the solubility. Then, it has been neutralized to increase an absorbency.
It has been pointed out that decrease of glutaraldehyde concentration up to a
certain concentration results to an increase of absorbency of alginate fibers in
synthetic urine solution and in saline solution.
Liu et al. [30] studied on acrylic-based superabsorbent fiber manufactured by
solvent spinning. It was observed that water absorbency of superabsorbent fiber
is affected by ionic valence, ion concentration, and pH values of saline solution.
Maximum absorbency of superabsorbent fiber is about 117 g⋅g−1 . An increase of
concentration of saline solution results to a decrease of absorbency, and maxi-
mum absorbency could be obtained in neutral solution.
Fei-Ming et al. [43] studied the absorption ability of PVA/PAA-AM-based
superabsorbent fibers. It has been reported that AM content affects the
absorption ability and a moderate amount of AM can improve the absorption
ability.
In addition to conventional micro-superabsorbent fiber production, it is
possible to produce nano-superabsorbent fiber by electrospinning. Because of
nanostructure with higher surface area leading to improvement in absorption
and vapor transmission properties, they can be used in various applications such
as food preservation, filtration, personal hygiene products, etc. [44].
At the electrospinning system (Figure 12.12), a polymer solution is subjected
to an electric field so that a charged jet of solution is ejected from the nozzle
of electrospinning system. The solvent evaporates during traveling of jets
through the air, resulting in solidified nanofibers (Figure 12.13) collected onto a
collector [44].
There are several studies on nano-superabsorbent fiber produced by elec-
trospinning system [44, 45]. For example, Islam et al. [45] produced nano-
superabsorbent fibrous web by using the natural polysaccharide pullulan
(PULL), PVA, and montmorillonite (MMT) clay and double distilled water
as a solvent. They have reported that these materials have greater environ-
mental and commercial values and low production cost together with better
biodegradability. During electrospinning, applied voltage was set to 15 kV, and
the distance between nozzle and aluminum foil collector was set to 15 cm. Then,
nanofiber web was heated for four minutes at 150 ∘ C without direct contact with
 12.2 Overview of Superabsorbent Fibers 325

Collector

Syringe
pump

High
voltage

Figure 12.12 Photographic image of an electrospinning system.

Figure 12.13 Scanning electron micrograph of electrospun nanofibers.

hot plate. Researchers have pointed out that the heat-treated nanocomposite
superabsorbent fiber showed water absorbency of 143.42 g⋅g−1 and 39.75 g⋅g−1 in
distilled water and a 0.9 wt% NaCl solution. They have pointed out that the heat
treatment improved the stability by improvement of the crystallinity in addition
to an improvement in water absorbency due to MMT. It has been concluded
that an increase of MMT results in an increase of water absorbency.

12.2.5 Test Methods

The performance of superabsorbent textiles is determined by liquid absorption
rate and retention measurements. The water/liquid absorption capacity can be
measured by gravimetric, dynamic wetting, and topographic measurements.
Liquid absorption capacity is expressed in grams of liquid retained per gram
of dry superabsorbent sample (g⋅g−1 ). Another parameter related to super-
absorbent material’s ability to absorb liquid at a certain temperature is the
326 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

absorbency under load (AUL), where there is predetermined load acting on the
superabsorbent material. This parameter is important to prevent the leakage
of liquid from the absorbent core of a hygiene product under body loads and
provide improved surface dryness [1, 4, 46].
Liu et al. [30] used the following equation to calculate water absorbency (Q) of
acrylic-based superabsorbent fibers, where U d and U s are the weight of the dry
and swollen superabsorbent fibers, respectively:
US− Ud
Q (g∕g) = (12.1)
Ud
The liquid retention measurement involves entire wetting and swelling of the
superabsorbent material, which is followed by centrifugation at a fixed rotation
speed for a given period of time. This parameter is expressed with the following
equation [1, 29], where U c and D are the weights of the sample after centrifuging
and when dry:
Uc − D
R (g∕g) = (12.2)
D
Higher wicking values imply higher liquid transport capability of a super-
absorbent textile. Wicking parameter may be determined gravimetrically by
measuring the amount of liquid drawn into capillaries of a superabsorbent
product (in percentage) after a certain period of time or the vertical height (in
cm) that the liquid reaches above the level of the reservoir during a certain
period of time [47].
High absorbency, protection against leakage, and low rewet are required for
absorbent hygiene products. Therefore retention, rewet and absorption time
under load are measured for these products. In absorption time under load test,
the absorbent product, i.e. a diaper, is placed on a polyurethane foam base onto
which a cover plate and weights are placed. The foam base helps to divide the
pressure equally across the diaper. Synthetic urine is pumped into an application
tube through a hole on the cover plate. An electrode on the application tube
connected to a computer measures the time required for the absorption of all
the liquid of the tube by the diaper. Absorption rates are reported as ml/s [3].
Rewet property is related to keeping the wearer’s skin dry, which shows the
amount of absorbed liquid forced out again through the facing under pressure. A
weight is applied on a liquid loaded diaper onto which an absorbent material such
as filter paper is placed. After the removal of the weight, the amount of liquid
absorbed by the absorbent material in grams or milligrams is calculated from
the change in material’s weight. Besides the abovementioned tests, the time in
seconds for liquid to penetrate the top sheet of the diaper is measured that is
known as strikethrough [3].
For ionic sensitivity of SAP materials, a dimensionless swelling factor, f , is mea-
sured with the following formula [7]:
f = 1 − (Absorption in a given fluid∕absorption in distilled water) (12.3)
SAP materials with lower swelling factor are desired since it implies lower
absorbency loss of the sample swollen in salt solutions.
 12.3 Application 327

Free swell capacity of SAP material implies absorption capacity of SAP without
pressure. For this test, pure SAP is placed in a tea bag and submerged in 0.9%
saline. Then excess solution is removed by letting the bag drip off for 10 minutes.
Then swelling capacity is calculated from the difference between the weights of
tea bag and initial weight of SAP sample. In centrifuge retention capacity test,
the solution between particles is removed by centrifugation of the tea bag. The
swelling capacity is calculated by the following formula:
S = (W2 − W0 − W1 )∕W1 (12.4)
where W 1 is the weight of SAP material, W 2 is the weight of the tea bag, and W 0
is the weight of an empty bag [7, 48].

12.3 Application
Superabsorbents may be placed in the product as layers or enclosed in between
textile layers in the form of compressed particulate powder [1]. Absorbent
structures comprise an absorbent core in which SAPs and/or mixtures of fibrous
absorbents from cellulose or fluffed wood pulp and SAPs have been incorporated
[2, 3]. Superabsorbent textiles including superabsorbent fibers and their blends
with other natural and synthetic fibers can be produced by spinning, weaving, or
nonwoven manufacturing techniques [30]. It is also possible to bond or laminate
superabsorbent fiber-based fabrics to spunbond fabrics or films for special
product applications such as food packaging and filtration. In Figure 12.14,
several application areas done by SAF can be seen [14].
Superabsorbent fibers have been utilized mainly in liquid absorbent products
such as disposable infant diaper, feminine sanitary napkin, underpad, adult
incontinence pad, wound dressing, and absorbent wipes for hygiene and health-
care industries [3, 21, 26, 49]. These products can be very thin yet absorbent due
®
to the existence of SAPs [46]. For instance, Mextra superabsorbent dressing,
produced as a wound care product, has a four-layered structure comprising
®
polyacrylate superabsorbent particles [50]. Xtrasorb is a superabsorbent

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12.14 Application of SAF nonwoven. (a) Packaging, (b) medical, and (c) agriculture [14]
(having a permission from Technical Absorbents dated May 5, 2017). Source: Reproduced with
permission from http://techabsorbents.com/.
328 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12.15 Nonwoven structures. (a) Airlaid fabric, (b) needlefelt fabric, and (c) carded fabric
[14] (having a permission from Technical Absorbents dated May 5, 2017). Source: Reproduced
with permission from http://techabsorbents.com/.

wound dressing that comes in the form of pad and foam and helps to take the
wound fluid away from the wound and turn it into gel [51].
Superabsorbent textiles also find application in sportswear and footwear for
heat and moisture management [1]. SAF [52] has been converted into 2.0 m
wide, 150–1000 gsm fabrics through needle punching technology (Figure 12.15).
Airlaid nonwoven fabrics, 50–1000 gsm, have also been produced by blending
short staple SAF with wood pulp and low melt fibers [52].
SAF is also blended with man-made fibers such as polyester and nylon to pro-
duce spun yarns using traditional yarn spinning technologies, i.e. open end and
ring. These yarns may also be used to produce woven, knitted, and net structures.
SwellcoatTM from Fiberline [53] is a water-blocking finish comprising a SAP.
It may be applied on fibers, yarns, and textile substrates and generates a stable
gel and can absorb up to 10 times its own weight. Universal Carbon Fibres Ltd.
[54] produced staple yarns from OASIS Super Absorbent Fibre (SAF), which can
absorb high volumes of moisture rapidly and have been used by cable manufac-
turers.
Baby diapers were reported to have 85% share among hygiene products that
depend on superabsorbent materials, while adult incontinence products followed
with 10% share [28]. In Figure 12.16, swollen structures of superabsorbent fibers
can be seen [14].

(a) (b)

Figure 12.16 Nonwoven. (a) Before swollen and (b) after swollen [14] (having a permission
from Technical Absorbents dated May 5, 2017). Source: Reproduced with permission from
http://techabsorbents.com/.
 12.4 Future Scope and Challenges Ahead 329

According to Future Market Insights’ report, the highest global demand for
SAP was in disposable diaper industry with more than 74% share in 2014, and
the adult incontinence products accounted for almost 12%, while it was over
9% for feminine hygiene products [5]. Commercial brand names like Pampers
®
®
and Huggies use tiny SAP crystals scattered inside the layers of the absorbent
core of a baby diaper in order to absorb and trap fluids such as urine and wet
poopy [55].
In biomedical applications such as wound dressings, hydrogels present water
to the wound site and maintain a moist environment, absorb a degree of wound
exudate, and help in the wound healing process [15]. Aquaform, Intrasite,
Granugel, Nu-Gel, Purilon, and Sterigel are some of the examples of hydrogels
used in biomedical applications [15].
Superabsorbent materials have also been used in technical applications such as
oil recovery and air and water purification [56, 57] to absorb other types of fluids
such as organic liquids and gases, heavy metal ions, and dyes [1, 4]. Arkema and
SNF Floerger are the manufacturers of AM and acrylic acid-based technical SAPs
used for cable isolation [58], landscaping, and food packaging [24, 59].
In food pads, superabsorbent materials are used to keep the meat or vegetables
fresher for a longer period of time by absorbing their liquids. Dry SAP particles
have been reported to be used in concrete mixture as well, serving for absorbing
water and finally forming empty pores in the cement paste [16].
Different applications for SAF include filter fabrics, used to remove contami-
nants and separate water from fuel and oil and also in active sportswear garments,
which cools down the user with the evaporation of water [52]. Another field
of application for superabsorbent materials is protective clothing, for instance,
for fire protection [60]. Bartkowiak [23] developed needled nonwoven materi-
als with high liquid sorption capacity, containing superabsorbent fibers, designed
for sweat-absorbing inlays inside protective clothing. They combined “Oasis 102”
superabsorbent fibers [61] with cotton, polyester, and PP fibers. These fibers were
reported to have high salt water absorption under pressure, which is important
for absorption of sweat and human liquids [28].
Superabsorbent textiles were used to enhance the release of agrochemicals
and water in agriculture application while they serve for drainage or soil
reinforcement in geotextiles application [1]. Aquasorb [62] is a SAP, based on an
anionic polyacrylamide, used to increase the water holding capacity of the soil,
which is beneficial in growing trees, shrubs, and plants. Another commercial
SAP containing potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen was developed by Ma’s
Group for agriculture application [63]. Table 12.1 summarizes the common
application fields of SAPs.

12.4 Future Scope and Challenges Ahead

There is a growing global demand for improved superabsorbent materials as
they find applications in medical, food, and personal care articles representing a
multibillion-dollar market [19].
330 12 Superabsorbent Fibers

Table 12.1 Main applications of superabsorbent materials.

Superabsorbent powders
Disposable infant diaper
Underpad
Adult incontinence pad
Oil recovery
Air and water purification
Cable isolation
Landscaping
Food packaging

Superabsorbent fibers
Sportswear
Footwear
Protective clothing
Agrotextiles
Geotextiles
Disposable infant diaper
Wound and surgical dressing
Feminine sanitary napkin
Absorbent wipes for hygiene and healthcare industries
Food packaging
Cable isolation
Automotive filter cartridges
Filtration

The introduction of inorganic fillers and nanocomposites such as antiseptic and

healing agents to the superabsorbent systems to have added value and functional-
ities and the use of natural polymers with lower environmental impact and higher
biocompatibility are currently the subjects of interest [1]. Research and devel-
opment efforts on efficient absorbent materials for medical and personal care
purposes have shifted toward the development of new absorbent materials with
biodegradability and an ability to decompose in landfills [4, 19, 29]. With respect
to superabsorbent fibers, research efforts have been carried out to reduce the
fiber size to submicron and nanoscales in order to enhance the absorption prop-
erties.

12.5 Summary
High volumes of superabsorbent materials have been manufactured worldwide
as they have a variety of consumer and industrial product applications such
as wound dressings, hydrogels, biomedical applications, hygienic products, oil
recovery, air and water purification, cable isolation, landscaping, food packaging,
protective clothing, agriculture, etc.
 References 331

Superabsorbent materials that are commonly cross-linked acrylic copolymers

are produced in the form of fibers in addition to powder form, foil, or foam. Super-
absorbent fibers can be mixed with other natural and synthetic fibers or polymers.
They can be easily processed in the fiber form through spinning, weaving, and
nonwoven technology.
Superabsorbent materials, either natural or synthetic based, will continue to
expand their application areas by the modification of their morphological, sur-
face, and chemical characteristics and the introduction of new additives to build
composite structures and develop new functionalities.

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