Scientific method, mathematical and experimental technique

employed in the sciences. More specifically, it is the technique used in

the construction and testing of a scientific hypothesis.

The process of observing, asking questions, and seeking answers

through tests and experiments is not unique to any one field of
science. In fact, the scientific method is applied broadly in science,
across many different fields. Many empirical sciences, especially
the social sciences, use mathematical tools borrowed from probability
theory and statistics, together with outgrowths of these, such
as decision theory, game theory, utility theory, and operations
research. Philosophers of science have addressed general
methodological problems, such as the nature of
scientific explanation and the justification of induction.
The scientific method is critical to the development of scientific theories, which explain
empirical (experiential) laws in a scientifically rational manner. In a typical application of
the scientific method, a researcher develops a hypothesis, tests it through various means,
and then modifies the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and experiments.
The modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again, until it
becomes consistent with observed phenomena and testing outcomes. In this
way, hypotheses serve as tools by which scientists gather data. From that data and the many
different scientific investigations undertaken to explore hypotheses, scientists are able to
develop broad general explanations, or scientific theories.

Metrology
Metrology, the science of measurement. From three fundamental
quantities, length, mass, and time, all other mechanical quantities—
e.g., area, volume, acceleration, and power—can be derived.
A comprehensive system of practical measurement should include at
least three other bases, taking in the measurement of electromagnetic
quantities, of temperature, and of intensity of radiation—e.g., light.
Accordingly, the 11th General Conference of Weights and Measures in 1960 adopted six
quantities and units as the bases on which was established the International System of
Units. Since 1887 many national standards laboratories have been founded to set up and
maintain standards of measurement, both for the six basic quantities and for their
systematic derivatives. They also do attendant test and verification work for science and
industry. Examples are the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in the United States (now
known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology; NIST), the National Physical
Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom, and similar bodies in many other countries. The
international metric organization created by the Metric Convention of 1875 (amended in
1921) also has a central laboratory, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at
Sèvres (near Paris). It has duties analogous to those of the national laboratories but is
concerned especially with the international coordination of all scientific work relating to the
maintenance and improvement of the metric system of units and standards. This
organization acts under the authority of the General Conference of Weights and Measures
with the aid of an elected executive body, the International Committee of Weights and
Measures, which meets every year.

Measuring a quantity means ascertaining its ratio to some other fixed quantity of the same
kind, known as the unit of that kind of quantity. A unit is an abstract conception, defined
either by reference to some arbitrary material standard or to natural phenomena. For
example, the standard of length in the metric system was defined (1889–1960) by the
separation of two lines on a particular metal bar, but it is now defined as equal to the
distance traveled by light in a vacuum in a certain period of time (see metre).

Simulation
Simulation, in industry, science, and education, a research or
teaching technique that reproduces actual events and processes under
test conditions. Developing a simulation is often a highly complex
mathematical process. Initially a set of rules, relationships, and
operating procedures are specified, along with other variables. The
interaction of these phenomena create new situations, even new rules,
which further evolve as the simulation proceeds.
Simulation implements range from paper-and-pencil and board-game
reproductions of situations to complex computer-aided interactive
systems.
Simulation techniques for experimentation permit researchers to
perform exotic “dry lab” experiments or demonstrations without using
rare materials or expensive equipment. In the automotive industry,
proposed automobile designs undergo simulated wind-tunnel tests
in computer simulations, thus saving hundreds of hours formerly
devoted to prototype building and testing. Time compression is
another cost-saving feature of simulation technology. Events that can
take anywhere from hours to eons in real time can be simulated in a
few minutes. Medical researchers, for example, often must isolate
organs and keep them alive by artificial means, grow cultures, inject
chemicals, and wait for results. When the normal functions of a
selected organ can be simulated accurately, however, researchers can
observe in a few minutes the effects of a broad range of events on that
functioning. Likewise, astronomers using computer simulations of
galactic movements can demonstrate events that take millions of years
to complete—such as the collision of two galaxies—to test the validity
of theoretical descriptions.

As a technique for instruction, simulation allows students to deal in a

realistic way with matters of vital concern but without dire
consequences should they make wrong choices. The technique has
proven especially useful in medical training, as, for example, in the
University of Alberta Medical School, where the computer simulates
patients in critical condition who will die without proper care.
Aspiring doctors are asked to make swift diagnoses and prescribe
treatments in an effort to keep the patient alive. Aircraft-pilot trainees
also are exposed to realistic emergency situations by means of such
sophisticated simulation devices as the Link trainer (see flight
simulator).
Jurisprudence
Jurisprudence, Science or philosophy of law. Jurisprudence may be divided into three
branches: analytical, sociological, and theoretical. The analytical branch articulates axioms,
defines terms, and prescribes the methods that best enable one to view the legal order as an
internally consistent, logical system. The sociological branch examines the actual effects of
the law within society and the influence of social phenomena on the substantive and
procedural aspects of law. The theoretical branch evaluates and criticizes law in terms of the
ideals or goals postulated for it.
Scientific Management Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Summarize the four principles of Frederick Taylor’s scientific management theory

 Summarize the contributions of Frank and Lillian Gibreth to scientific management

Just over one hundred years ago Frederick Taylor published Principles of Scientific Management, a work that forever
changed the way organizations view their workers and their organization. At the time of Taylor’s publication,
managers believed that workers were lazy and worked slowly and inefficiently in order to protect their jobs. Taylor
identified a revolutionary solution:

The remedy for this inefficiency lies in systematic management, rather than in searching for some unusual or extraordinary
man.

You might think that a century-old theory wouldn’t have any application in today’s fast-paced, technology-driven
world. You’d be wrong, though! In fact much of what you’ve already learned in this course is based on Taylor’s work,
and plenty of what you’ll experience in the workplace will be indebted to him, too. If you recognize any of the
following, you have already seen his principles of scientific management in action: organizational charts, performance
evaluations, quality measurements and metrics, and sales and/or production goals.

Scientific management is a management theory that analyzes work flows to improve economic efficiency, especially
labor productivity. This management theory, developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, was popular in the 1880s and
1890s in U.S. manufacturing industries.

While the terms “scientific management” and “Taylorism” are often treated as synonymous, a more accurate view is
that Taylorism is the first form of scientific management. Taylorism is sometimes called the “classical perspective,”
meaning that it is still observed for its influence but no longer practiced exclusively. Scientific management was best
known from 1910 to 1920, but in the 1920s, competing management theories and methods emerged, rendering
scientific management largely obsolete by the 1930s. However, many of the themes of scientific management are still
seen in industrial engineering and management today.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) is called the Father of Scientific Management.

Taylor was a mechanical engineer who was primarily interested in the type of work done in factories and mechanical
shops. He observed that the owners and managers of the factories knew little about what actually took place in the
workshops. Taylor believed that the system could be improved, and he looked around for an incentive. He settled on
money. He believed a worker should get “a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work”—no more, no less. If the worker
couldn’t work to the target, then the person shouldn’t be working at all. Taylor also believed that management and
labor should cooperate and work together to meet goals. He was the first to suggest that the primary functions of
managers should be planning and training.

A significant part of Taylorism was time studies. Taylor was concerned with reducing process time and worked with
factory managers on scientific time studies. At its most basic level, time studies involve breaking down each job into
component parts, timing each element, and rearranging the parts into the most efficient method of working. By
counting and calculating, Taylor sought to transform management into a set of calculated and written techniques. 

Taylor proposed a “neat, understandable world in the factory, an organization of men whose acts would be planned,
coordinated, and controlled under continuous expert direction. ” Factory production was to become a matter of
efficient and scientific management—the planning and administration of workers and machines alike as components
of one big machine.

In 1909, Taylor published The Principles of Scientific Management. In this book, he suggested that productivity would
increase if jobs were optimized and simplified. He also proposed matching a worker to a particular job that suited the
person’s skill level and then training the worker to do that job in a specific way. Taylor first developed the idea of
breaking down each job into component parts and timing each part to determine the most efficient method of working.

One of Taylor’s most famous studies was from his time at the Bethlehem Steel Company in the early 1900s. He
noticed that workers used the same shovel for all materials, even though the various materials differed in weight. By
observing the movements of the workers and breaking the movements down into their component elements, Taylor
determined that the most efficient shovel load was 21½ lb.  Accordingly, he set about finding or designing different
shovels to be used for each material that would scoop up that amount.

Scientific management has at its heart four core principles that also apply to organizations today. They include the
following:

 Look at each job or task scientifically to determine the “one best way” to perform the job. This is a change
from the previous “rule of thumb” method where workers devised their own ways to do the job.
 Hire the right workers for each job, and train them to work at maximum efficiency.
 Monitor worker performance, and provide instruction and training when needed.
 Divide the work between management and labor so that management can plan and train, and workers can
execute the task efficiently.

PRACTICE QUESTION

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

While Taylor was conducting his time studies, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were completing their own work in motion
studies to further scientific management. The Gilbreth name may be familiar to anyone who has read the
book Cheaper By The Dozen (or seen the movie the book inspired). The book is a biographical novel about the
Gilbreth family, their twelve children, and the often humorous attempts of the Gilbreths to apply their efficiency
methods in their own household.

The Gilbreths made use of scientific insights to develop a study method based on the analysis of work motions,
consisting in part of filming the details of a worker’s activities while recording the time it took to complete those
activities. The films helped to create a visual record of how work was completed, and emphasized areas for
improvement. Secondly, the films also served the purpose of training workers about the best way to perform their
work.

This method allowed the Gilbreths to build on the best elements of the work flows and create a standardized best
practice. Time and motion studies are used together to achieve rational and reasonable results and find the best
practice for implementing new work methods. While Taylor’s work is often associated with that of the Gilbreths, there
is a clear philosophical divide between the two scientific-management theories. Taylor was focused on reducing
process time, while the Gilbreths tried to make the overall process more efficient by reducing the motions involved.
They saw their approach as more concerned with workers’ welfare than Taylorism, in which workers were less
relevant than profit. This difference led to a personal rift between Taylor and the Gilbreths, which, after Taylor’s death,
turned into a feud between the Gilbreths and Taylor’s followers.

PRACTICE QUESTION

Even though scientific management was pioneered in the early 1900s, it continued to make significant contributions
to management theory throughout the rest of the twentieth century. With the advancement of statistical methods used
in scientific management, quality assurance and quality control began in the 1920s and 1930s. During the 1940s and
1950s, scientific management evolved into operations management, operations research, and management
cybernetics. In the 1980s, total quality management became widely popular, and in the 1990s “re-engineering”
became increasingly popular. One could validly argue that Taylorism laid the groundwork for these large and
influential fields that we still practice today.

Contribute!

Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.