Lecture: MAIN CATEGORIES OF SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this lecture is to reveal the essence of science as a system of

knowledge; explain the meaning and show the relationship of such categories of
science as fact, theory and hypothesis, law, regularity and principle, methodology,
method and procedure.

In this lecture we will answer the following questions: What elements form science as a
system of knowledge? What is the role of facts, hypotheses and theories in this system?
What is the difference between theory and concept? How do regularities differ from
laws, and laws - from principles? What are the methodological foundations of science?

Key concepts of this chapter: fact, hypothesis, theory, concept, law, regularity, principle,
methodology, method, procedure.

THEORETICAL MATERIAL

1. Science as a system of knowledge. Fact, hypothesis, theory, concept

In the structure of each science, elements can be distinguished, the totality of which
makes up science as a system of knowledge. These elements include facts, theories,
hypotheses, problems, methods, laws, principles, etc. In order to use scientific
knowledge correctly, you need to know the functions of each of the named elements, to
understand the differences between facts and theory, theory and concept, concept and
hypothesis, regularity and law, law and principle, methodology and procedure.

The elements of science as a system of knowledge have different relationships with

each other. For example, facts are the basis for the formation of a scientific hypothesis,
a hypothesis is the basis for the formation of a theory (Fig. 2). The theory gives a
holistic view of the laws and patterns of the subject area. Scientific methods are used to
identify laws and patterns. The principles of constructing and using methods form a
methodology. And so on ... Let's begin to unwind this tangle of interrelated categories of
science with the concept of "facts".

Facts are empirical (that is, experiential) data. A fact is a "fragment of reality".

Facts are the foundation of science. We can say that the development of science is the
improvement and replacement of existing theories due to the emergence of new facts
that could not be predicted and explained within the framework of old theories. It is
important to understand that not all empirical data are important for science: only
scientific facts are of interest. For the transition from the results of observations and
experiments to scientific facts, two conditions are necessary: 1) repetition of
observations and experiments; 2) carrying out a theoretical analysis, as a result of
which, after systematization, classification and generalization, empirical data become
scientific facts.

Scientific facts are facts that have received a description and explanation based on a
generalization of a class of phenomena and reflect the laws and patterns of the subject
area.

In order to make at least a step in the boundless sea of empirical material (facts), a
hypothesis is needed, that is, a preliminary theoretical assumption about possible laws
and regularities of the subject area.This assumption may, in the end, be confirmed or
not confirmed.

Terms Unified
conceptual
apparatus
Recommendation Principles
s
Methods laws Axioms

Scientific
Patterns
findings
Proven
hypothesis

Hypothesis

Problem

Facts Theory
Contradiction
Figure: 2. The relationship between facts, hypothesis and theory

Figure: 2. The relationship between facts, hypothesis and theory

A hypothesis is a scientific assumption about the logical connection of phenomena,
containing elements of novelty and originality.

Proven hypotheses form the basis for the formation of scientific theories.

Theory is the highest, most developed form of the organization of scientific knowledge,
giving a holistic view of the laws and essential connections of a certain area of reality.

The theory as a system of knowledge is formed by the following components:

systematized scientific facts, conceptual apparatus, hypotheses, concepts, elements of
the scientific and methodological apparatus, conclusions, recommendations, etc. In the
process of development, science turns into a system of theories.

The concept of a concept is closely related to the concept of theory. If the theory gives a
holistic view of a certain area of reality, then the concept can only concern some objects
of the subject area. In the general case, the concept is devoid of the integrity, detail and
breadth that are inherent in theory.

A concept is a certain way of understanding, interpreting an object (phenomenon), the

main point of view on the subject.

The key elements of theories and concepts are laws and patterns.

Regularity is an objectively existing, repeating, essential connection of phenomena,

expressed, as a rule, qualitatively, descriptively (example of a regularity: “advanced
training of personnel entails an increase in the company's profit”).

The law of nature is a necessary, essential, stable, connection of phenomena (for

example, the law of universal gravitation).
2. Scientific hypothesis: types, functions, stages of development

A scientific hypothesis is a pivot, a methodological basis for scientific research (see

Example 1). No wonder, in its etymological meaning, a hypothesis means that which is
conventionally taken as a foundation (Greek hypothesis - foundation).

The hypothesis sets the direction and scope of development, determines

what facts should be collected, what literary sources to study, what
experiments to conduct.

Example 1.

Galileo's experiment

On April 20, 1590, Galileo Galilei dropped a heavy cannonball and a lead musket
bullet from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (according to another version, balls of
various weights). The cannonball and the bullet touched the ground at the same
time. As a result of this experiment, Galileo showed that in the absence of air
resistance, the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their mass.

In the 16th century, ideas that were formed in the days of antiquity dominated in
Europe. At that time, no one doubted the provisions of Aristotle's mechanics. In
particular, Aristotle argued that the speed of falling bodies is proportional to their
weight. To check this position, it was enough to climb onto the roof and
simultaneously drop

down two objects of different weights, but heavy enough so that they can easily
overcome air resistance. Anyone could climb onto the roof, but no one had
thought of it for several centuries. And Galileo conducted his experiment because
he had a HYPOTHESIS that Aristotle's statement needs to be corrected.

The stages of developing a hypothesis in the course of a scientific study are shown in
Fig. 3. First, a working hypothesis is formed, which is considered a temporary guess.
Then the working hypothesis is corrected, refined, supplemented, and sometimes
completely replaced.

As a result of all these procedures, on the basis of a working hypothesis, a scientific

hypothesis is formed, which is the most general assumption that can fully and deeply
explain the phenomena under study.

One should not think that in the course of scientific research only one scientific
hypothesis is always formulated. Just the opposite. Experts recommend developing not
one, but at least two hypotheses: the main one and the alternative (counter-hypothesis).
Otherwise, there is a danger that the hypothesis may become a goal that one wants to
achieve at any cost. Developing multiple hypotheses takes more time, but it increases
the reliability of the research results.
 1 Formulation of the problem

2 Formulating a working hypothesis

3 Accumulation of facts and their preliminary analysis

4 Formulation of a scientific hypothesis

5 Substantiation of the hypothesis

6 Hypothesis testing: theoretical and practical

Figure: 3. Stages of hypothesis development

The formulated scientific hypothesis requires substantiation and verification.

To substantiate a hypothesis means to show that its main assumption was not put
forward by chance, but is based on a number of theoretical and other considerations.

To test a hypothesis means to establish its truth or falsity, correspondence or

inconsistency with reality.

There are various hypotheses. Poincaré, for example, divided hypotheses into 3 groups
depending on the degree of their nontriviality. According to Poincaré's classification,
hypotheses of the first type play the role of axioms (for example, this is the assumption
that the impact of the earthquake in Turkey on the labor productivity of Kharkov
machine builders is negligible). Poincaré calls hypotheses of the second type indifferent:
they are formulated with the aim of clotting ideas in a concrete form. And only
hypotheses of the third kind are bold assumptions that need to be proven.

Depending on the degree of generality and completeness of the coverage of the

phenomena, hypotheses are divided into general, particular and individual (Fig. 4).

A general hypothesis is an assumption about patterns that relate to the entire set of
phenomena in the corresponding subject area.
A particular hypothesis is an assumption about patterns that relate only to some
elements of the set of phenomena of the corresponding subject area. In this case, after
clarifying the specifics of that subset of phenomena to which the assumed regularity
belongs, the particular hypothesis turns into a general one. The scheme of this
transformation is as follows: "Some S are P"  "All S that have the sign K are P".

A singular hypothesis is an assumption that concerns the characteristics of one single

phenomenon.

By functions in the cognitive process

C
L
A
descriptive S
explanatory
S
I
What? F Why?
What are the properties? I
C
What's the connection?
A
T
I
O
N

By the scope of phenomena

general particular single

All One
phenomena Subset of phenomenon
phenomena

Figure: 4. Types of hypotheses

According to another classification, descriptive and explanatory hypotheses are
distinguished.

A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the inherent properties of an object

or about the form of a connection between observed objects and phenomena. Such a
hypothesis answers the questions: "What is this object?", "What properties does this
object have?", "In what connection are these objects?"

An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about the causes of the phenomena

under study. She answers the question: "Why did this phenomenon arise?"

In order to distinguish far-fetched, baseless assumptions from a scientific hypothesis,

the following basic requirements for the hypothesis as a form of cognition must be taken
into account:

1) the fundamental testability of the assumption, which is declared a hypothesis;

2) the maximum universality of the hypothesis (the hypothesis should cover the
widest possible range of phenomena in the studied subject area);

3) the presence of a foreseeing force (a hypothesis should allow predicting the

existence of phenomena, properties and relationships that were previously unknown to
science);

4) fundamental simplicity;

5) continuity (the hypothesis should be based on previous knowledge - although this

requirement should not be absolutized).

3. Methodology and method

In science, the following three components are distinguished, corresponding to different

levels of cognition of phenomena:

- the empirical foundations of science,

- theoretical basis,

- methodological foundations.

The theoretical foundations of science are theories, concepts, hypotheses, conceptual

and scientific-methodological apparatus. Empirical foundations are formed by facts and
empirical hypotheses. But what are the methodological foundations of science?
Methodological foundations (usually they are called more succinctly - methodology)
form that part of science, which is a teaching about its theories and methods, about their
creation and application in practice.
The methodology of science (from method and ... logic) is:

- doctrine about the forms and methods of scientific knowledge, about the structure and
logical organization of research activities, about methods and theories;

- principles of constructing and using methods, their scientific generalization (for

example: management methodology, planning methodology, accounting methodology).

In short, the methodology of science is the science of science.

The methodology of science solves such problems as identifying the object and subject
of research, formulating a scientific problem, developing a method for solving the
problem under consideration, checking the reliability and assessing the significance of
the results of scientific research. As follows from the very term "methodology", the
issues of constructing and applying scientific methods play an important role in the
methodology of science.

A method is a set of mental and practical operations aimed at solving a specific type of
problem.

Methods of scientific knowledge are classified on different grounds. From the point of
view of the scope of use, the methods are divided into general scientific and special
ones.

Special methods are specific methods specific to individual sciences.

General scientific methods are methods used in many scientific disciplines.

In addition, the methods are divided into:

- methods of theoretical research,

- methods of empirical research,

- theoretical and empirical methods used both at the empirical and at the theoretical
level of knowledge.

This division is due to the division of scientific research into theoretical and empirical
(that is, based on experience). The main methods of empirical research are observation
and experiment. The main methods of theoretical research are hypothetical,
hypothetical-deductive, axiomatic, logical, historical methods, as well as formalization,
idealization and the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. In theoretical
research, experiment is also used, but here it is a thought experiment carried out
without any equipment.

The concept of a method is close to the concept of a procedure. However, these two
terms should not be confused.
A procedure is a concretization of a method, bringing it to instructions, an algorithm, a
clear description of the implementation method (for example, a procedure for calculating
an indicator, a procedure for evaluating a cost).

Research procedure is a set of methods and techniques necessary for conducting

research, as well as the rules for applying methods and techniques from this set.

CONCLUSIONS

The main points of lecture number 2 are as follows:

1. Science is a system of knowledge, in which three subsystems are distinguished,

corresponding to different levels of cognition of phenomena: empirical
foundations, theoretical foundations and methodological foundations of science.
2. The methodological foundations of science (methodology) are the doctrine of the
forms and methods of scientific cognition, the organization of research activities,
scientific methods and theories. In short, the methodology of science is the
science of science.
3. The empirical foundations of science are formed by scientific facts, and the
theoretical ones are formed by hypotheses, theories, concepts, laws, laws,
principles, etc.
4. Theory is the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge, which gives a
holistic view of a certain area of reality.
5. Theories are formed, changed and replaced due to the emergence of new facts
that do not correspond to the old provisions of the theory.
6. For science, it is not any experimental data that are of interest, but scientific facts
that are the result of a generalization of the class of phenomena under
consideration. Based on the analysis of scientific facts, scientific hypotheses are
formulated.
7. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption that satisfies such requirements as the
presence of elements of novelty and originality, fundamental testability and
maximum universality.
8. A hypothesis is the core of scientific research: it sets the direction and scope of
development, determines what facts should be collected, what experiments
should be carried out, what literary sources should be studied.