FACULITY OF NATURAL AND

COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

COURSE TITLE ------------ THEORY AND RESEARCH SOCIAL

ASSIGNMENT TITLE ---- THEORY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
YEAR ------------- 3rd year/2022

SUB_DATE_27/04/2014 E.C
NAME OF INSTRUCTER EYOAS.A GAMBELLA, ETHIOPIA
 Table of contents

1. THEORY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH

1.1. Definition and Concept of Social Research……………………. …………...2
1.1.1. Definition of theory …………………………………………………………….3
1.1.2. Concepts of theory ……………………………………………………………..3
1.1.3. Benefits of theory in research …………………………………………………4
1.1.4. Attributes of a good theory …………………………………………………....5
1.2. The Need of Theory In Research ……………………………………………. 6
1.3. The Process of Theory Construction ………………………….. ……………10
1.4. The Process of Theory Testing ………………………………………………12
1.4.1 Design ………………………………………………………………………..12
1.4.2 Data Collection ………………………………………………………………13
1.4.3 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………13
1.5. Paradigms of Social Research ……………………………………. ……………. 14
1.5.1 Ontology …………………………………………………………………........14
1.5.2 Epistemology ………………………………………………………………… 14
1.5.3 Methodology ……………………………………………………………….. ..15
1.5.4 Methods ………………………………………………….............................. 15

1.6. Conclusion/Summary……………………………………………………………...16
1.7. References ………………………………………………………………………...17

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1.1 Definition and Concepts of Theory
Definition of theory
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon or the results of
such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated
with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may be scientific
belong to a non-scientific discipline, or no discipline at all. Depending on the context a
theory's assertions might for example, include generalized explanations of
how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek but in modern use it has
taken on several related meanings.

In modern science the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of

explanation of nature made in a way consistent with the scientific method and fulfilling
the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that
scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for it or empirical
contradiction (falsify) of it. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and
comprehensive form of scientific knowledge in contrast to more common uses of the
word "theory" that imply that something is unproven or speculative (which in formal
terms is better characterized by the word hypothesis). Scientific theories are
distinguished from hypotheses which are individual empirically testable conjectures and
from scientific laws which are descriptive accounts of the way nature behaves under
certain conditions.

Concepts of theory
Theories are explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon. More
formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions
(relationships between those constructs) that collectively presents a logical, systematic,
and coherent explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and
boundary conditions (Bacharach 1989).

Theories should explain why things happen, rather than just describe or predict. Note
that it is possible to predict events or behaviors using a set of predictors, without

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necessarily explaining why such events are taking place. For instance, market analysts
predict fluctuations in the stock market based on market announcements, earnings
reports of major companies, and new data from the Federal Reserve and other
agencies, based on previously observed correlations Prediction requires only
correlations. In contrast, explanations require causations or understanding of cause-
effect relationships. Establishing causation requires three conditions: (1) correlations
between two constructs, (2) temporal precedence (the cause must precede the effect in
time), and (3) rejection of alternative hypotheses (through testing). Scientific theories
are different from theological, philosophical, or other explanations in that scientific
theories can be empirically tested using scientific methods.

Explanations can be idiographic or nomothetic. Idiographic explanations are those that

explain a single situation or event in idiosyncratic detail. For example, you did poorly on
an exam because: (1) you forgot that you had an exam on that day, (2) you arrived late
to the exam due to a traffic jam, (3) you panicked midway through the exam, (4) you
had to work late the previous evening and could not study for the exam, or even (5) your
dog ate your text book. The explanations may be detailed, accurate, and valid, but they
may not apply to other similar situations, even involving the same person, and are
hence not generalizable. In contrast, nomothetic explanations seek to explain a class of
situations or events rather than a specific situation or event. For example, students who
do poorly in exams do so because they did not spend adequate time preparing for
exams or that they suffer from nervousness, attention-deficit, or some other medical
disorder. Because nomothetic explanations are designed to be generalizable across
situations, events, or people, they tend to be less precise, less complete, and less
detailed. However, they explain economically, using only a few explanatory variables.
Because theories are also intended to serve as generalized explanations for patterns of
events, behaviors, or phenomena, theoretical explanations are generally nomothetic in
nature. While understanding theories, it is also important to understand what theory is
not. Theory is not data, facts, typologies, taxonomies, or empirical findings. A collection
of facts is not a theory, just as a pile of stones is not a house. Likewise, a collection of
constructs (e.g., a typology of constructs) is not a theory, because theories must go well

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beyond constructs to include propositions, explanations, and boundary conditions. Data,
facts, and findings operate at the empirical or observational level, while theories operate
at a conceptual level and are based on logic rather than observations.

Benefits of theory in research

There are many benefits to using theories in research. First, theories provide the
underlying logic of the occurrence of natural or social phenomenon by explaining what
are the key drivers and key outcomes of the target phenomenon and why, and what
underlying processes are responsible driving that phenomenon. Second, they aid in
sense-making by helping us synthesize prior empirical findings within a theoretical
framework and reconcile contradictory findings by discovering contingent factors
influencing the relationship between two constructs in different studies. Third, theories
provide guidance for future research by helping identify constructs and relationships that
are worthy of further research. Fourth, theories can contribute to cumulative knowledge
building by bridging gaps between other theories and by causing existing theories to be
reevaluated in a new light.

However, theories can also have their own share of limitations. As simplified
explanations of reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanations of the
phenomenon of interest based on a limited set of constructs and relationships. Theories
are designed to be simple and parsimonious explanations, while reality may be
significantly more complex. Furthermore, theories may impose blinders or limit
researchers’ “range of vision,” causing them to miss out on important concepts that are
not defined by the theory.

Attributes of a good theory

Theories are simplified and often partial explanations of complex social reality. As such,
there can be good explanations or poor explanations, and consequently, there can be
good theories or poor theories. How can we evaluate the “goodness” of a given theory?

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Different criteria have been proposed by different researchers, the more important of
which are listed below:

 Logical consistency: Are the theoretical constructs, propositions, boundary

conditions, and assumptions logically consistent with each other? If some of these
“building blocks” of a theory are inconsistent with each other (e.g., a theory
assumes rationality, but some constructs represent non-rational concepts), then
the theory is a poor theory.
 Explanatory power: How much does a given theory explain (or predict) reality?
Good theories obviously explain the target phenomenon better than rival theories,
as often measured by variance explained (R-square) value in regression
equations.
 Falsifiability: British philosopher Karl Popper stated in the 1940’s that for
theories to be valid, they must be falsifiable. Falsifiability ensures that the theory is
potentially disprovable, if empirical data does not match with theoretical
propositions, which allows for their empirical testing by researchers. In other
words, theories cannot be theories unless they can be empirically testable.
Tautological statements, such as “a day with high temperatures is a hot day” are
not empirically testable because a hot day is defined (and measured) as a day
with high temperatures, and hence, such statements cannot be viewed as a
theoretical proposition. Falsifiability requires presence of rival explanations it
ensures that the constructs are adequately measurable, and so forth. However,
note that saying that a theory is falsifiable is not the same as saying that a theory
should be falsified. If a theory is indeed falsified based on empirical evidence, then
it was probably a poor theory to begin with!
 Parsimony: Parsimony examines how much of a phenomenon is explained with
how few variables. The concept is attributed to 14 th century English logician
Father William of Ockham (and hence called “Ockham’s razor” or “Occam’s razor),
which states that among competing explanations that sufficiently explain the
observed evidence, the simplest theory (i.e., one that uses the smallest number of
variables or makes the fewest assumptions) is the best. Explanation of a complex

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 social phenomenon can always be increased by adding more and more
constructs. However, such approach defeats the purpose of having a theory,
which are intended to be “simplified” and generalizable explanations of reality.
Parsimony relates to the degrees of freedom in a given theory. Parsimonious
theories have higher degrees of freedom, which allow them to be more easily
generalized to other contexts, settings, and populations.

1.2 The Need of Theory in Research

Theory needed to play different roles in research and this section throws light
upon the six main roles of theory for research.
1.Theory provides significant guidelines and trails for the conduct of research by
pointing to areas that are most likely to be fruitful, that is, areas in which meaningful
relationships among variables are likely to be found. If the variables come to be
selected such that no relationships between them obtain, the research will be sterile no
matter how meticulous the subsequent observations and inferences. A theoretic system
narrows down the range of facts to be studied.

Theory provides the researcher with a definite view point a direction which goes a long
way toward helping him enquire into relationships between certain variables selected
from among an almost infinite array of variables. As Oppenheimer puts it, “in order for
us to understand anything we have to fail to perceive a great deal that is there.
Knowledge is purchased at the expense of what might have been seen and learned and
was not…it is a condition of knowledge that somehow or the other we pick the clues
which give us insight into what we have to find out about the world. As a storehouse of
meaningful hypotheses a fruitful theory suggests potential problems for study and thus
ignites new investigative studies.

In fact, a theory can be judged productive (to the extent it can spark off a number of
questions. A productive theory suggests potential problems, fruitful hypotheses and
provides new perspectives. Einstein and Infield observe, “It is never possible to

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introduce only observable quantities in a theory. It is the theory which decides what can
be observed.” Only thus can the task of science be reduced to manageability.
Besides suggesting fruitful approaches to phenomena in the general area with which it
is concerned, theory also provides leads for research in a different way, viz., by
suggesting other kinds of phenomena that may perhaps be understood or explained in
the same general terms. Take the example of Cohen’s theory of ‘delinquent subculture’.

The Central idea of Cohen’s theory is that the delinquent sub-culture evolved by the
working class juveniles is a response of these juveniles to deal with the problem of
individual adjustment attendant upon the difficulty in meeting the criteria of status as
prescribed by the middle-class standards which have to be reckoned with.

The delinquent sub-culture provides alternative criteria of status which these children
can meet and thus, helps them deal with the problem of individual adjustment.

Cohen’s theoretical formulation constitutes a generic approach to the understanding of

how and why any sub-culture arises. Thus, such different sub-cultures as those
emerging among different professional groups or social classes or small communities
may be understood in the same terms. Research on such groups would concentrate on
discovering the common problems of adjustment faced by the members and the ways in
which the particular patterns of these sub-cultures help members to deal with them. In
as much as a theory summarizes known facts and predicts facts which have not yet
been observed, it also points to areas which have not yet been explored, in other words,
what gaps typically obtain in our knowledge.

Needless to say, such gaps would not be visible if our facts were not systematized and
organized. It is thus that theory suggests where our knowledge is deficient. A
researcher’s acquaintance with the existing theories helps him to select research
problems that are likely to prove productive and worthwhile and to avoid enquiries into
problems that may prove sterile, yielding no insights. Formulation of worthwhile
questions is an important step and a precondition to the extension of knowledge.

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Alerting oneself to the gaps in theory and fact increases the likelihood of formulating
significant questions for research.

2. Another contribution of theory for research is in terms of increasing the

meaningfulness of the findings of a particular study by helping us to perceive them as
special cases of the operation of a set of more general or abstract statements of
relationships rather than as isolated bits of empirical information. A theory typically
enhances the meaningfulness of research, since seemingly unrelated findings of
isolated studies assume new meaning and significance when they are put into proper
theoretical perspective. Let us take the example of observation by Durkheim that
Catholics have a lower suicide rate as compared to the Protestants.

As an isolated empirical uniformity, the finding would not add greatly to our
understanding of suicidal behaviour unless it conceptualized, that is, conceived of as an
illustration of a linkage amongst abstractions of a higher order (e.g., Catholicism-Social
Cohesion unrelieved anxieties-suicide rate). This done, we are easily able to
understand that what was initially taken as an isolated empirical finding of a relationship
between religious affiliation and suicidal behaviour is in fact a reflection of a much more
general relationship between groups with certain conceptualized attributes (social
cohesion) and behaviour of their members. This way, the scope of the original empirical
finding gets considerably extended and several seemingly disparate findings can be
seen to be the contextual manifestations of the general principle. Similarly, to take
another example, the seemingly isolated finding that wives complain of heavy
expenditure when the husband’s relatives are in the house-guests may be understood
on a higher plane of abstraction, to be an instance of the factor of emotional proximity or
distance influencing perception.

The scope of the findings thus enlarged, other apparently disparate findings may be
seen to be interrelated by means of a theoretic thread (e.g., the distorting effect of lack
of confidence or morale on perception may be derived from the same theoretical
orientation). As a mental shorthand, theory summarizes relationships amongst variables
in a conceptual framework. It is through establishing the theoretical pertinence of an

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empirical finding or uniformity, that we can provide for the cumulation both of theory and
research findings. To illustrate, the empirical uniformities about differentials in the
suicide rate lend added confirmation to the set of propositions (theory) from which they
and other uniformities have been derived. This may be underlined as a major function of
theory.

3. The linkage of the specific empirical findings to a more general concept has another
major advantage. It affords a more secure ground for prediction than do these empirical
findings by themselves. The theory by providing a rationale behind the empirical
findings introduces a ground for prediction which is more secure” than mere
extrapolation from previously observed trends. Thus, if studies indicated a decrease in
social cohesion among a community of tribals, the theory-oriented researcher would feel
secure to predict increased rates of suicide in this group. On the contrary, the a
theoretic empiricist would have no alternative but to predict on the basis of
extrapolation.

The prediction may be concerned with estimating whether a relationship between two
variables, X and Y, which has been observed in the past, will continue in future, or it
may be concerned with estimating whether changes in certain conditions will lead to
changes in observed relationship (among the variables). To revert to our earlier
illustration of delinquency, while Cohen points out that there need not be a direct link
between understanding the ’cause’ of a phenomenon and finding a ‘cure,’ his theory
nevertheless seems to suggest that a measure intended to reduce gang delinquency is
likely to be successful to the extent that it either changes the standards by which
working class students are judged in school and (in the community, generally) or helps
them to meet and prove equal to those standards.

4. Whereas an empirical finding as a proposition referring to certain concrete contextual

manifestation of a phenomenon does not afford a basis for drawing diverse inferences
about what will follow, its reformulation or revamping in theoretic terms affords a secure
basis for arriving at the inferences about the varied positive consequences in areas
quite remote from the central area to which the given finding relates. For example, the

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empirical uniformity that Catholics have a lower suicide rate relative to Protestants does
not by itself suggest diverse consequences in fields of conduct apparently far removed
from that of suicidal behaviour. But once this uniformity is theoretically reformulated,
obsessive behaviour and other maladaptive actions may be seen to be related to
inadequacies of group-cohesion. Thus, the lower the degree of social cohesion, higher
the rate of mental illness). The imaginative conversion of empirical uniformities into
theoretic statements thus increases the fruitfulness of research through successive
exploration of its implications (or any empirical uniformity). Theory thus mediates
between specific empirical generalization or uniformities and broad theoretical
orientations anchored in the intellectual tradition.

5. In affording broader meanings to empirical findings the theory also attests to their
truth. A hypothesis is as much confirmed by fitting it into a theory as by fitting it into
facts, because it then enjoys the support provided by evidence for all the other
hypotheses of the given theory.

6. Theory helps us to identify gaps in our knowledge and seek to bridge them up with
intuitive, impressionistic or extensional generalizations. As Karl Jaspers said, “It is only
when using methodologically classified sciences that we know what we know and what
we do not know.” This way, theory constitutes a crucially important guide to designing of
fruitful research.

1.3 The Process of Theory Construction

The construction and formulation of a sociological theory is very old but in past, there
was no systematic and organized method for its formulation and verification. The
theorists were unable to know that either their theories are valid or invalid but today
there is a standard of verification of theories. The process of theory construction occurs
in a social situation and it depends on the environment of the thinker and his personal
inclination. Following are some steps for the construction of a sociological theory.

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Causal Relationship
The first step involved in theory construction is the causal relationship between
independent and dependent variables must be explained logically. The explanation of
cause and effect relationship must contain the elements of universality and uniformity
with reference to time and place.

Definition of Concepts
Second step is the definition of concepts in a proposition. These concepts must be
defined and explained clearly which give a precise and meaningful characteristics.

Relationship between Concepts

There must be a logical relationship between the well-defined concepts of the
propositions. The concepts should be explained with logic and reason. These
explanations should be clear from any confusion or contradiction. The explanation of the
concepts must have a relationship.

Theoretical Concepts
Theoretical concepts are the changing values or variables while the logical relationship
is consider as hypothesis, and is subjected to test. This is very, important component in
theory construction because the validity of sociological theory is based no the validity of
hypothesis to be tested.

Hypothesis Testing
The fifth step in theory construction is the testing of proposed hypothesis empirically
through scientific research methods the hypothesis after testing may be true or wrong
but this process is compulsory.

Data Analysis
The collected information’s in figures is statistical data analysis while the descriptive
information’s are called non-statistical analysis. Data collection and its analysis is based
on the tested and verified hypothesis. The analysis of data gives some findings in favor
and some against the hypothesis.

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Generalization
The collected data is interpreted and generalized to develop a theory. This is very
crucial and critical stage of theory construction because the findings may be interpreted
in many ways and there is a danger of Mis-interpretation of the findings so, the
generalization of the data would be either in favor or against the theory.

Evaluation of Theory
The last step in theory construction is the evaluation of theory construction is the
evaluation of theory in the light of collected facts after interpretation and generalization.
The theory may be evaluated as true or false, partially or fully. Postulates are the first
step of theory and its mathematical form is called the law.

1.4 The process of Theory Testing

Theory-testing with cases is the process of ascertaining whether the empirical evidence
in a case or in a sample of cases either supports or does not support a given theory .
the purpose of theory testing is to verify the validity of a presented hypothesis about the
theoretical structure of theory in empirical reality. A theory should be corrected or
completely rejected if it does not receive support from the empirical data. A theory can
be considered valid when the presented hypotheses gain empirical support. A theory
should be tested on a continuous basis, and preferably with different target groups. A
theory has a higher degree of validity as the hypotheses amass more empirical support.

Design
The research setting used to test a theory depends on the type of theory that is being
tested. Descriptive theories are tested using a descriptive study design; explanatory
theories are tested using a correlative study design; predictive theories are testing using
an experimental study design; and guiding theories are tested using repeated
measurements and interventions. Descriptive and correlative study designs define the
relationships between the concepts described in theory, but they cannot be used to
identify the causal relationships between concepts. For example, correlation coefficient

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between two variables does not describe the structure of the theoretical model, and
thus, cannot be used for further theory development.

Data Collection

Data will be collected through either direct or indirect observations, such as surveys, interviews,
observations and objective measurements. The target population should be representative of the
group or context to which the theory is applicable. The sample size can be calculated by power
analysis according what has been presented in previous studies that were conducted in the
same or sufficiently similar context. Researchers will often develop an instrument that measures
the concept(s) presented in the theory before the statistical testing of theory. The instrument will
have to be pretested and psychometrically tested before the hypotheses are empirically
examined.

Data Analysis

Statistical methods are commonly used to test explanatory, predictive and guiding
theories to draw conclusions about the hypotheses being studied. In particular, factor
analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) have used for testing theories. SEM
combines both factor and regression analyses. It allows the study of causal
relationships between factors by using regression analysis.

The theoretical basis of CFA relates to fundamentals of SEM. It describes the

relationships between variables. The phases of CFA can be represented as preparation
and model testing.

The preparation phase, which precedes the testing of a theoretical model, is concerned
with the quality of the data. During this phase, the researcher will test their data for
missing values, univariate and multivariate outliers and normality (for a description of
data quality, see testing an instrument’s psychometric properties). Furthermore,
instrument validity should be confirmed with exploratory factor analysis, and more
preferably, with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). 

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Various statistical cut-off values for goodness of fit can be used to evaluate whether a
tested model is valid. Some of the most commonly used cut-off values for goodness of
fit include: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

1.5 Paradigms of Social Research

A paradigm is a basic belief system and theoretical framework with assumptions about
1) ontology, 2) epistemology, 3) methodology and 4) methods. In other words, it is our
way of understanding the reality of the world and studying it. We will look closely at the
four components of a research paradigm.
Social science paradigms can be defined as the frames and models according to which
researchers can observe the world and make conclusions about the certain institutions,
processes, and interactions within the society. As a result, social science paradigms are
used in order to organize the researchers’ observation and reasoning and provide the ways
to discuss different social theories.

Ontology
Ontology and epistemology are to research what ‘footings’ are to a house: they
form the foundations of the whole edifice.

Researchers have assumptions (sometimes implicit) about reality, how it exists and
what can be known about it. It is the ontological question that leads a researcher to
inquire what kind of reality of exists.

Epistemology
Epistemology refers to “the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and the
process by which knowledge is acquired and validated” (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003, p. 13). It is
concerned with “the nature and forms [of knowledge], how it can be acquired and how
communicated to other human beings.

The epistemological question that researcher to debate, the possibility and desirability of
objectivity, subjectivity, causality, validity, generalizability. Adhering to an ontological belief system
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(explicitly or implicitly) guides one to certain epistemological assumptions. Therefore, if a
singular verifiable truth is assumed, “then the posture of the knower must be one of
objective detachment or value freedom in order to be able to discover ‘how things really are’
and ‘how things really work’” (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 108). Conversely, belief in socially
constructed multiple realities leads researchers to reject the notion that people should be
studied like objects of natural sciences; they get involved with the subjects and try and
understand phenomena in their contexts.

Methodology
It refers to the study and critical analysis of data production techniques. It is the “strategy, plan
of action, process or design” that informs one’s choice of research methods (Crotty, 1998,
p. 3). It is concerned with the discussion of how a particular piece of research should be
undertaken. It guides the researcher in deciding what type of data is required for a study and
which data collection tools will be most appropriate for the purpose of his/her study. It is the
methodological question that leads the researcher to ask how the world should be studied.

Methods
project and the researcher’s theoretical mindset. However, it must be noted that use of
particular methods does not entail ontological and epistemological assumptions.
Methods are specific means of collecting and analyses data, such as questionnaires and open
ended interviews. What methods to use for a research project will depend on the design of that
project and the researcher’s theoretical is. However, it must be noted that use of particular
methods does not entail ontological and epistemological assumptions.

1.6 Conclusion/Summary

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The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should
matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a
summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of
key points. So let us summarize what we have seen under the above subtopics on
Theory and Social Research.
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon or the results of
such thinking. Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses which are individual
empirically testable conjectures and from scientific laws which are descriptive accounts
of the way nature behaves under certain conditions .
The importance of sociological theory lies in how it gives us a way to speak about,
describe and interpret various behaviors. Many of the facts that we take for granted
about ourselves as human beings in an organized society have come to us through the
study of sociological theory.
The process of theory construction occurs in a social situation and it depends on the
environment of the thinker and his personal inclination. Steps for the construction of
a sociological theory are Causal Relationship, Definition of Concepts, Relationship
between Concepts, Theoretical Concepts, Hypothesis Testing, Data Analysis,
Generalization, Evaluation of Theory.
Theory-testing with cases is the process of ascertaining whether the empirical evidence
in a case or in a sample of cases either supports or does not support a given theory.
A paradigm is a basic belief system and theoretical framework with assumptions about
1) ontology, 2) epistemology, 3) methodology and 4) methods. In other words, it is our
way of understanding the reality of the world and studying it.

1.7 References

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1.  Bacharach, S. B. (1989). “Organizational Theories: Some Criteria for
Evaluation,” Academy of Management Review (14:4), 496-515.

2.  Steinfield, C.W. and Fulk, J. (1990). “The Theory Imperative,” in

Organizations and Communications Technology , J. Fulk and C. W.
Steinfield (eds.), Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

3. Markus, M. L. (1987). “Toward a ‘Critical Mass’ Theory of Interactive

Media: Universal Access, Interdependence, and Diffusion,”
Communication Research (14:5), 491-511.

4.  Ross, S. A. (1973). “The Economic Theory of Agency: The Principal’s

Problem,” American Economic Review (63:2), 134-139.

5. Ajzen, I. (1991). “The Theory of Planned Behavior,” Organizational

Behavior and Human Decision Processes (50), 179-211.
6. Rogers, E. (1962). ‘’Diffusion of Innovations’’ . New York: The Free Press.
Other editions 1983, 1996, 2005.
7. Institution of Civil Engineers. (1993). "ICE Conditions of Contract."
American Society of Civil Engineers (Thomas Telford, Ltd.)

8. Perelman, Les. “The Context of Classroom Writing.” College English 48

(1986): 471-79.

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