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5. METHODOLOGY
THE MEANING OF METHODOLOGY
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 Methodology can be defined as:
– A systematic way to solve a problem
– A science of how the research is to be carried out
– Procedures by which researchers go about their work
– The analysis of the principles of methods and rules
employed by a discipline
– The systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have
been applied within a discipline
– the study or description of methods
 Methodology aim at giving the work plan
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 It is important for the researcher to know not only the research
methods necessary for the research under taken but also the
methodology.
 even if the method considered in two problems are same the
methodology may be different
 Apart from application of a particular method, a researcher need
to know:
i. which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?,
ii. what is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?,
iii. what is the efficiency of the method? and so on.
 Consideration of these aspects constitute a research methodology.
 THE METHODOLOGY SECTION OF 4
YOUR PROJECT
 The methodology section of a research answers two main
questions:

I. How was the data collected or generated? and

II. How was it analyzed?

 The writing should be direct and precise and always written

in the past tense.
CONTENTS OF THE METHODOLOGY SECTION
An effectively written methodology section should:

1. Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating

your research problem. Is your study qualitative or quantitative or
a combination of both

2. Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design. Your
methods should have a clear connection with your research
problem.

3. Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to

use, such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation,
experiments etc.
 CONTENTS OF THE METHODOLOGY
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SECTION cont..
4. Explain how you intend to analyse your results. E.g. will you
use statistical analysis? Describe how you will obtain an
accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends,
distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.

5. Provide background and a justification for methodologies

that are unfamiliar for your readers. Be clear and concise in
your explanation.
 CONTENTS OF THE METHODOLOGY
SECTION cont..
6. Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure.
For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you
intend to select the sample population? If other data sources exist,
explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing
the research problem.

7. Describe potential limitations. Are there any practical limitations that

could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control
errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can
anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this
methodology outweighs the risk of these problems.
 THE MEANING OF THEORY
The following are some definitions of theory:
 A set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts that
attempts to provide a rational explanation of cause and
effect (causal) relationships among a group of observed
phenomenon.
 A theory is a well-validated explanation or framework for a
set of observations or phenomena. It is a logical and
systematic way of organizing and understanding facts,
observations, and data to explain why things happen or how
they work.
 THE MEANING OF THEORY cont.. 9
 Theories can be developed in various fields, including
science, philosophy, economics, psychology, and
sociology, among others. They are used to make
predictions, test hypotheses, and guide research and
experimentation.
 In scientific contexts, theories are considered to be more
than just educated guesses or hunches; they are
explanations that have been rigorously tested, supported
by evidence, and subject to peer review. As such, scientific
theories are constantly being refined and updated as new
data and discoveries emerge.
 SOME EXAMPLE OF THEORIES
 Heliocentrism: Copernicus, 1543: the Earth revolves around the sun (as
do other planets)

 Plate tectonics: Alfred Wegener, 1912; J. Tuzo Wilson, 1960s Wegener

realized that the continents drifted around as early as 1912. But it wasn’t
until the 1960s that scientists put the pieces together in a
comprehensive theory of plate tectonics.

 The domino theory: W.H. Heinrich (1931), “88% of all accidents are
caused by unsafe acts of people, 10% by unsafe actions and 2% by
“acts of God”.

 Theory of Planned Behaviour. Azjen (1991): s a social psychology

theory that explains human behaviour and how it is influenced by
individuals' beliefs, attitudes, and intentions. The theory is based on the
idea that individuals are rational and make deliberate decisions about
their actions.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THEORY 11
 Theory guides research and organises its ideas. ‘facts’ of
different shapes and sizes have no meaning unless they are
drawn together in a theoretical framework.

 Theory becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is

gathered; and it provides a context for predictions.

 Theory has the capacity to generate new research.

 Theory is not fixed; it is provisional, open to revision and

grows into more accurate and comprehensive explanations
THE ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH 12
 Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it.

 It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important

questions.

 It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data.

 Theory enables us to connect a single study to the vast base

of knowledge to which other researchers contribute: It helps
a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree.

 Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of

interconnections and of the broader significance of data.
How do Researchers build Theory? 13
 First approach: inductively based on observed patterns of events
or behaviours
 The second approach: Inductively by conducting a bottom-up
conceptual analysis to identify different sets of predictors
relevant to the phenomenon of interest .
 The third approach: deductively by extending or modifying
existing theories to explain a new context. Certain concepts,
conditions and propositions may be retained
 The fourth approach: apply existing theories in entirely new
contexts by drawing upon the structural similarities between the
two contexts. This approach relies on reasoning by analogy
(correspondence) and is a deductive approach.
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INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE
APPROACH
 INDUCTIVE APPROACH 15
 Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which the
premises (statements) are viewed as supplying strong
evidence for the truth of the conclusion.

 It is a “bottom-up logic”: This is because the conclusion is

reached by generalizing or extrapolating from specific cases
to general rules

 Therefore, Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing

conclusions by going from the specific to the general.
 INDUCTIVE APPROACH IN RESEARCH 16
 Inductive theorising begins with a few assumptions and
broad orienting concepts.

 Theory develops from the ground up as the researchers

gather and analyse the data.

 Theory emerges slowly, concept by concept, and

proposition by proposition, in a specific area.

 Over time, the concepts and empirical generalisations

emerge and mature.

 Soon, relationships become visible and researchers weave

knowledge from different studies into more abstract theory.
 EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LOGIC 17
 This cat is black. That cat is black A third cat is black.
Therefore all cats are black.

 This stone from the bag is round. That stone from the bag is
round. A third stone from the bag is round. Therefore all the
stones in the bag are round.

 Two-thirds of kids in my neighborhood are in primary

schools. Therefore, two-thirds of kids in my city are going to
primary schools.

 Bob is showing a big diamond ring to his friend Larry. Bob

has told Larry that he is going to marry Joan. Bob has bought
the diamond ring to give to Joan.
 DEDUCTIVE APPROACH 18
 Deductive logic/ deductive reasoning is the process of
reasoning based on multiple statements (premises) that are
assumed to be true in order to reach a logical conclusion.

 Deductive reasoning is also called top - down logic because

reasoning goes from general to specific

 In deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached deductively

by applying general rules which hold and narrowing the
range until only the conclusion is left
 EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE LOGIC 19
 In the process of deduction, you begin with some general
premises that are assumed to be true, you then determine
what else would have to be true if the premises are true.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Deductive arguments are normally written in the form: A is B, C
is A. Therefore, C is B

 All Tanzania presidents live at Magogoni (1st premise). Samia

Suluhu is the current president of Tanzania (2nd premise). She
lives at Magogoni (logical conclusion).

 All insects have exactly six legs (1st premise). Spiders have
eight legs (2nd premise). Therefore, spiders are not insects.
(logical conclusion).
EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE LOGIC cont.. 20

Some deductive reasoning do not follow the classic

reasoning pattern of A = B and B = C, then A = C. Some
examples of other patterns are:

 Be careful around bees, they might sting you. (The

reasoning is understood that all bees might sting.)

 It takes me an hour to get to the class. If I leave at five

o’clock I will reach the class by six o’clock.
CRITICISM TO INDUCTIVE REASONING 21
 Inductive reasoning is based on incomplete information.
The evidence used to form a conclusion may not be
representative of the entire population, leading to
inaccurate conclusion.

 The evidence may be influenced by personal biases or

preconceived notions, which can further distort the
reasoning process.

 Inductive reasoning relies on the assumption that the

future will be similar to the past which is is not always valid,
as past events may not accurately predict future
outcomes.
CRITICISM TO INDUCTIVE REASONING 22

 Inductive reasoning only provides probable, but not

certain, conclusions. This can make it difficult to validate
or confirm the conclusions drawn through inductive
reasoning, and leaves them open to challenge and
revision as new evidence is discovered.
CRITICISM TO DEDUCTIVE REASONING 23
 Limited scope: Deductive reasoning relies on the premises
being true in order for the conclusion to be valid. However,
in many real-world situations, premises are often uncertain
or incomplete, making it difficult to use deductive
reasoning.
 Over-dependency on past knowledge: Deductive
reasoning is often based on past knowledge and
experiences, which can lead to biases and assumptions
that may not be true in new situations.
 Rigidity: Deductive reasoning is often seen as a rigid,
inflexible process that does not allow for changes in
thinking.
 Possibility of false premises: If the premises on which
deductive reasoning is based are false, the conclusions
drawn from them will also be false.