10.

1108/09ð49420210433175

Gender differences in
ethical decision making
Sauwdra H. GLO6ER
Miwwette R. Buwpus
Glywda F. Sharp awd
George R. MUWGHUS

The authors

€aundra H. Glover is at the 7chool of Public Health,

The University of 7outh Carolina, Columbia,
7outh Carolina, U7A.
Minnette A. Bumpus is at the 7chool of Business,
Howard University, Washington, DC, U7A.
Glynda F. €harp is at the University of Health
7ciences, College of 0steopathic Medicine, Kansas
City,
Missouri, U7A.
George A. Munchus is at the University of Alabama
Birmingham 7chool of Business, Birmingham,
Alabama, U7A.

Keywords
Gender, Ethics, Decision making, Values

Abstract

Most of the research on fostering ethical climates by

making ethical decision choices in organisations has
taken place in the last 20 years. Research has moved
from specific studies evaluating either individual or
situational variables as factors in ethical decision
behaviour to more complex models that encompass
the interaction of individual and situational factors.
This study revisits the influence of the individual
variable of gender on ethical decision making. Using a
laboratory format and decision exercises that
attempted to create realistic business conflict
situations through decision scenarios, the influence of
demographic factors, specifically gender, and the moral
intensity of the conflict situation on ethical decision
making are examined in the light of workplace values.

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Women in Management Review
Volume 17 . Number 5 . 2002 . pp. 217–227
g MCB UP Limited . I77N 09ð4-
9425 D0I
1
Introduction thirds of the 9 million jobs created between
l983 and l99O went to women (Shipman,
Nature will not abide a vacuum and, l993). By l988, the proportion of women
because we have let the positive between Sł
particulars go, they have been replaced
with degeneracy, indifference and vice Received: September SOOl
(Angelou, l993, p. PO). Revised: October SOOl
Accepted: March SOOS
Business ethics remain at the forefront of
popular and academic journals as
incidents that threaten the moral fibre of
both the private and public sector (Grell,
l993). †he challenge for managers and
leaders is to exemplify ethical behaviour
and to be willing to be held accountable
to their superiors and to the public for
their decision choices (Navran, l99P). †he
public perception is of a private and public
sector, whose morals and ethics ratings
on a ten-point scale are ł.P, the lowest
since l9ł9 (Heubusch, l99P).
Empirical studies also support a decline
in ethical behaviour in institutions,
particularly business organisations
(Walton, l988).
†he role of gender in ethical
perceptions is well established (Franke
et al., l99P).
Beltramini et al. (l984) suggested that
ethical business practices would be
significantly affected by the increasing
participation of women in the workforce.
Singhapakdi et al. (l999) found that
women have more ethical intentions than
men. According to futurist John Naisbitt
(Naisbitt and Aburdene, l99O; Aburdene
and Naisbitt, l99S; Ashmore et al., l99O),
the changing role of women in society is
‘‘the most significant change in this
century’’. †his changing role includes an
influx of females into the workforce.
Songer (l99l) predicted that, by the year
SOOO, women would approach łO per
cent of the US work force and that six
out of seven working-age women would
be at work. Of the new entrants into the
labour force between l98ł and SOOO
two-thirds would be female.
†he trends predicted by Songer (l99l)
were fairly accurate with the percentage
of women in the US workplace at 4ł.6
per cent in l998 and three out of every
five women of working age in the labour
force. †he rate of growth of łO per cent
exceeded Songer’s prediction of two-
thirds (number of new entrants into the
workplace) (Lips, l999).
In the European Community, two-
2
 Gender differences in ethical decision making
7aundra H. Glover et al.
and 34 years of age in the labour force was 6P
per cent in the Uk, Pł per cent in France,
and 8P per cent in West Germany (†he
EGOWOwist, l99l). †he labour participation
rate of women for the EU in l996 was ł6
per cent, slightly higher than the USA with a
participation rate of ł4 per cent in the same
year[l]. In SOOO, women made up more than
4O per cent of the total workforce in the Uk,
France, and West Germany at rates of 4ł per
cent, 46 per cent, and 44 per cent,
respectively (Lips, l999).
According to Jamieson and O’Mara (l99l),
P3 per cent of the corporate executives
responding to a survey reported that 3O per
cent of their workers were females. A total of
4P per cent of the executives reported that
over łO per cent were female. †he Bureau of
Labor Statistics l999 (US Department of
Labor, l999) reported that women made up
two-thirds of all minimum wage earners in
the USA. Between the years l9Pł and l98ł,
the total number of women in professional
and managerial capacities increased by PP
per cent, while the total number of males in
these positions increased by only 6 per cent.
Women made up 3ł per cent of the
executive, administrative, and management
workforce population in the USA (Jamieson
and O’Mara, l99l). More recent statistics
show the USA and Canada as having two of
the highest ratios of women to men in
administrative and managerial positions (6P
and 68 women for every lOO men,
respectively). In New Zealand there are 48
women for every lOO men in managerial
positions (Neft and Levine, l99P).
†hese labour statistics reflect, in part,
the fact that women are becoming better
educated. In l99O, women received 3l per
cent of the MBA degrees given in the
USA, 39 per cent of law degrees, l3 per
cent of engineering degrees, and łO per cent
of undergraduate degrees (Jackson, l99S).
In the USA, women were expected to earn
just over łP per cent of all undergraduate
degrees in l999 compared with 43 per cent
in l9PO and S4 per cent in l9łO (koerner,
l999).
Other countries where the undergraduate
participation rates exceed łO per cent are
New Zealand, Cuba, and Sweden (Unesco,
l99ł):
In Britain, Germany and Italy, the proportion of
young women with university degrees is almost
the same as that for young men (†he EGOWOWIST,
l99l).
Women in Management Review
Volume 17 . Number 5 . 2002 . 217–
227
However, in l993, Shipman noted that
women still had not broken into traditional
male domains of work in Europe:
Compared with overall activity rates, women are
over-represented in retail, financial and other
services (which employ Pł per cent of the EC’s
working women) and under-represented in
manufacturing and construction. Women form
around a third of industrial economies’ middle
management but less than ł per cent of senior
management, according to surveys by the
Geneva-based International Labour
Organisation (Shipman, l993).
In a l999 speech, Ladraig Flynn, European
Commissioner with responsibility for
Employment, Social Affairs and Health
Matters, said:
It is important to stress that what is at stake
is not simply the quantitative objective of a
numerical balance of women and men in
decision-making bodies; rather it is the
qualitative objective of actually improving
decision making (Flynn, l999).
†he increasing female labour force, as is
made evident by these numbers, has many
implications for organisational ethics. With
women comprising over łO per cent of the
labour force, the question arises whether a
change in the ethical climate will occur, as
women increasingly take on management
and leadership roles.
Literature review
Most of the research on fostering ethical
climates via ethical decision making in
organisations has taken place in the last SO
years. †he focus of research to date has
been on understanding what factors
influence the ethical behaviour of
organisational members. Research has
moved from specific studies evaluating
either individual or situational variables as
factors in ethical decision behaviour to more
complex models that encompass the
interaction of individual and situational
factors.
†he major focus of the individual approach
has been identifying characteristics of the
moral individual. Studies emphasising
individual factors influencing ethical decision
making have shown a number of variables to
be significant determinants of ethical or
unethical behaviour. Some of these are:
● LOGUS of control and machiavellianism
(Hegarty and Sims, l9P8, l9P9);
 Gender differences in ethical decision making Women in Management Review
7aundra H. Glover et al. Volume 17 . Number 5 . 2002 . 217–
227
● moral philosophy (Fritzche, l988);
 Gender differences in ethical decision making
7aundra H. Glover et al.
● stages of moral development (Manning,
l98l; Stratton et al., l98l; †revino and
Youngblood, l99O);
● emotion (Gaudine and †horne, SOOl);
● age (Serwinck, l99S);
● years of education (Jones and
Gautschi, l988); and
● gender (Ruegger and king, l99S).
†he general perception is, and has been,
that women are more ethical than men
(Jackall, l988), but researchers who have
examined gender effects within the context
of ethical decision making have found
conflicting results. A number of studies
support the belief that men are more prone
to unethical behaviour than women (Betz et
al., l989; kidwell et al., l98P; McNichols and
Zimmerer, l98ł; Beltramini et al., l984).
Some studies support females as being the
more ethical decision makers, while others
found similar ethical choice behaviour in
both men and women (Chonko and Hunt,
l98ł; Ruegger and king, l99S; Serwinck,
l99S).
†salikis and Ortiz-Buonafina (l99O) found
no differences in the ethical beliefs
between males and females or in how
they process ethical information. Sikula and
Costa (l994) found similar rankings of
values and ethical equivalence for men
and women.
In a study that compared the differences in
cognitive frameworks used by business
managers in Hong kong, Malaysia, New
Zealand and Canada, the most salient
cognitive frameworks were identified as:
● self-interest;
● neutralisation;
● justice; and
● categorical imperative (McDonald and
Lak, l996).
†he results of that study showed basically no
major difference in the cognitive frameworks
used by male and female managers;
however, a breakdown by country indicated
obvious differences in the frameworks used
in each cultural location. Canadian females
indicated only one cognitive framework –
neutralisation, while Canadian males
showed a tendency to employ self-interest
and to a lesser extent justice and duty. In
Malaysia, both genders used religious
conviction and neutralisation frameworks,
however, the more salient frameworks; used
by males, were self-interest and
utilitarianism. Managers in Hong kong relied
primarily on self-interest and justice when
resolving ethical dilemmas regardless of
Women in Management Review
Volume 17 . Number 5 . 2002 . 217–
227
gender. Hong kong females also used the
supplemental frameworks of light of day and
religious conviction, which seem to indicate
that Hong kong females are influenced in
their ethical decision making by the prospect
of being discovered and exposed. New
Zealand females were the only female group
to utilise utilitarianism and categorical
imperative. †his is perhaps explained by the
pragmatism that is inherent within the New
Zealand value system, where individuals are
more inclined to use a traditional cost versus
benefit analysis (McDonald and Lak, l996).
†he situational approach asserts that
situational aspects such as the
organisation’s reward system, peer
influence, the influence of superiors, or
organisational norms have a demonstrable
effect on the ethical decision behaviour of
individuals (Hegarty and Sims, l9P8, l9P9;
†revino and Youngblood, l99O; Zey-Ferrell
et al., l9P9). †he most complex models of
the ethical decision-making process take an
interactive perspective in understanding
ethical behaviour. †his approach takes the
viewpoint that ethical decision making
results from an interaction between the
individual and the situation (Ferrell and
Gresham, l98ł; †revino, l986;
†revino and Youngblood, l99O).
†here has also been a growing interest in
the study of individual values within ethical
decision behaviour research. Brief et al.
(l99O) found that personal values influenced
how individuals chose to resolve ethical
dilemmas, when they would be held
accountable for their choices. A discriminate
analysis of demographic data showed no
difference between male and female
subjects. Fritzche and Becker (l984), using
normative ethical theory to represent the
individual’s personal standards or values,
concluded that managers follow a utilitarian
value orientation when faced with ethical
dilemmas. More recently, studies identifying
ethical theories, as values and linking these
theories to ethical decision making, have not
supported the earlier findings that
categorised most managers as utilitarian.
Forrest et al. (l99O), using executives in the
transport industry, found that these
executives did not rely on any one principle,
for example, utilitarianism, rights or justice,
as justification for their actions. †he latter
two studies did not describe the gender of
the subjects included in each study.
2
Gender differences in ethical decision making Women in Management Review
7aundra H. Glover et al. Volume 17 . Number 5 . 2002 . 217–
227
1
P
 †his paper posits that the role individual follows.
values play in the determination and Honesty/integrity are the individual’s beliefs
resolution of ethical dilemmas is moderated about the way he or she ought to tell the truth
by individual differences. Initially, the
research summarised here looked at the
value of honesty/integrity and its influence
on ethical decision behaviour, but was
subsequently expanded to explore the
influence of other workplace values,
demographic characteristics, as well as
variable levels of the moral intensity of the
ethical situation. Although interest in the
study of individual values within decision
behaviour research is increasing, the moral
intensity of the ethical dilemma has yet to be
examined at great length.
Values are defined for this research as the
individual’s prescriptive beliefs concerning
the desirability of certain modes of conduct
or end-states of behaviour (Rokeach, l9P3).
Rokeach (l9P3) argues that each value is
ordered in priority of importance relative to
other values. †he ordering is the result of the
‘‘process of maturation’’. †his system is
stable over time yet unstable enough to
permit rearrangements of value priorities
because of changes in personal
experiences. †hus, individuals will differ in
their value system and the stability of that
system because of variations in personal
and cultural experience.
Rokeach (l9P3) refers to two kinds of
values, instrumental and terminal. †erminal
values are defined as end-states of
existence. Instrumental values are identified
as modes of behaviour, used to arrive at
end-states. †he values related to the focus
of this paper are instrumental. Rokeach
(l9P3) subdivided instrumental values into
moral versus competence value
classifications. Moral values are
interpersonal such that when they are
violated the individual has feelings of guilt.
Competence values, when violated, arouse
in the individual feelings of personal
inadequacy. Moral and competence values
carry with them a connotation of the way
individuals ‘‘ought’’ to behave relative to
others or the individual’s self-interest,
respectively.
Competence values (honesty/integrity,
achievement), as well as moral values
(fairness, concern for others) will be
examined in this study. Employing
definitions from Ravlin and Meglino (l98P),
the values in the study are defined as

220
and do what he or she thinks is right. Methods
Achievement is defined as getting things Study hypotheses
done and working hard to accomplish †his study examined the hypothesis that
difficult goals in life. Fairness means women will be more likely than men to favour
being impartial and doing what is fair for ethical over unethical (economic) decision
all concerned; while concern for others is
choices, (Schminke and
defined as being concerned with other
regardless of Ambrose, l99P).
people and helping others.
the moral
†he current study builds on earlier
intensity of the Research
studies designed using a laboratory
situation. †he desigm
format and decision exercises that
researchers †his study was
attempted to establish realistic work-
also predicted designed using a
world conditions through decision
that low self- laboratory format
scenarios (Glover, l99l; Glover et al.,
monitors and and a decision
l993, l99P). Glover (l99l) investigated
high private exercise that
the relationship between
self-conscious attempted to
honesty/integrity and ethical decision
individuals establish realistic
processes, as moderated by the
would make work world
individual personality traits of self-
the most conditions
monitoring and private self-
ethical choice through decision
consciousness.
and would scenarios. Study
†his study also explored the relationship
moderate the subjects were
between honesty/integrity and cognitive
relationship junior and senior
moral development and the moderating
between business majors
effects of cognitive moral development in
individual at a large
the association between honesty/integrity
values and the western
and decisions. Glover et al. (l993, l99P)
ethical choice. university. †he
examined the influence of single
Although it median age of
workplace value, honesty/integrity on the
has yet to be the 36P subjects
ethical decision process.
conclusively included in this
Findings from these earlier studies
proven, there study was Sl
suggested that the degree to which a
is some years, ages
particular value influenced a decision
evidence that, ranged from a
choice depended heavily upon
as a whole, low of l8 to a
demographic or environmental factors in
women tend to high of 68 and ł9
the situation (Glover, l99l; Glover et al.,
make more per cent of the
l993, l99P).
‘‘humanistic’’ subjects were
†his study is an attempt to assess
decisions than male.
individual workplace values and the
men (Gilligan, Approximately l9
demographic, specifically gender, and/or
l98S; Bass et per cent were
situation factors which may or may not
al., l998). non-white. Work
trigger a specific value influence. †he
†here is also experience
study involved a change in the level of
some evidence varied between
moral intensity and the inclusion of
that women part-time versus
variables that had provided the strongest
may be more full-time status.
results in the first two studies including
concerned with
self-monitoring and self-consciousness.
others than Procedure
†hree demographic variables were
men and Lrior to taking
employed: age, gender, and number
therefore, the decision
years of employment.
when making exercise,
Ravlin and Meglino’s (l98P) four types
ethical decision subjects were
of workplace values: achievement,
choices, may asked to
honesty/integrity, fairness, and concern
consider how complete the
for others, were also employed.
those choices comparative
will impact emphasis scale
others (Ravlin and
221
Meglino, a list of S4 more in subjects
l986)to pairs of their were asked
measure behaviours, behaviour to read four
their values. and describe at work. scenarios
†hey also activities that †he and to
completed people feel statements indicate their
the self- they should do. represented decision
monitoring Subjects were one of the choices on a
and self- asked to select following scale of one
consciousnes one statement values: to five with
s scales from each pair achieveme one
(Snyder, they felt should nt, fairness, reflecting a
l9P4; Duval be emphasised honesty/int low
and egrity, and probability of
Wicklund, concern for taking the
l9PS). †he others. †he action
decision values were prescribed
exercise paired and in each
used counterbala scenario.
scenarios to nced †he
examine across the scenarios
decision S4 pairs of were
choice. †he behaviours. selected
scenarios Examples from a
were include: series of
designed to taking pre-tests with
reflect actions an original
realistic which set of ten
business represent scenarios
situations your true and using a
with ethical feelings panel of
dimensions versus experts.
and utilised trying to Scenario one
prior avoid had a high
behaviour hurting economics
research other loading.
(Brenner and people; and Scenario four
Molander, encouragin had a high
l9PP; g someone ethics
Fritzche and who is loading, while
Becker, l984; having a scenarios two
Laczniak and difficult day and three
Inderrieden, versus were close to
l98P; Ravlin, considering łO-łO
l99O; Weber, different economics/et
l99O). points of hics in terms
view before of the
Measures taking importance of
Values action. A issues
Subjects total score according to
completed the for each of the panel of
comparative the four experts
emphasis values was employed to
scale (Ravlin obtained. evaluate the
and Meglino, scenarios.
EthiGAL DEGISIOw GHOIGES
l986), that is †he selection
†he
222
and onal actively situations
ordering factors, and plan, enact (Snyder and
of the four considers and guide Cantor,
scenarios the their l98O).
allowed magnitude behavioural According to
the of choices in this
researche consequenc social
rs to es, social theory, consciousness
increase consensus, individuals was measured
the moral probability differ in the using the Duval
intensity of effect, extent to which and Wicklund
from low temporal they rely on (l9PS)scale,
to immediacy,
either where private
high[S]. proximity,
situational self-
†hese and
cues or consciousness is
scenarios concentrati
individual inner defined as a
presented on of effect
states, high awareness
variations as
dispositions of one’s internal
in the influencing
and attitudes state (Deux and
moral the ethical
to guide their Wrightsman,
issues, or decision
actions l984). Duval and
moral choice
(Jones, (Snyder and Wicklund (l9PS)
intensity
of the l99l). Cantor, l98O). suggest that
ethical Hence, High self- private self-
dilemma, moral monitors guide consciousness
ranging intensity in their or the
from this context behaviours on individual’s
clearly would drive the basis of tendency to
unethical/ the situational direct attention
ethical recognition information, inward may act
choices to of the and the as a moderator
moderatel moral issue correlation variable between
y in a between their self-reported and
ethical/un situation behaviour and actual
ethical and could their inner behaviour.
decision moderate state is However, some
choices. the minimal individuals are
Jones’ relationship (Snyder and more likely to
(l99l) between Swann, l9P6). engage in the
concept individual Low self- self-awareness
of moral values and monitors process than
intensity the respond to others (Deux
excludes decision information and Wrightsman,
the choice. from relevant l984).
concept Self-wowitoriwg inner states; Consequently,
of Snyder’s thus low self- subjects high in
individual (l9P4)theor monitors would private self-
characteri y of self- be guided by consciousness
stics (i.e. monitoring their values in could result in
values) of was the choice high private self-
the basis for situations. conscious
decision assessing individuals being
maker SELF-
the process more attentive to
and GOWSGIOUSwess
by which information in an
organisati Each subject’s
subjects ethical dilemma
level of self-
223
congruent take the was not private self-
with their ethical found. consciousne
values. than Women, in ss scored
unethical fact, made low on the
(economic the more self-
Results ) action. ethical monitoring
choice in scale.
Generally, Descriptive statistics the four
the subjects scenarios, Pre-regressiom amalysis
Descriptive
possessed even A histogram
statistics
moderate though their of the
for each
levels of all mean self- response to
variable
four monitoring each
were
workplace score was dependent
calculated
values. †he higher than variable (the
and are
values the male values) was
displayed
honesty/integ respondents run to
in †able I.
rity had the (ll.6, determine its
Although
highest mean lO.8). Men, underlying
there were
value at ł.8P on the distribution.
no
with other hand, Since the
significant
achievement, exhibited dependent
differences
fairness and higher variables
between
concern for levels of were not
females
others, private self- normally
and males
measuring on consciousne distributed
on either
average ł.48, ss. but showed
private self-
However, bimodality,
ł.36, and ł.66 consciousn
this finding they were
respectively. ess or self-
did not recoded into
Female monitoring,
influence binary
respondents the females
the categories,
reflected did,
expected where the
higher however,
values to responses O,
workplace exhibit a
ethical l, S were
value scores higher
decision coded O for
on self-
choice ‘‘low’’, and
achievement, monitoring
relationship the
concern for score on
. responses 3,
others, and average
Correlation 4, ł were
honesty/integ than males
al analysis coded l for
rity. †he and the
showed a ‘‘high’’.
highest value opposite
was true significantly
negative Logistic regressiom
for the
correlation Multiple
construct
between regression
private
self- under the
self-
monitoring logistic
consciousn
and private functional
ess. †hus
self- form was
the
consciousne used with the
relationship
ss (p < four
expected,
O.OOl). dichotomised
based on
Individuals dependent
the
high in variables.
literature,
Ordinary least
224
square regression Years' experience 5.00 4.50
regression Management 4.20 ð.ð0
Table I Descriptive statistics €elf-monitoring 11.ð0 10.81
or other
rating for the F M Private self-consciousness 51.ð4 52.11
e a
Indepen ml
female a e techniques, four scenarios
dent
respondents l
variables e ( requiring indicated that
was ( n normally male
honesty/integ n distributed respondents
rity. Male =
dependent were l.ł to S.3
participants = variables (e.g. times as likely to
2
reflected general linear resort to the
1 1
5 7
models), were unethical
0 ) ruled out (economic)
) because of the versus the
a higher Achievement bimodal nature ethical action.
workplace 5.43 of the values. Other significant
value score Concern for others †able II results show the
on 5.ð2
presents the odds ratio of the
fairness. Fairness
measure of workplace
In scenario 5.41
Honesty
association values’
one, subjects
5.84 between the achievement and
were equally
independent fairness relative
as likely to
variables: age, to the ethical
take the gender, years versus unethical
ethical as the of full-time choices in each
unethical management scenario. †he
(economic) experience, the endpoint of a 9ł
action. In four workplace per cent
scenarios values and the confidence
two and decision interval, for each
three, more choices. odds ratio, is
than łO per †he odds ratio also presented.
cent of the measures how Although all the
subjects likely or intervals include
were more unlikely it is for l.O, the
likely to take the outcome of distribution for
the unethical the ethical each appears to
than the versus be somewhat
ethical unethical skewed.
action. In choice to be Our results
scenario four, present among were fairly
strong with
more than łO those
statistically
per cent of respondents,
significant results
the subjects given their age,
at the ł per cent
were more gender, years
confidence level
likely to of full-time
or better in nine
management
of the S8 cells.
experience,
Gender was a
and their
strong predictor
workplace
of ethical
values. In
behaviour.
testing the
Women made
study
more ethical
hypothesis, the
decisions than
odds ratio for
men at
gender in all
statistically
225
significant female ed
levels with participants with
regard to was also Discussion and high
each of the evidenced conclusions level
four in later s of
scenarios, studies †he three ethi
thus (Glover et major cal
confirming findings deci
al., l993,
the study uncovered sion
l99P),
hypothesis. in this mak
where the
†hese study are: ing
females
findings are (l) women in
made the
consistent were two
more
with the more of
ethical
findings of likely the
choice than
earlier to four
men at
studies that make choi
statistically
did not adjust ethical ces.
significant
for the choice
levels in all †hat women
intensity of s than
the moral four of the were more
decision men;
situation likely to make
choice (S) years of
(Glover, l99l; the ethical
situations. work
Glover et al., choice than
In the experie
l993, l99P). men, in all
current nce
In Glover four of the
study, men correlat
(l99l), scenarios,
made the ed with
women presents an
more higher
participants argument
ethical levels
made the against
choice in of
more ethical Barnett and
the ethical
choice at karson’s
scenarios, behavi
statistically (l98P) finding
where the our in
significant that gender
moral two of
levels in two differences
intensity the four
of the four were
scenarios was choices
situationally
presented. extreme, ; and
specific.
More ethical either a (3) hi
†he results
behaviour on clearly gh
also
the part of unethical or lev
contradict
the a clearly els
†salikis
ethical of
and Ortiz-
situation. ne
Buonafina’
†his finding ed
s (l99O)
suggests for
suggestion
that, when ac
that
an issue hi
women
falls in the ev
were not
‘‘grey’’ area, e
consistent
men are m
in their
less likely en
ethical
to make the t
choice
more co
behaviour.
ethical rre
†salikis
choice. lat
and
226
 Ortiz- problem. with higher value
Buonafin †he levels of achievement, will
a (l99O) findings do management make the more
found support the experience ethical choice,
that results of made the more when the moral
females the study ethical choice intensity is not
had a by in two extreme (i.e.
lower Beltramini scenarios. †his very low moral
probabilit et al. (l984) finding gives intensity, very
y of that female some support high moral
acting in students to earlier intensity). When
a similar express research faced with a
way, if more indications that decision choice
faced ethical ethical decision balanced in
with the concern behaviour is economic and
same than directly related ethical issues,
to individuals who
Table II Logistic regression odds ratio – estimates of ethical choice (95 management value
per cent CI in parentheses) experience and achievement
Independent variable Choice 1 level in the significantly
organisation made the more
Age 0.9953 (1.0ð, 0.94)
Gender 1.5ð24 (2.38, 1.03) (kidwell et al., ethical choice.
Years of full-time management experience 0.8988 (1.47, 1.01) l98P; Stevens, However, there
Achievement 0.9908 (1.14, 0.8ð) l984). was no
Honesty 1.019ð (1.18, 0.88) Managers with interactive effect
Fairness 0.944ð (1.10, 0.81) long tenure for ethical choice
Concern for others 0.9098 (1.07, 0.77) tend to have behaviour
-2 log likelihood 498.7882 experience in between gender
similar and the value
Notes: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01
situations on achievement.
male supported which to draw, Females,
students (Jones and when faced regardless of the
regardless of Gautshi, l988). with ethical degree of moral
the ethical †his is dilemmas, and intensity, appear
issue. Given particularly also may be to make the
the evident in the more aware of more ethical
consistency two middle the ethical choice.
in the female scenarios, context of the †he lack of
participants’ where the organisation as significant
ethical choice ethical to what is differences in
behaviour in implications acceptable workplace
the current were not as behaviour. values between
study, the clear and the †hus how females and
argument male study individuals are males lends
that females participants socialised into some support to
have a higher tended to the earlier studies
sensitivity make the more organisation that suggest
toward unethical may influence similar ethical
ethical issues (economic)cho their ethical beliefs and
and a greater ice in contrast choice perceptions held
tendency to with the ethical behaviour. by women and
take action, choice †he findings men (kidwell et
when they behaviour of suggest that al., l98P; Sikula
perceive a their female high need and Costa, l994).
questionable counterparts. achievers, or However, the
business Study individuals who differences
practice, is participants
227
appear to was would be of data
occur when consistentl considered collected
individuals y and socially from
are asked to coherently desirable managers in
act on those the ethical behaviour Loland with
beliefs and choice. (Randall the US
perceptions. †he and sample to
†he ethical behaviour Gibson, explore
choice of the l99O). cross-cultural
behaviour of male Another ethical
women in responden limitation of differences.
this study, ts, on the this study is
even though other that
their value hand, nationality Recommendations
orientations appears to was not
were similar relate to included as †he results
to male the moral a variable. of this study
respondents, intensity of As the have
the university significant
situation. where the implications
study took for
Study limitatioms place is organisationa
One highly l leadership
obvious cosmopolit and what
caveat is an and has type of
that the a majority leadership
sample, of students may or may
consisting from ‘‘out- not be
of of-state’’ effective in
undergradu and of the ‘‘new
ate foreign organisation’
students, origin, ’ – one that
possessed nationality is less
limitations. could, hierarchical,
†he sample perhaps, more flexible,
was young, explain more global,
and had differences and more
little in ethical culturally
managerial decision diverse. †he
work choice role of
experience. based on manager or
One also cultural leader in an
had to factors. †he ethical
consider next phase context, in
potential of these this ‘‘new
response series of organisation’’
bias in that research , is to create
those studies on organisationa
without ethical l cultures
managerial decision that promote
experience making by ethical
would the authors behaviour.
respond will involve †he gender
based on the differences in
perceptions analyses ethical
of what and decision
comparison
228
making ons leaders of the feminine which explicit
supporte must be model of organisational
d by this empathetic leadership policy is
research and of high style in needed to
suggest moral response to improve ethical
that character. this change in behaviour.
women A more ethical climate.
and the empathetic A question
character person arises as to
whether
Notes
istics identifies
males and
and/or more 1 The European
females use
manageri closely Union
the same or comprises the
al skills with
different ethical countries of
they employees
possess , systems as a Germany,
guideline when 7pain,
may customers, Portugal, the
make shareholde deciding what
UK, Ireland,
them rs, is right or France, Italy,
more suppliers wrong. It is Greece, The
effective and peers. suggested that Netherlands,
future research Denmark,
leaders. One of the
examine the Belgium,
O’Neil key Luxembourg,
and characteris moderating
Austria,
Lienta tics of the effects of Finland and
(l994) feminine ethical 7weden.
write that model of systems as 2 Contact
they relate to 7aundra H.
ethical leadership
Glover for copy
persons style moral intensity of scenarios.
care (Loden and of the ethical
about Rosener, dilemmas and
others l99l)is subsequent
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Publisher’s mote
Babita Mathur-Helm, author of ‘‘Expatriate
success, challenges and career goals’’, pub
Vol. lP No. l, SOOS, pp. l8-S8, would like it to be noted that she is now Senior
Lecturer at the University of Stellenbosch Business School, Cape †own, South

227