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Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Structural reliability of eccentrically-loaded sections in RC columns made of

recycled aggregate concrete
Marco Breccolotti ∗ , Annibale Luigi Materazzi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Perugia, via G. Duranti 93, I-06125 Perugia, Italy

article info abstract

Article history: The results of experimental and theoretical research on the structural use of concrete manufactured
Received 6 May 2010 with recycled aggregates are reported. In particular the statistical properties of concrete compressive
Received in revised form strength have been studied using a sizable number of samples made with different percentages of recycled
23 July 2010
aggregates. On the basis of these experimental results a theoretical investigation has been carried out to
Accepted 9 August 2010
Available online 15 September 2010
evaluate the influence of the quality and quantity of recycled aggregates on the structural reliability of
RC elements. A methodology for the calibration of the partial safety coefficient to be used with these
Keywords:
concretes has been applied, taking as reference the results of Level-2 reliability analysis. The results
Recycled aggregate concrete obtained by means of a parametric experiment allows us to underline that the use of recycled aggregates
Structural reliability in structural concrete can be made – as a rule – even with the complete replacement of the natural
RC elements coarse aggregates but requires more strict design procedures to ensure the same structural reliability
Design methods as conventional concrete.
© 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction concrete. Nevertheless, these standards provide very different

In the last few years much effort has been devoted by
the scientific community to improve the sustainability of civil
engineering structures. In this framework the theme of material
recycling has gained more and more attention. It is well known that
it is possible to use aggregates derived from concrete debris in the
partial or total replacement of the natural aggregates for making
new concrete. This material has been used for backfilling and in
road substrates for many years. In several countries the use of
recycled aggregates is also allowed for the production of structural
concrete. This solution could allow the recycling of the production
discards from the precast industry and of the rubble produced
during the demolition of reinforced concrete buildings, with
great advantages from the point of view of environmental issues
and the exploitation of natural resources. Several bibliographical
references deal with this topic, from the first works published
between the late 70’s and the beginning of the 80’s [1,2] to more
recent studies carried out in recent years [3–9]. A landmark for
this type of material can be considered the document issued
by RILEM in 1994 [10] and updated by Hendriks & Pieterson
in 1998 [11]. Based on its provisions, a quite limited number
of national and international technical standards ([12–19], see
Table 1) are allowing the use of recycled aggregates for structural
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 075 5853900; fax: +39 075 585 3897.
E-mail addresses: breccolotti@strutture.unipg.it (M. Breccolotti),
materazzi@unipg.it (A.L. Materazzi).
0141-0296/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2010.08.015
indications, allowing in some cases the complete replacement of
natural aggregates to make concrete with compressive strength up
to 60 N/mm2 and in other cases the use of recycled aggregates only
for specific applications and for strengths lower than 20 N/mm2 .
Moreover, very few indications can be found about the methods to
be used for designing RC elements manufactured with this type of
concrete, as all codes implicitly assume that the same safety level
could be achieved using both normal (NAC) and recycled aggregate
concrete (RAC).
From the structural reliability point of view contradictory
results can be found in the literature. The first studies indicated
that the coefficient of variation (CoV) of the compressive strength
of RAC does not differ too much from the established NAC
behavior [1,2] while the use at the same time of different qualities
of recycled aggregates produces a small increase in the concrete
strength CoV [20]. On the contrary, in recent studies it has
been observed that the compressive strength CoV of recycled
aggregate concrete can be considerably higher than that of
conventional concrete. Etxeberria et al. in 2007 [21] considered
recycled aggregates obtained by crushing unknown concrete
from a waste recycling area. The composition of the recycled
aggregates determined by visual inspection was 92% crushed
concrete composed of 49% of original aggregates still surrounded
by some mortar and of 43% of original aggregates. The compressive
strength CoV determined on concrete samples varied between 8.8%
for conventional concrete to 16.7% for 100% recycled aggregate
concrete. Rahal in 2007 [22] tested ten mixes of concrete with
target compressive cube strengths ranging from 20 to 50 MPa
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M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712 3705

Table 1
Recycled aggregate concretes in national and international standards.
Country Standard Application % recycled coarse % recycled fine fc ,max 100% fc ,max 20%
restrictions aggregates aggregates replacement replacement

RILEM 1998 0–100 Not recommended 60 N/mm2 No limit

Belgium 0–100 With restriction 37 N/mm2 –
Brazil Draft NBR – 0–20 0–20 – 45 N/mm2
China WBTC 12/2002 – 0–20 – – 45 N/mm2
Denmark 0–100 0–20
Germany DIN 4226-100 No prestress 0–45 Not allowed 37 N/mm2
Holland NEN 5950 – 0–100 0–20 45 N/mm2 No limit
Hong Kong Specific use 0–100 Not allowed 20 N/mm2 35 N/mm2
Italy DM 14/01/2008 0–100 Not allowed 10 N/mm2 37 N/mm2
Japan JIS A 5021/3 Specific use 0–100 – 37 N/mm2 –
Spain Draft EHE – 0–20 – 45 N/mm2
UK BS 6543 BRE 433 – 0–20 Not recommended 60 N/mm2 No limit
USA ACI 555R-01 – 0–100 0–100 As per ACI 318

prepared using normal and recycled coarse aggregates. The CoV
for NAC decreased from 4.18% for concrete class 20 MPa to 1.87%
for a 50 MPa concrete, while for RAC the CoV increased with
strength from 2.61% to 3.17%. Xiao et al. [23] analyzed the statistical
properties of the compressive strength of normal and recycled
concretes designed to have the same characteristic strength. They
found that the compressive strength CoV varied from 8.27% for NAC
to 9.70% for 50% RAC. It is evident that the mechanical behavior of
concrete manufactured with recycled aggregates depends on the
quality and the quantity of the recycled aggregates used in the
mixture. As a consequence, the structural design procedure of RAC
elements should be suitably modified.
On this basis, a theoretical and experimental research program
has been carried out at the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering of the University of Perugia, Italy. The primary
objective of this study concerns the effects that the quantity and
quality of the recycled aggregates have on concrete compressive
strength, clarifying the influence of these variables on the
structural reliability of RAC elements. In the experimental part
of the study a meaningful number of standard specimens of RAC
have been manufactured and tested to evaluate the compressive
strength. The analysis of the results allowed us to determine the
statistical properties of the mechanical resistance, particularly the
value of the mean resistance, the standard deviation and the CoV,
for concrete made with different types and percentages of recycled
material. The comparison of these results with those of similar
tests carried out on NAC confirms that, generally, the mechanical
resistance of the concrete made with recycled aggregates exhibits
higher scattering. To test the influence of this scattering on the
structural safety of RC elements a reliability analysis has been
performed using the technique of the safety index β . A parametric
study that considers RC sections under combined bending and
normal force with different values of the load eccentricity has
been carried out. The reliability analyses have been performed with
reference to structural members made with concrete containing
either normal or recycled aggregates. Assuming as the reference
value the probability of failure achieved applying the safety
coefficient suggested by EN 1992-1-1 [24] for normal concrete
elements, the value of the safety coefficients that allow us to obtain
the same reliability for RAC has been determined. In the present
paper the results of this study are presented and some critical
considerations on the structural use of RAC are made.
2. Probabilistic modelling of the concrete strength
2.1. Properties of concrete compressive strength
The probabilistic properties of concrete compressive strength
to be used within the framework of an ultimate limit state design
format have reached a well established state. Comprehensive
information can be found, for instance, in the JCSS Probabilistic
Model Code (PMC) [25] and in its recent updates, where the
standard strength of concrete fco,ij at a particular point i in a given
structure j is modeled as a random field:
fco,ij = exp(Uij Σj + Mj ) (1)
Mj and Σj being the logarithmic mean and the logarithmic standard
deviation at job j, respectively, and Uij a standard normal variable
representing the variability within one structure. The distribution
of xij = ln(fco,ij ) is assumed to be normal provided that its
parameters Mj and Σj are obtained from an infinite number
of samples. In general it must be assumed that the concrete
characteristics vary with the production unit, site, construction
period, etc. and that the sample sizes are limited. Therefore, the
parameters Mj and Σj must also be treated as random variables.
Then xij follows a t-Student distribution according to:
 0.5 
ln(x) − m′′

1
Fx (x) = Ftv′′ 1 + ′′ (2)
s′′ n
where Ftv′′ is the Student distribution for v ′′ degrees of freedom.
fco,ij can be represented as:
  0.5 
1
′′
fco,ij = exp m + tv ′′ s ′′
1 + ′′ . (3)
n
The values of m′′ , n′′ , s′′ and v ′′ depend on the amount of specific
information. If no specific information is available, PMC suggests
some basic parameters for different types and different strengths
of concrete.
Nevertheless, the provisions of the PMC only apply to NAC,
disregarding RAC. Consequently, to carefully evaluate the proba-
bilistic properties of the compressive strength of RACs, reference
should be made to continuous concrete production and not only
to the results of several laboratory tests. This aspect can be fur-
ther clarified looking at Fig. 1 where the probability density func-
tion (PDF) of the concrete compressive strength, indicated as ftv′′ ,
for a concrete coming from the precast industry and with a tar-
get compressive strength of fck = 35 N/mm2 (concrete class
C35/45, m′′ = 3.95, n′′ = 3, s′′ = 0.08 and v ′′ = 10) is
compared with some results of the experimental tests obtained
for recycled aggregate concretes produced with the same target
compressive strength. It is evident that the scatter of the results
obtained in laboratory tests is much lower than that foreseen
by the PMC. Thus, the PDFs cannot be compared directly and
more and more experimental evidence should be collected prior
to carrying out any comparison. However, the existence of a
correlation between the quality and quantity of recycled aggre-
gates and the concrete strength scattering has been confirmed by
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3706 M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712
Fig. 1. Comparison between probability density functions of concrete compressive
strength provided by the Probabilistic Model Code and experimental tests.
several experimental tests and an attempt to evaluate its con-
sequences on the RC elements’ reliability is carried out in this
work.
2.2. The role of coarse aggregates
The influence of coarse aggregates on concrete compression
strength can hardly be quantified, since concrete is well known
for being a composite material whose mechanical properties are
influenced by many factors among which are the cement type and
content, the W/C ratio, aggregate properties, the type and quantity
of additives, the curing conditions, etc.
This topic has been investigated in the past by several authors.
Wu et al. [4] analyzed the effect of the type of natural coarse
aggregates on the mechanical properties of high-performance
concrete. They observed that for low values of the W/C ratio
(a condition essential to obtain high performance concrete) a
linear relationship between the compression strength of concrete
Rc and the compression strength of coarse aggregate Ra can be
established:
Rc = C + a · Ra
where C and a are suitable constants.
Similar results have been obtained by Schultz and Hendricks [3]
that used coarse aggregates coming from the recycling of masonry
blocks. In this case Eq. (4) becomes:
Rc = C + a · Rm
C and a being constants and Rm the masonry block’s compression
strength. The dependency between concrete compression strength
and amount of recycled concrete used in the mix design has been
studied by Topçu and Sengel [6]. The following linear relationships
between compression strength and fraction of recycled aggregates
has been established by the authors:
Rc = −0.0565x + 18.6 MPa
Rc = −0.0577x + 21.375 MPa
respectively for concrete classes C16 and C20, where Rc is the
concrete compression strength and x is the fraction of recycled
aggregates.
2.3. Concrete compressive strength as a function of random variables
Assuming for the strength of coarse aggregates the characteris-
tic of a random variable, the concrete compressive strength can be
considered a random variable that depends, all the other param-
eters being kept constant, only on the quality and quantity of the
coarse aggregates. Assuming that the coarse aggregates consist of
a mix of two different materials a1 and a2 and that their compres-
sive strength can be evaluated as a weighted combination of the
compressive strength of these two components, the concrete com-
pressive strength Rc can be written as:
Rc = C + a · Ra = C + a · (1 − X) · Ra1 + X · Ra2
 
(8)
with the usual meaning of the symbols (the random variables have
been written with bold characters) and X being the weight fraction
of aggregate a2 . Nevertheless, this linear relationship does not take
into account that the presence of very weak elements can impair
concrete strength more than proportionally. The introduction in
Eq. (8) of some corrective terms, pa1 and pa2 , to be determined
experimentally looks appropriate:
Rc = C + a · Ra = C + a · (1 − X) · pa1 · Ra1 + X · pa2 · Ra2 . (9)
 
Given a random variable Z = Z (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) that is a
function of other independent random variables X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn the
mean E [Z] is expressed as:
E [Z] = Z (E [X1 ], E [X2 ], . . . , E [Xn ]) (10)
while the variance Var[Z] can be approximated, neglecting the
higher order derivatives, by the truncated series:
∂Z ∂Z
 2  2
Var[Z] = · Var[X1 ] + · Var[X2 ] + · · · (11)
∂ X1 m ∂ X2 m
where Var[X1 ], Var[X2 ], . . . , are the variances of the random
variables X1 , X2 , . . . , and the subscripts m indicate that the
derivatives are evaluated at the point (E [X1 ], E [X2 ], . . .).
Considering the relation in Eq. (9), the mean and the variance of
Rc can be calculated as follows:
E [Rc ] = C + a · [(1 − E [X]) · pa1 · E [Ra1 ]
+ E [X] · pa2 · E [Ra2 ]] (12)
(4)  2
Var[Rc ] = a · pa1 · E [Ra1 ] − a · pa2 · E [Ra2 ]
· Var[X]
 2
+ a · pa1 − a · E [X] · pa1 · Var[Ra1 ]
 2
+ a · E [X] · pa2 · Var[Ra2 ]. (13)
Some comments have to be made on the random variable
(5)
X. During the mixing of the concrete the amount of recycled
aggregate type a1 or a2 is well defined and can be considered as
a deterministic quantity. Nevertheless, during the pouring of the
concrete into the moulds, it is not possible to guarantee that all the
concrete samples contain the same amount of recycled aggregate.
Hence the amount of a certain type of coarse aggregate may be
considered a random variable. Its mean value has been taken equal
(6) to the amount of recycled aggregate type a1 or a2 that has been
(7) added to the initial concrete batch while the value of its scattering,
which can be intended as a measure of the quality of the mixing
process, cannot be measured directly but can be estimated by
analyzing the results coming from the concrete compression test.
Taking into account this probabilistic formulation, it is clear that
the scatter of RAC is – generally – higher than that of conventional
concrete since the scattering of the compressive strength of
concrete, used as coarse aggregate, is higher than that of natural
rocks [26].
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M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712
Fig. 2. Determination of the statistical properties of the RA strength by fitting the
theoretical concrete strength to the corresponding experimental data for concrete
type RAC3.
3. Experimental evaluation of RAC strength
3.1. Concrete types considered in the experimental investigation
In order to investigate the role that the quality and the quantity
of recycled aggregates play in the reliability of structural concrete
elements, 198 concrete samples were tested. Three different types
of recycled aggregates were used in this project:
1. RA1 Recycled aggregates coming from grinding disused railway
sleepers;
2. RA2 Recycled aggregates coming from a recycling plant;
3. RA3 Recycled aggregates coming from grinding the production
discards of a precast industry.
Even if it is not possible to exactly know the mechanical
properties of these materials, reliable estimates of their strength
can be obtained from the knowledge of the strength design values
of the demolished structures and from the daily compression tests
carried out during the production of the precast elements. The
strength statistical properties (mean and standard deviation) of the
concretes used as recycled aggregates were further evaluated by
fitting the provisions of the theoretical model for the strength of
RAC presented in Section 2.3 to the results of the experimental
tests. In more detail the means and standard deviations of RAC
calculated using Eqs. (12) and (13) have been compared with
the experimental ones. An example of this procedure is reported
in Fig. 2 where the data for the recycled aggregate type RA2
are shown. In the figure the solid lines indicate the theoretical
results while the circles represent the experimental findings.
The assumed mechanical strength and the related statistical
properties are presented in Table 2. Aggregates RA1 are made
of very high strength concrete, produced with basaltic coarse
aggregates to reach compressive strengths up to 90 MPa. For this
type of concrete, the coefficient of variation of the compressive
strength can be evaluated as 2.5% due to the stringent quality
controls during the production. Aggregates RA2 contain different
types of ordinary concrete with characteristic strengths ranging
from 25 to 35 MPa. In this case the CoV of the compressive
strength is expected to be very high and has been evaluated as
12.0%. The third type of aggregates, RA3, exhibits an intermediate
strength (close to 45 MPa) and medium CoV, evaluated as
7.4%.
In the experimental campaign four concrete mixes containing
different types and amounts of recycled aggregates were prepared
and tested:
3707
1. RAC1 Recycled aggregate concrete containing normal and RA1
aggregates;
2. RAC2 Recycled aggregate concrete containing normal and RA2
aggregates;
3. RAC3 Recycled aggregate concrete containing RA1 and RA2
aggregates;
4. RAC4 Recycled aggregate concrete containing normal and RA3
aggregates.
The number of samples tested for each mix is shown in Table 3
together with the content of the different recycled aggregates for
the 4 types of RAC. The composition of each mix is reported in
Table 4. The final quantity of water has been calculated taking into
account the humidity of the aggregates, to have the same W/C ratio
(close to 0.41) in each mix. In the case of RAC4 the mixes were
prepared using the same quantity of cement, trying to obtain the
same workability. Nevertheless, because of their higher porosity,
the mixes with recycled aggregates needed a greater amount of
water in comparison to normal concrete.
Standard cubes with dimensions 15 × 15 × 15 cm were
manufactured for the compression tests. The samples were
compacted with a vibrating table and after 1 day were removed
from the moulds and stored in water at a temperature of 20 °C up
to the moment of the test at an age of 28 days.
3.2. Statistical analysis of the results
The results of the compression tests on each concrete mix
are shown on normal probability paper in Fig. 3. The analysis of
the results allowed the determination of the statistical properties
of the compressive strength in recycled aggregate concretes. In
particular the mean values, the standard deviations and the CoVs
were evaluated for the 4 different type of concrete. These 3
properties are shown in Fig. 4. Different trends in the results of
the compression tests were detected for the different types of
RAC.
For concrete type RAC1 the replacement of the normal coarse
aggregate with the recycled aggregates progressively enhanced the
compression strength of the concrete, increasing the mean value
from 60.6 to 66.2 N/mm2 and reducing the CoV by 64% from 0.064
to 0.023. This result can be ascribed to the high quality of the
recycled aggregate RA1.
In the case of concrete type RAC2 the replacement of the
natural coarse aggregate with the recycled aggregate RA2 caused
the reduction of the mean compression strength from 61.1 to
46.1 N/mm2 and an increase of 50% in the CoV from 0.030 to
0.045.
The tests on RAC3 concrete samples confirmed the results
obtained for concretes RAC1 and RAC2 where the coarse aggregates
have been completely replaced by only one type of RA. An
increase in the mechanical properties of RAC3 samples has been
observed as the aggregate type RA2 was progressively replaced
by the aggregate RA1. The mean compression strength changed
from 45.7 N/mm2 (100% of RA2) to 64.0 N/mm2 (100% of
RA1) while the CoV decreased by roughly 50% from 0.051 to
0.025.
Different comments can be made on the results of RAC4 tests. In
that case, in fact, the condition of constant workability for the dif-
ferent percentages of recycled aggregates required a small increase
in the W/C ratio that further penalized the mechanical properties
of the concrete with recycled aggregates. The compression tests
showed a decrease of the mean strength of the concrete as the per-
centage of recycled aggregates increases, from 60.6 N/mm2 in the
case of 100% natural coarse aggregates, to 38.1 N/mm2 for 100%
recycled aggregates. Similarly, the CoV increased from 0.074 for
the concrete without recycled aggregates to 0.107 for the concrete
with 100% recycled aggregate. Such results are in good agreement
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Table 2
Mechanical properties of recycled aggregates.
Recycled aggregate fck (N/mm2 ) St. dev. (N/mm2 ) CoV Notes

RA1 90.0 2.35 0.025 From RR sleepers

RA2 30.0 4.48 0.12 From recycling plant
RA3 45.0 26.05 0.074 From precast industry

Table 3
Number of concrete samples and type of coarse aggregates used in the RACs.
Concrete type Mix no. Sample no. Natural aggregates (%) Recycled aggregates (%)
RA1 RA2 RA3

RAC1 1 10 100 0 0 0
2 10 70 30 0 0
3 10 50 50 0 0
4 10 0 100 0 0
RAC2 5 10 100 0 0 0
6 10 75 0 25 0
7 10 50 0 50 0
8 10 50 0 75 0
9 10 0 0 100 0
RAC3 10 10 0 0 100 0
11 10 0 25 75 0
12 10 0 50 50 0
13 10 0 75 25 0
14 10 0 100 0 0
RAC4 15 20 100 0 0 0
16 10 70 0 0 30
17 20 50 0 0 50
18 8 0 0 0 100

Table 4
Mixes of the recycled aggregate concretes.
Concrete Mix Cement W/C Sand RA1 RA1 RA2 RA2 RA3 RA3 NA NA Filler Super
type no. (kg) ratio 0/4 4/12 12/25 4/12 12/25 4/12 12/25 8/12 12/18 (kg) plasticizer
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (L)

RAC1 1 400 0.41 842 0 0 0 0 0 0 446 492 25 4

2 400 0.41 798 121 170 0 0 0 0 312 346 25 4
3 400 0.41 772 202 283 0 0 0 0 223 246 25 4
4 400 0.41 702 404 566 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 4
RAC2 5 400 0.41 842 0 0 0 0 0 0 446 492 25 4
6 400 0.41 747 0 0 111 161 0 0 362 388 25 4
7 400 0.41 747 0 0 191 306 0 0 217 277 25 4
8 400 0.41 747 0 0 302 419 0 0 109 129 25 4
9 400 0.41 711 0 0 397 564 0 0 0 0 25 4
RAC3 10 400 0.41 711 0 0 519 467 0 0 0 0 25 4
11 400 0.41 711 98 147 389 350 0 0 0 0 25 4
12 400 0.41 711 197 295 260 234 0 0 0 0 25 4
13 400 0.41 711 311 426 130 110 0 0 0 0 25 4
14 400 0.41 702 404 566 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 4
RAC4 15 400 0.40 830 0 0 0 0 0 0 830 0 25 3.2
16 400 0.42 830 0 0 0 0 249 249 332 0 25 4
17 400 0.43 747 0 0 0 0 415 415 83 0 25 4
18 400 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 830 830 0 0 25 4

with those reported by Xiao et al. [23] where the authors analyzed
the statistical properties of the compression strength of normal
and recycled concrete designed to have the same characteristic
strength.
4. Use of the experimental results in the design of RC sections
applied to RAC’s strength has been evaluated in order to ensure
the same safety level of elements made with NAC of the same
characteristic strength fck . This approach corresponds to a typical
problem of calibration of a safety coefficient that is appropriately
increased to neutralize the negative effect of the higher scattering
of the resistance observed for recycled concrete.

4.2. Case study and base hypotheses

4.1. General considerations
The experimental results and the considerations drawn in the
previous section have been used for the design of eccentrically
loaded RC sections made with RAC. The safety coefficient γc to be
The analyses have been performed with reference to a
rectangular section (Fig. 5) with dimensions b × H = 300 ×
500 mm, reinforced with 4 + 4φ 20 rebars (A′s = As = 1257 mm2 ).
The concrete cover d′ is equal to 40 mm. The class of concrete used
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M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712 3709

a b

c d

Fig. 3. Results of the compression tests for the 4 types of RACs: (a) RAC1, (b) RAC2, (c) RAC3, (d) RAC4.

in the analyses is C25/30 (fck = 25 MPa) while the reinforcing (ii) fc · b · [ξ (ϵsup ) · y − ξ (ϵinf ) · (y − H )]
steel has a yielding strength fyk equal to 450 MPa. According to
7d′
[ ]
EN 1992-1-1 [24], the partial safety coefficients γc = 1, 5 and + fy · A′s + ϵinf + (0, 0020 − ϵinf ) · · EAs = N
γs = 1, 15 have been used in the preliminary calculation of NAC    4d
sections. The reliability analyses have been performed considering H
fc · b · ξ (ϵsup ) · y · − χ (ϵsup ) · y
3 random variables: the compressive strength of the concrete fc , 2
assumed to follow a lognormal distribution, the tensile resistance  
of the steel fy , also assumed to follow a lognormal distribution, H
and the external load expressed in terms of axial load with fixed − ξ (ϵinf ) · (y − H ) · + χ (ϵinf ) · (y − H ) (15)
2
eccentricity. For the external load a normal distribution with
CoV equal to 0.30 has been assumed, as reported by [27] in the   
H
cases of sustained live loads for a mean value of the influence ′
+ As · fy · −d ′
− ϵinf + (0, 0020 − ϵinf )
area. 2
The load bearing capacity has been evaluated within a Level 1 
7d′
 
reliability method for 3 different load conditions: H ′
· · EAs · −d = N · ecc
4d 2
1. zero eccentricity: ecc = 0;
(iii) 0.81 · fc · b · y + fy · A′s
2. minimum eccentricity according to EN 1992-1-1: ecc =
max(20 mm, H /30); (d − y)
[ ]
− min ϵy ; 0, 0035 · EAs = N
3. medium eccentricity; ecc = H /4. y
(16)
   
Referring to Fig. 5, the limit state equations used for the H H
0.81 · fc · b · y · − 0, 416y + As · fy · ′
−d ′
reliability analyses with reference to the considered load cases 2 2
are:
(d − y)
[ ]  
H
+ min ϵy ; 0, 0035 · EAs · − d′ = N · ecc
(i) fc · b · H + fy (A′s + As ) = N (14) y 2
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3710 M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712

a b

Fig. 4. Results of the compression tests for the 4 types of RAC: (a) mean compressive strength, (b) compressive strength standard deviation, (c) compressive strength CoV
(for concrete type RAC3 the percentage of recycled aggregate refers to recycled aggregate type RA1).

where, beside the already mentioned symbols, ξ (ϵ) and χ(ϵ) are
suitable coefficients defining the value and the position of the
concrete compressive force.
The corresponding reliability indexes β are, generally, unusu-
ally higher than those assumed by EN 1990 [28]. This is a con-
sequence of the small CoV values coming from the experimental
tests.
4.3. Calibration of the safety factor for the concrete
On the basis of the experimental results, the partial safety
coefficients have been calculated to obtain RC elements that have
the same failure probability of corresponding sections made with
NAC with the same characteristic resistance fck . With reference
to the mentioned sections, a methodology based on a reliability
analysis at Level 2 for the tuning of the partial safety factor for
the concrete compressive strength has been established. The β
index is evaluated through the classical procedure proposed by
Rackwitz and Fiessler [29], that allows us to take into consideration
non-normal distributions of the random variables involved in the
problem. The solutions have been obtained using well-known
optimization algorithms [30].
The methodology used, represented in graphic form in the flow
chart of Fig. 6, is organized into the following phases:
(i) an RC section is assigned defining the geometry, the amount
of the reinforcing steel and the constitutive materials in
terms of concrete characteristic resistance fck and steel
characteristic yielding stress fyk ;
(ii) for an assigned value of the load eccentricity, the maximum
value of the design axial load Nd and the corresponding
moment Md that can be withstood by the section are
determined;
(iii) the value of the reliability index βnc is determined for the
analyzed section modeling the applied loads, the resistance
of the normal concrete and that of the steel as random
variables;
(iv) the value of βnc is assumed as the target value for the
subsequent operations: βt = βnc ;
(v) the value of the safety factor of the concrete is arbitrarily
increased: γc∗ = γc + 1γc ;
(vi) using Level 1 algorithms the areas of the steel rebars As and
A′s are updated with the objective of maintaining unchanged
the carrying capacity of the section (same values of Nd and
Md );
(vii) a recycled concrete with a known percentage of recycled
aggregate and with the same characteristic resistance of the
normal one but different CoV is now considered;
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M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712 3711

Fig. 5. Cross section of the RC member and strains distributions considered for the different values of the axial load eccentricity (ecc).

(viii) with reference to this section and keeping in mind the

statistical properties of the RAC the value of the safety index
βrc is determined;
(ix) check if the safety index of the section made with recycled
concrete is equal to the target value βt . If the control is
positive the procedure ends and γc∗ is the value of the safety
partial coefficient: γc = γc∗ ;
(x) if the control is negative an iterative procedure that involves
the repetition of the procedure from point 5 is followed.
The application of the procedure described in the previous
paragraph to the experimental data coming from each mix leads
to the determination of the partial safety factor shown in Fig. 7.

5. Critical analysis of the obtained results

The examination of the numerical results presented in point

Section 4.3 shows that the concrete partial safety factor γc
is generally greater than that prescribed by EN 1992 for RC
elements (γc = 1.5). Some comments have to be made on the
data represented in Fig. 7(a) whose trend is opposite to that
of Fig. 7(b)–(d). In fact for the concrete made using aggregate
type RA1, whose safety factors are represented in Fig. 7(a),
the substitution of the natural coarse aggregates, composed of
medium strength calcareous gravel, is made with very high
strength recycled concrete. Under this condition the addition
of RA progressively enhances the concrete strength, thus giving
place to progressively decreasing safety factors. Anyway, this type
of replacement can be rarely encountered in real situations. In
the case of an axially-loaded column the concrete partial safety
factor γc can reach values up to 2.1 for the investigated cases. In
particular, it increases with the percentage of recycled aggregate
and decreases with the load eccentricity. Evidently, this behavior
depends on the role played by the resistance of the concrete in
comparison to that of the reinforcing steel in the realization of
the carrying capacity of the section. These findings suggest the
adoption of an appropriate adjustment to the design procedure
when using RAC for structural uses that takes into account their
specific mechanical properties. Higher safety coefficients for the
concrete compressive strength or provisions similar to those Fig. 6. Flow chart for the calibration of the concrete safety coefficient for RAC.
foreseen by ACI 318 [31] for compression-controlled sections could
be adopted when using RAC to mitigate the greater variations in
concrete strength. The literature review allowed us to underline the different
provisions and indications regarding RAC that can be found in
structural codes.
6. Concluding remarks
The experimental investigations, consisting in the determina-
In the present paper a comprehensive literature review of tion of the statistical properties of the compressive strength of nor-
international standards dealing with the structural design of RAC mal and recycled concretes, showed that RACs generally display
and the results of theoretical and experimental research on the higher scattering in the compressive resistance. Nevertheless, if
structural reliability of these materials have been illustrated. the recycled aggregates are produced from high strength concretes,
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3712 M. Breccolotti, A.L. Materazzi / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 3704–3712
a b
c d
Fig. 7. Concrete safety coefficients for the 4 types of RAC: (a) RAC1, (b) RAC2, (c) RAC3, (d) RAC4.
they can be safely used to obtain structural concrete even up to a
100% replacing percentage.
Theoretical analyses carried out in the framework of the
structural reliability theory allowed us to put in evidence the
consequences that the higher scattering of RAC compressive
strength produce on the structural safety.
The results of both the experimental and the theoretical works
suggested the adoption of an appropriate adjustment to the design
procedure when dealing with RAC for structural use, such as a
proper modification of the partial safety factor of concrete. Finally,
the effects of strength uncertainties showed by RAC, more evident
on axially-loaded elements, suggest a preferential use of this
material for components and structures mainly subject to bending
stresses.
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