CHAPTER 3.

DRINKING AND IRRIGATION WATER

STANDARDS
3.1 Introduction

Ethiopia, with its different geological formations and climatic conditions, is endowed with
considerable water resources and wetland ecosystems, including twelve river basins, about 14
major lakes, and some manmade reservoirs. About 123 billion cubic meters of water runs off
annually from the above sources. Most of them are trans-boundary Rivers. The country is also
known for its ground water resource, but the potential has not been assessed in detail.

The primary water supply sources for the country are Dams, Developed springs, hand dug
wells, shallow and deep-drilled wells and ponds.

Existing water quality situation in Ethiopia:- Water quality management is a discipline that
integrates the technical and management activities as well as decision needed for effective
maintenance of a guaranteed supply of water of suitable quality for the intended uses.

A fundamental principle on water quality management for sustainable development includes

the inseparable concepts of increasing productivity in all its forms while concurrently
protecting and conserving water quality and quantity as well as the environment in general.

In Ethiopia, systematic and comprehensive water quality assessment is lacking. However few
available reports and studies made so far showed that there is no significant water quality
pollution problem in most of the country's river basins, particularly the water quality data of
Blue Nile and its tributaries shows very low concentration of organic and inorganic substances.

The major problem, which is increasing from time to time, is siltation problem. Due to
degradation of watershed, increasing of population and lack of proper management of natural
resources more sediment is transported into down streams and threatens the water storage
schemes and reservoirs.

Among the major Rivers of Ethiopia, Awash River is the most threatened river from industrial
and increasing of urbanization. This is because most of the existing industries and major towns
with in the upper watershed have no treatment plants for discharge of their wastes.

3.2 Water quality and health

ETHIOPIAN STANDARDS OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY

Water is essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessible) supply must
be available to all. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in real benefits to health.
Every effort should be made to achieve drinking-water that is as safe as practicable. Safe
drinking water, as defined by the Guidelines, does not represent any significant risk to health
over a lifetime of consumption. In other direction, the nature and form of drinking-water
standards may vary among countries and regions and there is no single approach that is
universally applicable. Ethiopian guidelines values for drinking water are presented in Table
below.
Ethiopian drinking water standards
Parameter Ethiopian Effects on Human health when water quality parameters
standards exceeds permissible limits
( Max.
permissible
limit)
Characteristics that affect the palatability of drinking water

Total 300 Hard water consumes more soap; results in formation of scum
Hardness when soap is added. May cause deposition of scale in boilers,
( as water heaters, and pipes.
CaCO3)
Total 1000 The concentration of dissolved solids may affect the taste of
dissolved water. Water that contains more than 1,000 mg/L is unsuitable
solids mg/l, for many industrial uses.
0.3 Forms rust-colored sediment; stains laundry, utensils, and
Iron (as Fe) fixtures reddish brown. Objectionable for food and beverage
mg/l processing. Can promote growth of certain kinds of bacteria that
clog pipes and well openings
Manganese Causes gray or black stains on porcelain, enamel, and fabrics. Can
(as Mn) 0.5 promote growth of certain kinds of bacteria that clog pipes and
mg/l wells
Ammonia Plant nutrient that can cause unwanted algal blooms and
(NH3+ H4)* 1.5 excessive plant growth when present at elevated levels in water
mg/l bodies.
0.5 Recent studies show the chlorine in treated water is dangerous
Residual, to human health and can cause allergic symptoms ranging from
free hlorine, skin rash to intestinal symptoms to arthritis. Chlorine in water
mg/l destroys protective lactic acid bacteria lining the colon, which
cooperates and strengthen mucosal immune response against
foreign pathogens at the intestine
Magnesium 50 Risk for cardiovascular disease, growth retardation,
( as Mg) reproductive failure, and other health problems and hardness
mg/l of drinking water or its content of magnesium and calcium.
75 Large concentrations may limit use of water for irrigation and
Calcium
industrial use and, in combination with chloride, give water a
( as Ca)
salty taste. Abnormally large concentrations may indicate natural
mg/l
brines(saturated with salt), industrial brines, or sewage.
2 Essential to metabolism; copper deficiency in infants and young
Copper
animals results in nutritional anemia. Large concentrations of
( as Cu)
copper are toxic and may cause liver damage. control corrosion
mg/l
of plumbing materials in the system.
 5 Fever, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, and diarrhoea
Zinc ( as occurred 3–12 h after ingestion. Food poisoning attributable to
Zn) mg/l the use of galvanized zinc containers in food preparation has also
been reported.
250 Sulfates of calcium and magnesium form hard scale. Large
Sulfat
concentrations of sulfate have a laxative effect on some people
(as SO4) g/l
and, in combination with other ions, give water a bitter taste.
Chloride 250 Large concentrations increase the corrosiveness of water and, in
( as Cl) combination with sodium, give water a salty taste.
mg/l
Total 200 Strong alkaline water has an objectionable "soda" taste,
Alkalinity excessively alkaline water also may be corrosive
( as CaCO3)
Sodium 200 Large concentrations may limit use of water for irrigation and
( as Na) industrial use and, in combination with chloride, give water a
mg/l salty taste.
Potassium 1.5
( as K) mg/l
6.5 to 8.5 Water generally becomes more corrosive with decreasing pH;
pH value
however, excessively alkaline water also may be corrosive.
0.2 Researchers have reported slightly higher rates of Alzheimer’s
Aluminium
Disease among residents of communities that had elevated
( as Al) mg/l
aluminum levels in their water supplies.
The term Ammonia includes non-ionised ( NH3 ) and ionized ( NH4)* species

Parameter Ethiopian
standards
(Max.
permissibl
e limit)
The following characteristics either toxic and / or diseases causing substances of drinking
water

0.7 Causes convulsions and paralysis following

stimulation of the central nervous system.
Barium
Depending on the dose and solubility of the
( as Ba) mg/l
barium salt, death may occur in a few hours or a
few days.
0.001 Mercury will cause severe disruption of any tissue
with which it comes into contact in sufficient
Total mercury
concentration, but the two main effects of
( as Hg) mg/l
mercury poisoning are neurological and renal
disturbances.
Cadmium 0.003 Cumulative poison; very toxic. Believed to
( as Cd) mg/l promote renal arterial hypertension. Elevated
concentrations may cause liver and kidney
 damage, or even anemia, retarded growth, and
death.
0.01 Can cause nasal ulcers; damage to the kidneys,
Arsenic
liver, and intestinal walls; and death. Recently
( as As) mg/l
suspected to be a carcinogen.
0.07 Effects in humans include cardiovascular and
Cyanide
respiratory effects, an enlarged thyroid gland, and
( as CN) mg/l
irritation to the eyes and skin.
3 An acute health concern at certain levels of
Nitrite exposure. Concentrations greater than 1.0 mg/L,
( as NO2) mg/l as nitrogen, may be injurious to pregnant
women, children, and the elderly.
50 Infant methaemoglobinaemia( blue baby
Nitrate
disease), caused by the consumption of water
(as NO3) mg/l
with a high nitrate concentration by infants.
Phenolic compound as Phenols, 0.002 Increases of diarrhoea, mouth sores, dark urine
mg/l and burning pain in mouth .
0.01   lead is a toxic metal that can be harmful to
human health even at low exposure levels.
Lead is persistent, and it can bioaccumulate in
the body over time.
Lead ( as Pb ) mg/l  In children, low levels of exposure have been
linked to damage to the central and peripheral
nervous system, learning disabilities, shorter
stature, impaired hearing, and impaired
formation and function of blood cells.
0.3 The most frequently occurring symptoms, which
involved the gastrointestinal tract, vomiting,
abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and nausea. Other
Boron ( as B) mg/l
symptoms occurred in fewer cases: lethargy, rash,
headache, light-headedness, fever, irritability, and
muscle cramps. .
0.01 Potential human health effects of exposure to
Selenium (as Se) elevated selenium concentrations include liver
damage.
Fluoride (as F ) mg/l 1.5
Dental fluorosis- Mild fluorosis appears as
small white patches on the teeth. More severe
forms, due to very high fluoride build up, lead
to stained, pitted or mottled teeth

skeletal fluorosis - A health effect of excessive

fluoride in bones leading to changes in bone
structure which weaken the bone. The most
severe skeletal fluorosis is known as
"crippling skeletal fluorosis," and may show
calcified ligaments, immobility, and
 neurological problems related to spinal cord
compression,. joint pain, crippling result.
0.05 Ingestion of 1–5 g of "chromate" (not further
specified) results in severe acute effects such as
Chromium (as Cr) mg/l
gastrointestinal disorders, and convulsions.
Death may occur following cardiovascular shock .
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan 2 An increased risk for pancreatic cancer could not
e (DDT) mg/l ---pesticide be excluded.

Bacteriological requirements :- when tested with the corresponding test methods

Bacteriological requirements of treated drinking water shall not exceed the levels shown in
below table .

1. If any coliform organisms are found in the water sample, a second sample shall be taken
immediately after the tests on the first sample have been completed and shall be free from
coliform organisms.

2. Not more than 2% of the total number of water samples from any one distribution system
tested per year may contain coliform organisms.

3. Any tested water shall not contain faecal and coliform organisms when tested with the
corresponding test methods.

4. Any tested water shall not contain any faecal streptococci when tested according to Ethiopian
standards.

Bacteriological levels

Organism Max. permissible level

Total viable organisms, colonies per ml Must not be detectable
Faecal streptococci per 100 ml Must not be detectable
Coliform organisms , number per 100 ml Must not be detectable
E-coli, number per 100 ml Must not be detectable

Despite the progress seen in Ethiopia, 43% of the population does not have access to an
improved water source and 28% practice open defecation. The National WASH Inventory (NWI)
report of 2012 also indicates that the majority of health facilities in Ethiopia lack access to clean
water and only about 32% have access to safe water. Moreover, 17% of childhood deaths are
associated with diarrhea (EDHS 2011) which remains the third leading cause of under-five
mortality attributed to poor water, sanitation and hygiene.
 3.3 Water quality and agriculture

3.3.1. Introduction

The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater. In Africa and Asia, an estimated
85-90% of all fresh water used is for agriculture. Other activities that present risks to water
include manufacturing, forestry, mining, waste disposal and runoff from urban areas.
Most water that falls on the land eventually makes its way to either a ground water or a surface
water source, anything that happens on the landscape can have a big impact on the quality of the
water.

Irrigated agriculture is dependent on an adequate water supply of usable quality. Water quality
concerns have often been neglected because good quality water supplies have been plentiful and
readily available. This situation is now changing in many areas. To avoid problems when using
these poor quality water supplies, there must be sound planning to ensure that the quality of
water available is put to the best use.

Water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a
specific use, i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Quality is defined by certain
physical, chemical and biological characteristics. In irrigation water evaluation, emphasis is
placed on the chemical and physical characteristics of the water.

There have been a number of different water quality guidelines related to irrigated agriculture.
Each has been useful but none has been entirely satisfactory because of the wide variability in
field conditions.

3.3.2 WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Water used for irrigation can vary greatly in quality depending upon type and quantity of dissolved salts.
Salts are present in irrigation water in relatively small but significant amounts. They originate from
dissolution or weathering of the rocks and soil, including dissolution of lime, gypsum and other slowly
dissolved soil minerals. These salts are carried with the water to wherever it is used. In the case of
irrigation, the salts are applied with the water and remain behind in the soil as water evaporates or is used
by the crop.

The suitability of water for irrigation is determined not only by the total amount of salt present but also by
the kind of salt.

WATER QUALITY-RELATED PROBLEMS IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

i) Salinity :- A salinity problem exists if salt accumulates in the crop root zone to a concentration that
causes a loss in yield. In irrigated areas, these salts often originate from salts in the applied water. Yield
reductions occur when the salts accumulate in the root zone to such an extent that the crop is no longer
able to extract sufficient water from the salty soil solution, resulting in a water stress for a significant
period of time. If water uptake is appreciably reduced, the plant slows its rate of growth.
ii)  Water Infiltration Rate :-An infiltration problem related to water quality occurs when the normal
infiltration rate for the applied water or rainfall is appreciably reduced and water remains on the soil
surface too long or infiltrates too slowly to supply the crop with sufficient water to maintain acceptable
yields. Although the infiltration rate of water into soil varies widely and can be greatly influenced by
the quality of the irrigation water, soil factors such as structure, degree of compaction, organic matter
content and chemical make-up can also greatly influence the intake rate.

The two most common water quality factors which influence the normal infiltration rate are:-

a) The salinity of the water (total quantity of salts in the water) and
b) its sodium content relative to the calcium and magnesium content. A high salinity water
will increase infiltration. A low salinity water or a water with a high sodium to calcium
ratio will decrease infiltration. Both factors may operate at the same time.

iii)  Toxicity :-Toxicity problems occur if certain constituents (ions) in the soil or water are
taken up by the plant and accumulate to concentrations high enough to cause crop damage or
reduced yields. The degree of damage depends on the uptake and the crop sensitivity. The
permanent, perennial-type crops (tree crops) are the more sensitive. Damage often occurs at
relatively low ion concentrations for sensitive crops. It is usually first evidenced by marginal
leaf burn. If the accumulation is great enough, reduced yields result. The more tolerant annual
crops are not sensitive at low concentrations but almost all crops will be damaged or killed if
concentrations are sufficiently high.

The ions of primary concern are chloride, sodium and boron. Damage results when the
potentially toxic ions are absorbed in significant amounts with the water taken up by the roots.
The absorbed ions are transported to the leaves where they accumulate during transpiration.

The ions accumulate to the greatest extent in the areas where the water loss is greatest, usually
the leaf tips and leaf edges. Accumulation to toxic concentrations takes time and visual damage
is often slow to be noticed. The degree of damage depends upon the duration of exposure,
concentration by the toxic ion, crop sensitivity, and the volume of water transpired by the crop.
In a hot climate or hot part of the year, accumulation is more rapid than if the same crop were
grown in a cooler climate or cooler season when it might show little or no damage.

iv)  Miscellaneous :- Several other problems related to irrigation water quality occur with
sufficient frequency, these include
a) High nitrogen concentrations in the water which supplies nitrogen to the crop and may cause
excessive vegetative growth, delayed crop maturity; unsightly deposits on fruit or leaves due to
overhead sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water
b) Water containing gypsum, or water high in iron; and various abnormalities often associated
with an unusual pH of the water.
c) A special problem faced by some farmers practising irrigation is deterioration of equipment
due to water-induced corrosion or encrustation. This problem is most serious for wells and
pumps, but in some areas, a poor quality water may also damage irrigation equipment.
d) In areas where there is a potential risk from diseases such as malaria, and lymphatic filariasis,
disease vector problems must be considered along with other water quality-related problems.
e) Suspended organic as well as inorganic sediments cause problems in irrigation systems through
clogging of gates, sprinkler heads and drippers. They can cause damage to pumps if screens are
not used to exclude them.
f) More commonly, sediments tend to fill canals and ditches and cause costly dredging and
maintenance problems. Sediment also tends to reduce further the water infiltration rate of an
already slowly permeable soil.

3.4 WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES FOR IRRIGATION

Guidelines for evaluation of water quality for irrigation are given in Table 1. They emphasize the
long-term influence of water quality on crop production, soil conditions and farm management.

The guidelines are practical and have been used successfully in general irrigated agriculture for
evaluation of the common constituents in surface water, groundwater, drainage water, sewage
effluent and wastewater.

Ordinarily, no soil or cropping problems are experienced or recognized when using water with
values less than those shown for ‘no restriction on use’. With restrictions in the slight to
moderate range, gradually increasing care in selection of crop and management alternatives is
required if full yield potential is to be achieved. On the other hand, if water is used which equals
or exceeds the values shown for severe restrictions, the water user should experience soil and
cropping problems or reduced yields, but even with cropping management designed especially to
cope with poor quality water, a high level of management skill is essential for acceptable
production. If water quality values are found which approach or exceed those given for the
severe restriction category, it is recommended that before initiating the use of the water in a large
project, a series of pilot farming studies be conducted to determine the economics of the farming
and cropping techniques that need to be implemented.

Table 1 is a management tool. As with many such interpretative tools in agriculture, it is

developed to help users such as water agencies, project planners, agriculturalists, scientists and
trained field people to understand better the effect of water quality on soil conditions and crop
production. With this understanding, the user should be able to adjust management to utilize poor
quality water better. However, the user of Table 1 must guard against drawing unwarranted
conclusions based only on the laboratory results and the guideline interpretations as these must
be related to field conditions and must be checked, confirmed and tested by field trials or
experience.

Table 1 GUIDELINES FOR INTERPRETATIONS OF WATER QUALITY FOR

IRRIGATION 1

Degree of Restriction on Use

Potential Irrigation Problem Units
None Slight to Moderate Severe
Salinity(affects crop water availability)2        
  ECw dS/m < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 > 3.0
  (or)        
  TDS mg/l < 450 450 – 2000 > 2000
Infiltration(affects infiltration rate of water into the soil.
       
Evaluate using ECw and SAR together)3
SAR  = 0 – 3 and ECw =   > 0.7 0.7 – 0.2 < 0.2
  =3–6   =   > 1.2 1.2 – 0.3 < 0.3
  = 6 – 12   =   > 1.9 1.9 – 0.5 < 0.5
  = 12 – 20   =   > 2.9 2.9 – 1.3 < 1.3
  = 20 – 40   =   > 5.0 5.0 – 2.9 < 2.9
Specific Ion Toxicity (affects sensitive crops)        
  Sodium (Na)4        
  surface irrigation SAR <3 3–9 >9
  sprinkler irrigation me/l <3 >3  
  Chloride (Cl)4        
  surface irrigation me/l <4 4 – 10 > 10
  sprinkler irrigation me/l <3 >3  
  Boron (B)5 mg/l < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 > 3.0
Miscellaneous Effects (affects susceptible crops)        
  Nitrogen (NO3 - N)6 mg/l <5 5 – 30 > 30
  Bicarbonate (HCO3)        
  (overhead sprinkling only) me/l < 1.5 1.5 – 8.5 > 8.5
  pH   Normal Range 6.5 – 8.4

2
 ECw means electrical conductivity, a measure of the water salinity, reported in deciSiemens per metre
at 25°C (dS/m) or in units millimhos per centimetre (mmho/cm). Both are equivalent. TDS means total
dissolved solids, reported in milligrams per litre (mg/l).

3
 SAR means sodium adsorption ratio. SAR is sometimes reported by the symbol RNa. See Figure1 for
the SAR calculation procedure. At a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as watersalinity increases.

4
 For surface irrigation, most tree crops and woody plants are sensitive to sodium and chloride; use the
values shown.

6
 NO3 -N means nitrate nitrogen reported in terms of elemental nitrogen (NH 4 -N and Organic-N should
be included when wastewater is being tested).

Table 2 LABORATORY DETERMINATIONS NEEDED TO EVALUATE COMMON

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS
Usual range in irrigation
Water parameter Symbol Unit1
water
SALINITY        
Salt Content        
Electrical Conductivity ECw dS/m 0–3 dS/m
(or)        
Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 0 – 2000 mg/l
Cations and Anions        
Calcium Ca ++
me/l 0 – 20 me/l
Magnesium Mg ++
me/l 0–5 me/l
Sodium Na +
me/l 0 – 40 me/l
Carbonate CO --
3 me/l 0 – .1 me/l
Bicarbonate HCO3 -
me/l 0 – 10 me/l
Chloride Cl -
me/l 0 – 30 me/l
Sulphate SO4 --
me/l 0 – 20 me/l
NUTRIENTS 2
       
Nitrate-Nitrogen NO3-N mg/l 0 – 10 mg/l
Ammonium-Nitrogen NH4-N mg/l 0–5 mg/l
Phosphate-Phosphorus PO4-P mg/l 0–2 mg/l
Potassium K +
mg/l 0–2 mg/l
MISCELLANEOUS        
Boron B mg/l 0–2 mg/l
Acid/Basicity pH 1–14 6.0 – 8.5  
Sodium Adsorption Ratio 3
SAR (me/l) , 
1 2
0 – 15  

1
 dS/m = deciSiemen/metre in S.I. units (equivalent to 1 mmho/cm = 1 millimmho/centi-metre)

mg/l = milligram per litre ≃ parts per million (ppm).

me/l = milliequivalent per litre (mg/l ÷ equivalent weight = me/l); in SI units, 1 me/l= 1
millimol/litre adjusted for electron charge.
2
 NO3 -N means the laboratory will analyse for NO 3 but will report the NO3 in terms of
chemically equivalent nitrogen. Similarly, for NH4-N, the laboratory will analyse for NH4 but
report in terms of chemically equivalent elemental nitrogen. The total nitrogen available to the
plant will be the sum of the equivalent elemental nitrogen.The same reporting method is used for
phosphorus.
3
 SAR is calculated from the Na, Ca and Mg reported in me/l (see Figure 1).
Fig. 1 Nomogram for determining the SAR value of irrigation water and for estimating the
corresponding ESP value of a soil that is at equilibrium with the water (Richards 1954)