Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035

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Food Control
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Concentrations and dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

from grilled and smoked foods
Husam Alomirah a, *, Sameer Al-Zenki a, Suad Al-Hooti a, Sahar Zaghloul a, Wajih Sawaya a, Nisar Ahmed b,
Kurunthachalam Kannan c
a
Biotechnology Department, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box 24885, 13109 Safat, Kuwait
b
Central Analytical Laboratory, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box 24885, 13109 Safat, Kuwait
c
Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, SUNY at Albany, Albany, NY 12201-0509, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We investigated the concentrations and profiles of 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Received 22 February 2011 in various grilled and smoked foods and estimated the dietary exposure of Kuwaiti children, adolescent
Received in revised form and adult populations. Results indicated that non-carcinogenic PAHs were present at high proportions
24 May 2011
(60e100%) with phenanthrene showing the highest mean concentration (54.9 mg kg
1, 37.1% of the total
Accepted 26 May 2011
PAH concentrations). Among the genotoxic PAHs (PAH8), chrysene (4.88 mg kg
1, 3.29%) and benz[a]
anthracene (2.27 mg kg
1, 1.53%) showed the highest mean values. Meat tikka contained the highest
Keywords:
mean concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) (2.48 mg kg
1), total genotoxic PAHs (42.9 mg kg
1), total
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Genotoxic PAHs (PAH8)
PAHs (SPAHs) (648 mg kg
1) and total benzo[a]pyrene equivalents (SBaPeq) (6.02 mg kg
1). High levels of
Grilled and smoked foods and dietary genotoxic PAHs were detected in grilled vegetables (21.1 mg kg
1), shish tauk (20.5 mg kg
1) and whole
exposure grilled chicken (20.3 mg kg
1) samples. However, meat and chicken shawerma samples had low levels of
PAH8. Meat tikka (437 ng/day, 641 ng/day), whole grilled chicken (160 ng/day, 241 ng/day), grilled
vegetables (120 ng/day, 166 ng/day), meat burger (114 ng/day, 92.7 ng/day) were the major contributors
to the daily intake of PAH8 in children/adolescent and adult populations, respectively. The total mean
dietary intakes for children/adolescents and adults for BaP (8.09 ng/day, 9.20 ng/day), PAH8 (84.2 ng/day,
P P
95.7 ng/day), PAHs (974 ng/day, 1108 ng/day) and BaPeq (14.8 ng/day, 16.8 ng/day) were comparable.
Cancer risks for Kuwaiti children/adolescents and adults from dietary intake of SBaPeq from the animal-
origin foods were determined to be 2.63/107 and 9.3/107, respectively.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction PAHs originate from environmental sources (natural and

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of hydro-
phobic compounds consisting of two or more fused aromatic rings.
PAHs are ubiquitous environmental pollutants, and they can be
generated during the preparation of food (Agerstad & Skog, 2005).
PAHs containing four fused rings, such as benz[a]anthracene and
chrysene, are weakly carcinogenic compounds while PAHs con-
taining five or more rings, such as dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[a]
pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, benzo[b & k]fluoranthene and
benzo[ghi]perylene are regarded as potentially genotoxic and
carcinogenic to humans and thus are considered among the organic
pollutants of public health concern (European Commission, 2002;
FAO/WHO, 2005; Nisbet & LaGoy, 1992). Therefore, exposure to
PAHs should be as low as reasonably achievable (FAO/WHO, 1991).
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ965 2498 9177; fax: þ965 2498 9069.
E-mail address: omirah@kisr.edu.kw (H. Alomirah).
anthropogenic), industrial food processing (e.g., heating, drying,
and smoking processes), packaging materials and certain cooking
practices (e.g., grilling, roasting, and frying processes) (EFSA, 2008;
Fromberg, Højgård, & Duedahl-Olesen, 2007; Guillén & Sopelana,
2003). In fact, the main source of exposure to PAHs for non-smokers
and non-occupationally-exposed adults is food. Diet contributes to
more than 90% of total PAH exposures of the general population in
various countries (European Commission, 2002; Llobet, Falcó,
Bocio, & Domingo, 2006; WHO, 1998). For average consumers
across the European countries, dietary exposure for the sum of
eight carcinogenic and genotoxic PAHs (PAH8) was estimated at
1.73 mg/day (EFSA, 2008). Although high level of PAHs is not usually
observed in raw foods (WHO, 1998), grilled foods have been
reported to contain PAHs at levels varying from 0 to 130 mg/kg
(Farhadian, Jinap, Abas, & Sakar, 2010). Apart from analytical
discrepancy, this variation in PAHs levels in foods is mainly due to
the type and fat content of the food, cooking process (fried, grilled,

0956-7135/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.05.024
 H. Alomirah et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035
roasted, boiled and smoked), temperature and duration of cooking,
type of fuel used (electrical, gas, wood, and charcoal) and proximity
and direct contact with heat source (Akpambanga et al., 2009; CFS,
2004; Farhadian et al., 2010; Knize, Salmon, Pais, & Felton, 1999;
Perelló, Martí-Cid, Castell, Llobet, & Domingo, 2009). In an
attempt to reduce PAH levels in charcoal grilled meat, two treat-
ments, preheating (steam and microwave) and wrapping
(aluminum foil and banana leaf) have been investigated (Farhadian,
Jinap, Hanifah, & Zaidul, 2011). Using these pre- treatments before
charcoal grilling resulted in reduced levels of carcinogenic PAHs in
grilled meat samples (Farhadian et al., 2011).
Although the exact mechanism of formation of PAHs in grilled/
smoked foods is not precisely known, it is generally considered that
at least three possible mechanisms exist. The first mechanism is the
pyrolysis of organic matter such as fat, protein and carbohydrates at
temperatures above 200  C, and PAH formation is favored at
a temperature range of 500e900  C (Bartle, 1991; Knize et al., 1999).
The greatest concentrations of PAHs have been shown to arise from
pyrolysis of fat (Bartle, 1991). The second mechanism is the yield of
direct contact of lipids dripping at intense heat directly over the
flame. This condition can generate volatile PAHs that in turn be
adhered to the surface of the food as the smoke rises (European
Commission, 2002; Farhadian et al., 2010; Lijinsky, 1991; Phillips,
1999; Wu, Wong, Lee, Shi, & Ong, 1997). The third mechanism is
the incomplete combustion of charcoal which can generate PAHs
that are brought onto the surface of the food (Dyremark,
Westerholm, Övervik, & Gustavsson, 1995; Wu et al., 1997). It has
been suggested that low molecular weight PAHs (containing 2e3
aromatic rings) arise from smoke generated during meat grilling as
these PAHs are more volatile than high molecular weight PAHs
(containing more than 3 aromatic rings) (Ferrarese, Andreottola, &
Oprea, 2008).
A number of studies have demonstrated the occurrence of
genotoxic and carcinogenic PAHs in grilled foods (Akpambanga
et al., 2009; Chen & Lin, 1997; Farhadian et al., 2010; Kazerouni,
Sinha, Hsu, Greenberg, & Rothman, 2001; Lodovici, Dolara,
Casalini, Ciappellano, & Testolin, 1995; Mottier, Parisod, &
Turesky, 2000; Panalaks, 1976; Perelló et al., 2009; Reinik et al.,
2007; Wu et al., 1997). On the other hand, very few studies have
investigated PAHs content of various grilled and smoked foods
commonly consumed in Arabian countries. Studies have reported
the levels of PAHs in grilled meat (Alsadhan, 2000) and chicken (Al-
Muqbil, 2008) in Saudi Arabia. These studies confirmed the pres-
ence of carcinogenic PAHs in grilled food and showed a positive
correlation between fat content and PAH formation as well as the
method of cooking (dry and wet cooking) and type of heat sources
(gas, charcoal and electric). Similarly, El-Saeid (2010) reported the
levels of selected PAHs in four types of barbecued meat commonly
consumed in Egypt. Grilling of meat in charcoal oven resulted in
higher concentrations of PAHs than that roasted in an electric oven
(El-Saeid, 2010).
Diet is the major non-occupational source of PAHs to humans.
Grilling of meat with appreciable fat content at high temperature,
close to the heat source, or in direct contact with the flame would
result in the formation of PAHs. Meat and chicken dishes prepared
by charcoal grilling are increasingly popular both at home and in
restaurants in Kuwait as well as in other Arabian countries. This
suggests the need for monitoring PAHs in these food products.
However, studies of PAHs in grilled foods are scarce and for the
one’s that exist, only limited individual PAHs have been reported.
Further, potential risk associated with the ingestion of PAHs in
foods is rarely examined. The aim of this study was to investigate
the levels of the 16 USEPA’s priority PAHs and sum of the eight
carcinogenic and genotoxic PAHs (PAH8; i.e., benz[a]anthracene,
chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]
2029
pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, and benzo
[ghi]perylene) and total benzo[a]pyrene equivalents (B[a]Peq) in
commercial grilled and smoked food samples. The grilled and
smoked foods analyzed in this study include mandi (meat and
chicken), meat kabab, meat arayes, burger (meat and chicken),
shawerma (meat and chicken), meat tikka, shish tauk, grilled whole
chicken, smoked meat and fish, grilled vegetables, pita bread with
fat drippings, pita bread wrapped in shawerma, burger buns, and
plain pita bread. In addition, dietary exposures to PAHs and
potential carcinogenic risks associated with the ingestion of these
foods by the Kuwaiti children/adolescent and adult populations
were estimated.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals
All solvents used in this study were of high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) grade and purchased from Merck
(Darmstadt, Germany). Silica gel 60 (0.063e0.200 mm) for column
chromatography and potassium hydroxide pellets (min. 85%
purity) and sodium sulfate anhydrous (99.0% purity), all of
analytical grade, were also purchased from Merck (Darmstadt,
Germany). PAH reference standards (PAH Mixture Cat. No. 8500-
6035) and deuterated internal standard solution (acenaphthalene-
d10, phenanthrene-d10, chrysene-d12 and perylene-d12, 2000 mg/
ml, Cat. No.8500-6076) were purchased from Agilent (Foster City,
CA, USA). Standard reference material, SRM 2977 (mussel tissue),
was obtained from the National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST) (Gaithersburg, MD, USA). Distilled water was
used throughout the experiments. Before use, all glassware was
soaked in 2% liquinox soap solution overnight followed by
washing and rinsing with distilled water and baking overnight at
400  C. Cleaned glassware was covered with clean aluminum foil
to avoid airborne contamination. The analyses were conducted
using amber round bottom flask and screw-cap vials to avoid
direct exposure to light.
2.2. Sampling and sample preparation
In August 2007, ready to eat food samples were randomly
purchased from various retail outlets and restaurants in the State
of Kuwait. The selected types of grilled and smoked food samples
represent the most popular dishes consumed by the Kuwaiti
population. In total, twenty eight lamb meat (4 mandi, 6 kabab, 4
tikka, 6 shawerma, 3 burger, 2 smoked meat and 3 arayes), 21
chicken (4 mandi, 4 shish tauk, 4 whole grilled chicken, 6 sha-
werma and 3 burger), 2 smoked fish, 13 bread (3 pita bread plain,
4 pita bread with fat dripping, 3 pita bread used for wrapping
shawerma and 3 burger buns) and 8 grilled vegetable samples
were purchased. Typically, all of the 72 purchased samples were
analyzed for PAHs in duplicate. Samples were prepared in the
same day of purchase.
Before analysis, weight of the edible portion of the samples was
recorded. Samples collected for analysis and details of their cooking
methods are shown in Table 1. Composite samples of pita bread
wrapped in shawerma, pita bread with fat drippings and burger
buns that were obtained from the same meat type (i.e., meat or
chicken) and purchased from different restaurants were pooled.
However, plain pita bread and grilled vegetable samples were
randomly selected. The samples were homogenized (Robot Coupe,
S.A., France), freeze-dried (Unitop 800 L, Virtis Company, Gardiner,
NY, USA) and stored in dark at
18  C in tightly sealed glass bottles
prior to extraction and analysis.
2030 H. Alomirah et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035
Table 1
Description of grilled and smoked food samples collected from Kuwait and the cooking methods.
Cooking Method Food item
Charcoal grilled (indirect heat) Mandi (meat and chicken)
Charcoal grilled (direct heat) Meat kabab
Meat tikka
Meat arayes
Shish tauk
Whole grilled chicken
Grilled vegetables
Gas grilled (indirect heat) Shawerma (meat and chicken)
Electric grilled (indirect heat) Burger (meat and chicken)
Burger bun
Electric smoked (indirect heat) Smoked meat and fish
Gas oven baked (indirect heat) Pita bread, plain
Pita bread wrapped in shawerma
Pita bread with fat drippings
2.3. Extraction and clean-up
Sample extraction and clean-up were performed as reported by
De Vos, Van Dokkum, Schouten, & De Jong-Berkhout, 1990 with
some modifications. Approximately 5 g of the homogenized sample
was weighed into a round bottom flask (500 ml), spiked with 1 ml
of deuterated internal standard (1 mg ml
1), and 100 ml of a 2 M
solution of potassium hydroxide in water-ethanol mixture (1:9, v/v)
added. The mixture was refluxed in the dark (the electro-mantle
was first set to 60  C and reduced to 30  C when the mixture
started boiling). After completion of saponification (1.5 h), pre-
weighed amount of cyclohexane (100 ml) was added slowly
through the condenser. After 15 min, the mixture was cooled by
adding cold distilled water (100 ml) through the condenser. After
30 min, the flask was tightly capped and thoroughly shaken and
kept overnight in the dark. The clear upper cyclohexane layer was
collected into a pre-weighed round bottom flask (250 ml) and the
weight of the cyclohexane extract was measured for recovery
calculation. The extract was concentrated to about 2 ml using
a rotary evaporator at 30  C and cleaned by silica gel column
chromatography, as described by Grimmer & Boehnke, 1975. The
eluent was re-concentrated to 1 ml using a rotary evaporator
(30  C) and transferred to 2 ml amber screw-cap vials and analyzed
using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCeMS). After
GCeMS analysis, vials were stored at
20  C if further analyses
were needed.
2.4. Analysis
The sample extracts were analyzed using a HewlettePackard
(HP) 5890 Series II gas chromatograph interfaced with an HP 5972
mass spectrometer. Chromatographic resolution was achieved
using split-less injection (2 mL injection volume and 290  C injec-
tion port temperature) on a 30 m DB-5 capillary column (J&W
Scientific, Folsom, CA, USA) (250 mm i.d., 0.25 mm film thickness)
with helium (99.999%) as the carrier gas. The oven was pro-
grammed at 45  C for 2 min, ramped at 10  C min
1 to 290  C and
held for 8 min. The mass spectrometer was operated in the electron
ionization (EI) mode (295  C and 70 eV) using selected ion moni-
toring (SIM) and PAHs were quantified using internal standard
method. The target ions monitored for the analyses were 128, 152,
154, 166, 178, 202, 228, 252, 256, 276, 278, 164 (IS), 188 (IS), 240 (IS),
Description
Cooked in a clay-based oven called Tandoor. The meat is suspended inside the
Tandoor without touching the charcoal then the Tandoor is closed without
letting any of the smoke to go outside.
Minced meat skewered on a stainless steel skewer and grilled over a charcoal.
Cubes of boneless marinated meat and cooked over charcoal.
Grilled pita bread stuffed with minced meat, onion, parsley and spices.
Cubes of boneless marinated chicken and cooked over charcoal.
Whole and flattened chicken cooked over charcoal.
Grilled fresh vegetables, usually tomato, onion and chili pepper. Vegetables are
either grilled as a whole or skewed with meat or chicken.
Stack marinated slices of meat or chicken onto a vertical skewer and roasted
using gas flame, and served on platter
Grilled on a surface with wide raised ridges, to the point of having the food
slightly charred in texture.
Ready to eat bread of the burger sandwich toasted with electric broiler before serving.
Meat and fish that is cured by smoking.
Flat bread made of white or whole-wheat flour.
Flat bread used to wrap the meat and chicken fillings of shawerma platter.
Flat bread with fat drippings from grilled meat and chicken and usually
placed under and over the grilled dish.
and 264 (IS) for the US EPA 16 priority pollutants (naphthalene,
acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthra-
cene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]
fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-
c,d]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[ghi]perylene) and for the
deuterated internal standard solution (acenaphthalene-d10, phen-
anthrene-d10, chrysene-d12 and perylene-d12). Other qualifier ions
were used for confirmation purposes.
Prior to analyzing a sample set, the GCeMS system performance
and calibration were verified for all analytes. A solvent blank
(hexane) was injected to ensure that the system was free from
contaminants or interfering peaks. The average limit of detection
(LOD) and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) across all PAHs ranged
from 0.1 to 1 ng g
1 and from 0.3 to 3 ng g
1, respectively on the
basis of a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of 3 and 10, respectively. LOQ
was measured by spiking procedural blank with 10 ng/ml standard
and the spiked blank was injected 10 times. The ISO 15753:2006
standard method was used in estimating the LOD and LOQ.
2.5. Analytical quality assurance
Analytical quality assurance measures for PAH determination
involved inclusion in each batch of 10 samples, a procedural blank,
and a certified standard reference material (SRMÒ 2977 e mussel
tissue). All samples were spiked with the deuterated internal
standard mixture prior to extraction to correct for recoveries. The
relative standard deviation (RSD) between a calibration standard
and a performance standard was monitored to be within 20%. The
precision of the analytical method was determined by spiking
a blank sample with the calibration standard and carried through
the entire extraction and clean-up procedure as for the samples.
Batches of samples were deemed acceptable, if spiked samples
indicated  85% recovery rate and values of SRM were within 10%
of the certified values. The standard deviation for triplicate analyses
was between 2 and 5% and 10e18% for the non-carcinogenic and
carcinogenic PAHs, respectively.
Quantitation of PAHs was carried out by duplicate analysis of
same food sample, and the mean of two values was used for
interpretation. In cases where the difference between duplicate
analyses was greater than 10% of the mean value, then the analysis
was repeated. A peak was positively identified if it was within
0.05 min of the retention time in the calibration standard and
 H. Alomirah et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035 2031

quantified only if the S/N was 3, and the ratio of the target ion to
its qualifier ion was within 20% of the theoretical value. All
samples showing no response or less than the quantitation limit
(0.3 ng g
1) were reported as non-detects.
2.6. Benzo[a]pyrene equivalent estimation
Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) has been well characterized as the most
potent carcinogenic PAH after dibenz[a,h]anthracene. Therefore, the
total PAH concentration is expressed as benzo[a]pyrene equivalents
(BaPeq) to illustrate the toxic potency (Perugini et al., 2007). The
BaPeq was calculated as the sum of BaPeqi value for individual PAHs.
The BaPeqi value was calculated for each PAH from its concentration
in the sample (CPAHi) multiplied by its toxic equivalency factor
(TEFPAHi) as proposed earlier (Nisbet & LaGoy, 1992).
P P
BaPeq ¼ (BaPeqi) ¼ (CPAHi  TEFPAHi)
2.7. Dietary exposure to PAHs
The dietary exposure is determined based on mean PAH
concentrations (mg/kg wet wt.) and intake (g/day) of the corre-
sponding grilled food item. The daily dietary intake data were
obtained from the first Kuwaiti nutrition survey (Al-Hooti et al.,
2010). In that survey, assessment of the dietary intake was based
on a 24 h recall method from 683 children/adolescents at ages 3e19
years and from 1021 adult participants at ages 20 to more than 50
years. The mean body weight for Kuwaiti children/adolescents and
adults (male and female) was 40.9 and 80.7 kg, respectively. Four
food items (meat and chicken mandi and smoked meat and fish
samples) analyzed in this study had no information for daily
ingestion rate. Therefore, these food items were not included in the
determination of PAH exposures. Mean consumption rates of pita
bread with fat drippings and grilled vegetables were estimated as
a function of their relative serving weight to that of meat kabab,
meat tikka, whole grilled chicken, and shish tauk with their dietary
intake. Similarly, mean dietary intake of pita bread used for
wrapping shawerma was estimated relative to that of meat sha-
werma and chicken shawerma. Since the number of samples
analyzed per food items is not identical, the total mean concen-
tration (mg/kg wet wt.) of BaP, PAH8, SPAHs and SBaPeq was
determined by multiplying the mean concentration (mg/kg) for the
respective PAH or combination of PAHs with the number of sample
analyzed per food item and dividing the sum over the total number
of sample analyzed with dietary intake data (i.e. 60 samples)
(Table 4). Such normalization of mean concentrations was also
carried out by the EFSA to account for the differences in the number
of samples analyzed per food group (EFSA, 2008).
3. Results and discussion
The proportion (%) of samples above the LOD (in the presence
and the absence of BaP), the mean PAH concentration (mg kg
1), and
P
the relative percentage of individual PAHs to PAHs in 72 grilled
and smoked food samples analyzed are shown in Table 2. For
descriptive statistics, a value of zero was assigned for PAHs
concentrations below the LOD. Of the 72 samples analyzed, all
samples showed at least one or more PAHs above the LOD. Non-
carcinogenic PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene,
fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene)
were present at high proportions (60e100%) in the samples
analyzed. The predominance of non-carcinogenic PAHs in grilled
and smoked samples is in agreement with previously published
data (Farhadian et al., 2010; Farhadian et al., 2011; Lodovici et al.,
1995; Stumpe-Viksna, Bartkevics, Kukare, & Morozovs, 2008).
Of the eight carcinogenic and genotoxic PAHs (PAH8) analyzed,
benz[a]anthracene (95%) and chrysene (98%) were found to be the
predominant PAHs. However, the remaining genotoxic PAH8 were
found at lower concentrations at lesser frequencies, ranging from
34% (benzo[k]fluoranthene) to 60% (BaP). In our study, 43 samples
(60%) contained BaP concentrations above the LOD, which is higher
than the frequency reported by the EFSA (41%) for grilled and
smoked meat samples from European countries (EFSA, 2008). This
relative difference can be attributed to the fact that our samples
included other grilled food items apart from meat and/or different
cooking duration and cooking method.
We found that 35% and 38% of the samples contained benz[a]
anthracene and chrysene, despite the absence of BaP in these
samples. Similarly, but to a lesser extent, other genotoxic PAH8 such
as dibenz[a,h]anthracene (4%) and benzo[ghi]perylene (8%) were
present, despite the fact that these samples did not contain BaP.
These findings are in agreement with our previous study of PAHs
levels in vegetable oils and fats (Alomirah et al., 2010). In accor-
dance with these findings, the EFSA has reported that BaP was not
detected in about 30% of the 1375 food samples when at least one
other carcinogenic and genotoxic PAH was measurable (EFSA,
2008). The EFSA has concluded that BaP alone is not a good

Table 2
Percentage (%) of samples (n ¼ 72) that contained individual PAH above the LOD (in presence and absence of BaP), the mean concentration (mg/kg) and the relative
P
concentration percentage to PAHs in grilled and smoked foods from Kuwait.
P
PAHs >LOD in presence of BaP (%) >LOD in absence of BaP (%) >LOD total (%) Mean concentration (mg/kg) Relative % to PAHs
Naphthalene 56 38 94 16.2 10.9
Acenaphthylene 49 24 73 2.70 1.82
Acenaphthene 43 17 60 1.48 1.00
Fluorene 47 25 72 7.44 5.02
Phenanthrene 58 39 97 54.9 37.0
Anthracene 47 24 71 6.79 4.58
Fluoranthene 60 39 99 16.2 10.9
Pyrene 60 40 100 30.9 20.8
Benz[a]anthracene 60 35 95 2.27 1.53
Chrysene 60 38 98 4.88 3.29
Benzo[b]fluoranthene 43 7 50 1.58 1.07
Benzo[k]fluoranthene 28 6 34 0.85 0.57
Benzo[a]pyrene 60 0 60 1.10 0.74
Indeno[1,2,3-cd] pyrene 39 7 46 0.37 0.25
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene 35 4 39 0.16 0.11
Benzo[ghi]perylene 40 8 48 0.50 0.34
Total 148 100
2032 H. Alomirah et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035

Table 3
P P P P
Mean Concentration (range) of BaP, PAH8, LMW, HMW, PAHs and BaPeq (mg/kg wet wt) in 72 grilled and smoked food samples.
P P P P
Sample name N BaP Genotoxic PAH8a LMWb HMWc PAHs BaPeq
Meat mandi 4 0.05 (0e0.21) 1.84 (0.03e3.18) 50.5 (14.9e74.5) 25.8 (9.78e49.2) 76.3 (24.7e113) 0.21 (0.03e0.39)
Meat kabab 6 1.37 (0e4.07) 13.7 (4.65e26.6) 152 (19.1e354) 88.6 (21.7e180) 241 (40.8e534) 2.34 (0.27e4.19)
Meat tikka 4 2.48 (0.75e4.28) 42.9 (16.1e84.1) 460 (212e941) 188 (82.0e351) 648 (302e1292) 6.02 (1.95e11.4)
Meat shawerma 6 1.33 (0e4.45) 2.11 (0.98e4.94) 14.1 (3.32e22.7) 13.0 (6.18e18.4) 27.0 (11.3e40.1) 1.41 (0.06e4.48)
Meat burger 3 1.93 (0e5.79) 13.9 (1.49e36.3) 49.9 (1.15e119) 60.6 (14.7e99.5) 110 (15.8e219) 3.60 (0.05e10.6)
Smoked meat 2 1.09 (0.97e1.20) 5.36 (3.26e7.45) 26.9 (12.7e41.1) 65.3 (60.3e70.3) 92.2 (82.9e101) 1.33 (1.15e1.51)
Smoked fish 2 0.50 (0e0.99) 10.3 (7.58e12.9) 159 (108e211) 99.5 (43.6e155) 259 (255e263) 1.35 (0.57e2.12)
Meat arayes 3 0.87 (0e2.01) 8.41 (2.95e13.8) 33.7 (25.5e41.5) 26.8 (16.7e32.4) 60.5 (42.2e73.9) 1.53 (0.20e3.02)
Chicken mandi 4 0.29 (0.12e0.64) 7.00 (3.08e11.6) 102 (84.6e116) 69.9 (25.0e106) 172 (141e202) 0.77 (0.49e1.38)
Shish tauk 4 1.56 (0e4.63) 20.5 (3.54e48.8) 190 (18.8e453) 100 (34.6e213) 290 (53.4e665) 3.49 (0.20e8.82)
Whole grilled chicken 4 1.32 (0e1.96) 20.3 (1.61e33.6) 138 (35.4e217) 84.2 (12.7e124) 222 (48.2e342) 2.88 (0.16e4.62)
Chicken shawerma 6 0.16 (0e0.93) 0.73 (0.44e1.32) 14.0 (4.90e24.1) 9.69 (4.39e18.7) 23.7 (9.29e36.5) 0.20 (0.04e0.96)
Chicken burger 3 0.15 (0e0.45) 1.19 (0e3.56) 7.18 (3.54e12.3) 6.04 (2.87e11.5) 13.2 (6.41e23.8) 0.34 (0.01e1.00)
Pita bread plain 3 0.00 0.94 (0.62e1.28) 9.52 (2.73e17.7) 8.06 (4.77e14.4) 17.6 (7.50e32.1) 0.04 (0.02e0.08)
Pita bread with fat drippings 4 1.92 (0e4.88) 14.0 (4.40e35.8) 103 (10.8e360) 77.2 (18.9e193) 181 (42.2e554) 2.86 (0.31e5.43)
Pita bread wrapped in shawerma 3 1.21 (0e1.99) 2.40 (0.85e3.80) 18.0 (11.5e21.6) 23.2 (12.0e30.7) 41.2 (23.5e52.3) 1.29 (0.06e2.12)
Burger bun 3 1.30 (0.89e2.10) 12.2 (2.10e19.3) 36.5 (12.6e66.3) 48.0 (12.4e95.4) 84.5 (25.0e162) 2.63 (1.01e4.57)
Grilled vegetables 8 1.50 (0e3.43) 21.1 (2.47e47.9) 44.2 (10.9e111) 67.1 (25.6e138) 111 (42.9e229) 2.89 (0.11e6.80)
Total samples/mean 72 1.10 11.7 89.6 58.8 148 2.02
a
Genotoxic 8 PAHs include the sum of benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]
anthracene, and benzo[ghi]perylene.
b
Low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs includes the sum of naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene and anthracene.
c
High molecular weight (HMW) PAHs includes the sum of fluoranthene, pyrene and genotoxic PAHs (PAH8).

indicator for the occurrence or magnitude contamination by
carcinogenic PAHs in food products (EFSA, 2008).
As shown in Table 2, for the non-carcinogenic PAHs, phenan-
threne showed the highest mean concentration (54.9 mg kg
1)
whereas the lowest mean concentration (1.48 mg kg
1) was found
for acenaphthene. Phenanthrene comprised 37% of the total mean
concentration while acenaphthene accounted for 1% of the total
PAH concentration. Among the genotoxic PAHs (PAH8), chrysene
(4.88 mg kg
1, 3.29%) and benz[a]anthracene (2.27 mg kg
1, 1.53%)
showed the highest mean values, followed by benzo[b]fluo-
ranthene (1.58 mg kg
1, 1.07%) and BaP (1.10 mg kg
1, 0.74%). The
EFSA reported that the highest mean concentration for individual
PAH8 was for chrysene (0.47 mg kg
1) followed by BaP
(0.29 mg kg
1) in grilled and smoked meat samples from several EU
countries (EFSA, 2008). The mean concentration for the sum of
PAH8 (11.71 mg kg
1) determined in this study was approximately
seven times higher (1.77 mg kg
1) than that reported by the EFSA
(2008) but was approximately two times lower than that repor-
ted for the sum of 6 genotoxic PAHs present in charcoal grilled beef
samples prepared according to recipes used for cooking in Egypt
(El-Saeid, 2010).
3.1. PAHs in meat samples
Table 3 shows mean and ranges (mg kg
1) for benzo[a]pyrene
(BaP), the sum of genotoxic PAHs (PAH8), the total sum of low
molecular weight PAHs (SLMW), the total sum of high molecular
weight PAHs (SHMW), the total sum of PAHs (SPAHs) and total sum
of benzo[a]pyrene equivalents (SBaPeq) in grilled and smoked food
samples analyzed in this study. It should be noted that the classi-
fication of LMW (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene,
fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene) and HMW (fluoranthene,
pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo
[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene, dibenz
[a,h]anthracene, benzo[ghi]perylene) PAHs was based on their total
number of aromatic rings (Ferrarese et al., 2008). A value of zero
was assigned for concentrations below the LOD.
The mean concentration of BaP in 4 meat mandi samples was
0.05 mg kg
1 where only one samples tested positive for BaP with
a value of 0.21 mg kg
1. This mean concentration is below the
European Union (EU) maximum allowable limit for BaP (5 mg kg
1)
in smoked meats and smoked meat products (European
Commission, 2006). It is worth mentioning that BaP is currently

Table 4
P P P
Estimated mean daily intake of BaP, PAH8, PAHs and BaPeq (ng/day) from the consumption of 60 grilled and smoked food items, by average Kuwaiti adult population.

Food item n Mean daily intake (g/d) Mean concentration (mg/kg wet wt.) Daily intake (ng/day)
P P P P P P
BaP PAH8 PAHs BaPeq BaP PAH8 PAHs BaPeq
Meat kabab 6 4.10 1.37 13.7 241 2.34 5.62 56.3 988 9.59
Meat tikka 4 14.9 2.48 42.9 648 6.02 37.1 641 9687 89.9
Meat shawerma 6 3.58 1.33 2.11 27.0 1.41 4.76 7.55 96.8 5.05
Meat burger 3 6.66 1.93 13.9 110 3.60 12.9 92.7 736 24.0
Meat arayes 3 1.55 0.87 8.41 60.5 1.53 1.35 13.0 93.8 2.37
Shish tauk 4 1.09 1.56 20.5 290 3.49 1.70 22.4 316 3.80
Whole grilled chicken 4 11.8 1.32 20.3 222 2.88 15.6 241 2625 34.1
Chicken shawerma 6 3.56 0.16 0.73 23.7 0.20 0.57 2.60 84.3 0.71
Chicken burger 3 7.52 0.15 1.19 13.2 0.34 1.13 8.95 99.4 2.56
Pita bread plain 3 27.3 0.00 0.94 17.6 0.04 0.00 25.7 480 1.09
Pita bread with fat drippings 4 4.77 1.92 14.0 181 2.86 9.16 67.0 862 13.6
Pita bread wrapped in shawerma 3 6.24 1.21 2.40 41.2 1.29 7.55 15.0 257 8.05
Burger bun 3 2.57 1.30 12.2 84.5 2.63 3.34 31.3 217 6.76
Grilled vegetables 8 7.85 1.50 21.1 111 2.89 11.8 166 874 22.7
Total samples/Mean 60 7.40 1.24 12.9 150 2.27 9.20 95.7 1108 16.8
 H. Alomirah et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035
used as an indicator for the occurrence and effect of carcinogenic
PAHs in food whereas the maximum residue limits for other
carcinogenic PAHs were not yet established. Moreover, maximum
limits for PAHs in grilled meat and chicken were not established
yet (Wenzl, Simon, Anklam, & Kleiner, 2006). To the best of our
knowledge, this study reports for the first time, the levels of PAHs
in meat mandi. For this meat sample, the mean concentrations of
PAH8 and SBaPeq were 1.84 mg kg
1and 0.21 mg kg
1, respectively.
One possible explanation for the relatively low levels of genotoxic
PAHs in meat mandi is that grilling is carried out over the embers,
and flames were no longer emerging from the fire. Several Euro-
pean countries producing olive residual oil have set a maximum
level of 2 mg kg
1for individual PAH and 5 mg kg
1for the sum of
eight HMW PAHs (Moret, Purcaro, & Conte, 2005). The mean
concentration of PAH8 in meat mandi samples was within the
suggested limits. The mean concentration for SPAHs in meat
mandi was 76.3 mg kg
1, of which 50.5 mg kg
1 and 25.8 mg kg
1
was for SLMW and SHMW PAHs, respectively. The predominance
of SLMW in charcoal grilled meat and meat products is mainly due
to the fact that these PAHs dominate the smoke arising from the
pyrolysis of fat dripping over heat source and incomplete
combustion of charcoal (Dyremark et al., 1995; Ferrarese et al.,
2008; Wu et al., 1997).
Of the six meat kabab samples analyzed, the mean concentration
of PAH8 (13.7 mg kg
1) was above the maximum residue limit of
5 mg kg
1. Meat kabab samples contained higher concentrations of
BaP (1.37 mg kg
1), SLMW (152 mg kg
1) and SHMW (88.6 mg kg
1),
SPAHs (241 mg kg
1) and SBaPeq (2.34 mg kg
1) than meat mandi.
High concentrations of PAHs in meat kabab can be attributed to the
cooking process that takes place directly over the flame. Similar
observations have been made earlier (Agerstad & Skog, 2005; Chen
& Lin, 1997; El-Saeid, 2010; Farhadian et al., 2010; Kazerouni et al.,
2001). In this study, meat tikka contained the highest mean
concentrations of BaP (2.48 mg kg
1), PAH8 (42.9 mg kg
1), SLMW
(460 mg kg
1) and SHMW (188 mg kg
1), SPAHs (648 mg kg
1) and
SBaPeq (6.02 mg kg
1). All meat tikka sample contained BaP.
Although, both meat kabab and meat tikka are grilled directly over
the flame and have similar proximity to heat source, meat tikka is
grilled for a longer duration and is marinated prior to grilling. It has
been reported that marination can often result in charred meat
surface with high PAH levels (Agerstad & Skog, 2005). The mean
concentrations of PAH8 in meat kabab (13.7 mg kg
1) and meat tikka
(42.9 mg kg
1) is notably higher than those for grilled (3.29 mg kg
1)
and barbequed (7.84 mg kg
1) meat reported for several European
countries (EFSA, 2008). This suggests the influence of ethnic cooking
practices on the PAHs levels in grilled foods.
Meat shawerma had the lowest concentration of SPAHs
(27.0 mg kg
1) among all the grilled meat samples analyzed.
Although shawerma is a marinated meat, it is the cooking method
(i.e., vertically grilled using gas flame) that prevents direct contact
of the meat fat dripping with the heat source and thus reduces the
formation of PAHs. The strong influence of the geometry of the grill
on PAH formation has been demonstrated by Saint-Aubert, Cooper,
Astre, Spiliotis, and Joyeux (1992). Moreover, the geometry of the
grill also influences the composition of PAHs formed. This is
demonstrated in the meat shawerma samples analyzed in this
study, as the levels of SLMW (14.1 mg kg
1) were comparable to
those of SHMW PAHs (13.0 mg kg
1). Similarly, electric grilling
process of meat burger also influenced the composition of the PAHs
formed and the levels of SLMW (49.9 mg kg
1) and SHMW PAHs
(60.6 mg kg
1) were similar.
Although the mean concentration of BaP in smoked meat
(1.09 mg kg
1) and smoked fish (0.50 mg kg
1) samples did not
exceed the maximum level of 5 mg kg
1, the mean value for the
genotoxic PAH8 was above 5 mg kg
1. These results are in
2033
agreement with a previous finding, in which BaP alone was not
a good indicator for the concentration of other carcinogenic and
genotoxic PAHs (Alomirah et al., 2010; EFSA, 2008). The last grilled
meat analyzed in this study is arayes. Although meat arayes is
charcoal grilled directly over the flame, it had moderate levels of
BaP (0.87 mg kg
1), PAH8 (8.41 mg kg
1), SLMW (33.7 mg kg
1) and
SHMW (26.8 mg kg
1), SPAHs (60.5 mg kg
1) and SBaPeq
(1.53 mg kg
1) compared to other grilled meat samples. This can be
attributed to the protective role of the pita bread covering the meat
that prevented the dripping of fat on the open flame.
3.2. PAHs in chicken samples
The mean concentration of BaP, PAH8, SLMW, SHMW, SPAHs
and SBaPeq for all 4 chicken mandi samples analyzed were 2e6
fold higher than those for meat mandi samples (Table 3). More-
over, BaP was found in all chicken mandi samples with a mean
value of 0.29 mg kg
1. Since both mandi samples were grilled using
the same cooking practices, the observed differences in PAH levels
may be a function of their fat content. On the contrary, all
remaining grilled chicken analyzed had mean concentration of
BaP, PAH8, SLMW, SHMW, SPAHs and SBaPeq lower than the
grilled meat samples. For example, levels of BaP and genotoxic
PAH8 in shish tauk (1.56 mg kg
1, 20.5 mg kg
1), chicken shawerma
(0.16 mg kg
1, 0.73 mg kg
1), and chicken burger (0.15 mg kg
1,
1.19 mg kg
1) were lower than those in meat tikka (2.48 mg kg
1,
42.9 mg kg
1), meat shawerma (1.33 mg kg
1, 2.11 mg kg
1), meat
burger (1.93 mg kg
1, 13.9 mg kg
1), respectively. Several previous
studies have reported higher concentration of PAHs in grilled meat
sample compared to grilled chicken samples (Farhadian et al.,
2010; Mottier et al., 2000; Perelló et al., 2009). As in grilled meat
samples, type of heat source, grilling duration, geometry of the
grill and the use of marinating sauces influenced the formation of
PAHs in grilled chicken samples.
3.3. PAHs in bread and vegetable samples
All of the plain pita bread samples analyzed had no BaP and
contained very low mean concentration for PAH8 (0.94 mg kg
1),
SLMW (9.52 mg kg
1), SHMW (8.06 mg kg
1), SPAHs (17.6 mg kg
1)
and SBaPeq (0.04 mg kg
1). The mean concentrations of PAH8
reported in French bread (0.86 mg kg
1) and sandwich bread
(0.90 mg kg
1) by Martí-Cid, Llobet, Castell, and Domingo (2008)
were similar to those found in this study (Table 3). Pita bread
with fat dripping had the highest levels of BaP (1.92 mg kg
1), PAH8
(14.0 mg kg
1), SLMW (103 mg kg
1) and SHMW (77.2 mg kg
1),
SPAHs (181 mg kg
1) and SBaPeq (2.86 mg kg
1) compared to all
bread samples analyzed in this study. This emphasizes the influ-
ence of fat dripping on the overall PAH concentrations in foods. The
mean concentration of BaP (1.21 mg kg
1), PAH8 (2.40 mg kg
1),
SLMW PAHs (18.0 mg kg
1), SHMW PAHs (23.2 mg kg
1), SPAHs
(41.2 mg kg
1) and SBaPeq (1.29 mg kg
1) in 3 pita bread wrapped in
shawerma samples was lower than those of 1.30 mg kg
1,
12.2 mg kg
1, 36.5 mg kg
1, 48.0 mg kg
1, 84.5 mg kg
1 and
2.63 mg kg
1, respectively, in burger bun samples analyzed in this
study. This difference in PAH levels confirm the influence of the
grilling method and thus on the type of the meat and chicken fat
dripping that is in contact with the bread. The mean concentration
of PAH8 (21.1 mg kg
1) in grilled vegetables reported in this study
was approximately 100 fold higher than that reported for raw
vegetables (0.18 mg kg
1) (Martí-Cid et al., 2008). This significant
increase in the PAH levels in grilled vegetables is mainly due to the
pyrolysis of fat which drips onto the heat source, the incomplete
combustion of charcoal and the direct contact with the grilled meat
and chicken parts.
2034 H. Alomirah et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 2028e2035

Table 5
P P P
Estimated mean daily intake of BaP, PAH8, PAHs and BaPeq (ng/day) from the consumption of 60 grilled and smoked food items, by average Kuwaiti children/adolescent
population.

Food item n Mean daily intake (g/d) Mean concentration (mg/kg wet wt.) Daily intake (ng/day)
P P P P P P
BaP PAH8 PAHs BaPeq BaP PAH8 PAHs BaPeq
Meat Kabab 6 4.32 1.37 13.7 241 2.34 5.92 59.3 1042 10.1
Meat Tikka 4 10.2 2.48 42.9 648 6.02 25.2 437 6598 61.3
Meat Shawerma 6 1.02 1.33 2.11 27.0 1.41 1.36 2.16 27.7 1.45
Meat Burger 3 8.16 1.93 13.9 110 3.60 15.7 114 901 29.4
Meat Arayes 3 0.62 0.87 8.41 60.5 1.53 0.54 5.19 37.4 0.94
Shish Tauk 4 0.48 1.56 20.5 290 3.49 0.76 9.94 141 1.69
Whole Grilled Chicken 4 7.88 1.32 20.3 222 2.88 10.4 160 1749 22.7
Chicken Shawerma 6 3.16 0.16 0.73 23.7 0.20 0.51 2.31 74.9 0.63
Chicken Burger 3 13.6 0.15 1.19 13.2 0.34 2.03 16.1 179 4.61
Pita Bread Plain 3 25.7 0.00 0.94 17.6 0.04 0.00 24.2 452 1.03
Pita Bread with Fat Drippings 4 3.43 1.92 14.0 181 2.86 6.59 48.2 620 9.81
Pita Bread Wrapped in Shawerma 3 3.39 1.21 2.40 41.2 1.29 4.10 8.14 140 4.37
Burger Bun 3 3.48 1.30 12.2 84.5 2.63 4.52 42.4 294 9.15
Grilled Vegetables 8 5.67 1.50 21.1 111 2.89 8.51 120 631 16.4
Total Samples/Mean 60 6.50 1.24 12.9 150 2.27 8.09 84.2 974 14.8

3.4. Dietary exposure
Table 4 show the mean daily intake of BaP, PAH8, SPAHs and
SBaPeq (ng/day) by the average Kuwaiti adult population from
grilled and smoked food items, for which dietary intake data are
available. Meat tikka (37.1 ng/day), whole grilled chicken (15.6 ng/
day), meat burger (12.9 ng/day) and grilled vegetables (11.8 ng/day)
contributed to the highest intake of BaP. Interestingly, our study
indicated that grilled vegetable samples are one of the major
contributors to the intake of BaP. Similarly, meat tikka (641 ng/day,
89.9 ng/day) and whole grilled chicken (241 ng/day, 34.1 ng/day)
were the major contributors to the daily intake of PAH8 and SBaPeq,
respectively. However, the third main contributor to the intake of
PAH8 and SBaPeq was grilled vegetables and/or meat burger. The
major contributors to the intake of SPAHs were slightly different
from that for BaP, PAH8, SBaPeq as meat kabab (988 ng/day) was
determined to be one of the main contributors to the intake of total
PAHs while it was a minor contributor to the intake of BaP, PAH8,
and SBaPeq. This suggests that the use of mean daily intake of BaP,
PAH8 and SBaPeq is more appropriate than the intake of SPAHs
alone.
P
Table 5 shows the mean daily intake of BaP, PAH8, PAHs and
P
BaPeq (ng/day) for Kuwaiti children/adolescents (3e19 years).
Meat tikka, whole grilled chicken (15.7 ng/day), meat burgers, and
grilled vegetables were the 4 major contributors to BaP, PAH8 and
P
BaPeq intakes in children/adolescent populations, similar to that
found for adult populations (Table 4). As for adult population, meat
kabab was found to be one of the major contributors to the intake of
P
PAHs. The total mean dietary intake by children/adolescents and
adults for BaP (8.09 ng/day, 9.20 ng/day), PAH8 (84.2 ng/day,
P P
95.7 ng/day), PAHs (974 ng/day, 1108 ng/day) and BaPeq
(14.8 ng/day, 16.8 ng/day) were comparable. This indicates similar
dietary habits between the two population groups, although the
P P
total mean dietary intake of BaP, PAH8, PAHs and BaPeq by
children/adolescents were relatively lower to that in adults.
The mean dietary intake to BaP (9.20 ng/day) and PAH8 (95.7 ng/
day) for the adult Kuwaiti population (Table 4) was lower than
42 ng/day and 279 ng/day, respectively, reported for meat and meat
products by the EFSA for average consumers across Europe (EFSA,
2008). It should be noted that the overall dietary intake for BaP
and PAH8 reported in this study is only for grilled and smoked food
samples and does not cover other meat and meat products. The
estimated dietary intake of PAH8 (95.7 ng/day) represents about
34% of that reported for meat and meat products by the EFSA (EFSA,
2008). This indicates significant contribution of grilled and smoked
food items to the overall dietary exposure to PAHs. We estimated
the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) associated with the
dietary intake of SBaPeq in grilled and smoked food items to be 9.3/
107 for an average adult with a body weight of 80.7 kg and it was
2.63/107 for children/adolescent with a body weight of 40.9 kg. The
increase in the risk for the development of cancer in adult pop-
ulation is lower than the acceptable risk level of one in a million
chance of additional human cancer over a 70 year lifetime (1/106)
(Xia et al., 2010). We have previously reported the dietary exposure
to SBaPeq from fish and shrimp (Alomirah et al., 2009) and from
vegetable oils and fat (Alomirah et al., 2010) to be 1.33 ng/day and
74.1 ng/day, respectively. Thus, the sum of the dietary exposure to
SBaPeq for an average adult living in Kuwait from the consumption
of 3 food groups (fish and shrimps, vegetable oils and fats and
grilled and smoked foods) was 92.2 ng/day and has a ILCR value of
5.1/106. This value of ILCR is relatively higher than the acceptable
risk level (1/106), but lower than the priority risk level (1/104) (Xia
et al., 2010). SBaPeq based ILCR was recently computed for male
adults living in Catalonia (Spain) (Martorell et al., 2010) and Taiyuan
(China) (Xia et al., 2010) to be 4.5/106 and 4.04/106, respectively.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, this study reported for the first time levels of BaP,
PAH8, SLMW, SHMW, SPAHs and SBaPeq in grilled and smoked
food items commonly consumed in Arabian countries. Results
indicated strong influence of type of heat source, grilling duration,
geometry of the grill and the use of marinating sauces and fat
content on PAHs formation and the predominance of non-
carcinogenic PAHs in analyzed food samples. Meat tikka, whole
grilled chicken, meat burger and grilled vegetables were the major
contributors to the daily intake of BaP, PAH8 and SBaPeq for chil-
dren/adolescent and adult population in Kuwait. The estimated
incremental lifetime cancer risk in Kuwaiti average adult associated
with the dietary intake of SBaPeq from only grilled and smoked
food items was lower than the acceptable risk level, but inclusion of
PAH exposure from other dietary sources can augment the risk.
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