Q: Draw a full wave bridge rectifier and explain its working principle.

During the positive half cycle of the supply,

diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current
flows through the load. During the negative half
cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 are now reverse
biased.

Q: What is transistor biasing? Draw the i/p & o/p characteristic curve for
common base amplifier.
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current
conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the
transistor.

Q: Classification of amplifier
As base on Input 1. Small Signal Amp
2. Large Signal Amp
As base on output 1. Voltage Amp
2. Current Amp
As base on Frequency 1. Audio frequency amp
2. Intermediate frequency amp
3. Radio frequency amp
As base on biasing 1. Class A 3. Class C
2. Class B 4. Class AB
As base on Configuration 1. Common Base
2. Common emitter
3. Common collector.
 Q3: Difference between voltage amplifier and power amplifier.
BASIS OF COMPARISON VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER POWER AMPLIFIER
Use amplifies the voltage amplifies the power of a signal  
Functionality can work with low magnitude signal.   can work with low magnitude signal.  
Amplitude Of AC Signal amplitude of input A.C signal is small. amplitude of input A.C signal is large.  
Transistor The transistor used in the voltage The transistor used in the power
amplifier has a thin base because it amplifier has a thick base because it
does not handle large current.  handles the very large current.  
Output Impedance very high very low
Collector Current very low up to 1 mA.   high greater than 100 mA.  
Transistor Heat dissipate less heat produced during its dissipate more heat produced during its
Dissipation operation.   operation.  
Size Of Transistor usually small usually large
Collector Load Low High
Coupling RC coupling required Transformer coupling required
Application used for small signal voltage.   used for large signal voltage.  
Current Gain High High

Q: Application Of IC.
The applications of integration circuits are far and wide and are only limited by the
designers’ creativity. Nearly anything which can be electrically connected in a circuit can be
imprinted on a small IC chip and achieve the same result. The list of IC application is endless and
constantly expanding. All the electronic components we see around us in our day-to-day life;
our mobile phones, laptops, tablets, calculators, toys, home appliances, cars, heavy machinery
and even space exploration equipment. Any device which has an electronic circuit, no matter
how big or small, uses integrated circuits because they are more beneficial to use instead of
traditional circuits as these can get quite complicated to connect.

Q: Zener Diode:
A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed to reliably allow current to flow "backwards"
when a certain set reverse voltage, known as the Zener voltage, is reached. Zener diodes are manufactured
with a great variety of Zener voltages and some are even variable. Zener diodes are used for voltage
regulation, as reference elements, surge suppressors, and in switching applications and clipper circuits. 

Q: Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current, which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current, which flows in only one direction. The reverse operation is performed by the
inverter. The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current. 
Q: V-I Characteristics of PN
Junction Diode:
The characteristics can be explained under three
cases , such as :
1. Zero bias
2. Forward bias
3. Reverse bias

Q: Transister:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical
power. Transistors are one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of
semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit . 

S Bipolar Junction Transistor Field Effect Transistor

L (MOSFET)

1
An FET is a three-terminal unipolar
A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed
semiconductor device. It is a voltage
as BJT is called so as it has two PN junctions for
controlled device unlike a bipolar
its function. This BJT is nothing but a normal
junction transistor. The main advantage of
transistor. It has got two types of
FET is that it has a very high input
configurations NPN and PNP. Usually NPN
impedance, which is in the order of Mega
transistor is preferred for the sake of convenience.
Ohms. It has many advantages like low
power consumption, low heat dissipation
and FETs are highly efficient devices.
2 It is a bipolar device
It is an unipolar device
3 Current driven device
Voltage driven device
4 Low input impedance
High input impedance
5 High noise level
Low noise level
6 Less thermal stability
Better thermal stability
7 Gain is characterized by voltage gain Gain is characterized by trans conductance.
Q: Transistor As Amplifier:
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage
applied to the emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is
maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows how a transistor looks like
when connected as an amplifier.
The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in
input signal to result in an appreciable change in the output.
The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes
the collector current, which when flows through the load
resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus a
small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which
shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.
Example: Let there be a change of 0.1v in the input voltage being applied, which further produces a
change of 1mA in the emitter current. This emitter current will obviously produce a change in collector
current, which would also be 1mA.
A load resistance of 5kΩ placed in the collector would produce a voltage of
5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5V
Hence it is observed that a change of 0.1v in the input gives a change of 5v in the output, which means
the voltage level of the signal is amplified.

Q: Diode Equivalent Models:

The diode can be modeled in three different ways depending on the accuracy required. Three
models with increasing accuracy are listed below:
1. Ideal Diode Model
2. Simplified Model
3. Piece-Wise Linear Model

Q: SCR(Silicon controlled rectifier)

A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor controlled rectifier is a four layer solid-state current-
controlling device.
There are three modes of operation for an SCR depending upon the biasing given to it:
1. Forward blocking mode (off state)
2. Forward conduction mode (on state)
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state)

Forward blocking mode:

In this mode of operation, the anode (+) is given a positive voltage while the cathode (−) is
given a negative voltage, keeping the gate at zero (0) potential i.e. disconnected. In this case junction
J1and J3 are forward-biased, while J2 is reverse-biased, allowing only a small leakage current from the
anode to the cathode. When the applied voltage reaches the breakover value for J2, then J2 undergoes
avalanche breakdown. At this breakover voltage J2 starts conducting, but below breakover voltage J2
offers very high resistance to the current and the SCR is said to be in the off state.
Forward conduction mode:
An SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: Either by
increasing the voltage between anode and cathode beyond the breakover voltage, or by applying a
positive pulse at the gate. Once the SCR starts conducting, no more gate voltage is required to maintain it
in the ON state. The minimum current necessary to maintain the SCR in the ON state on removal of the
gate voltage is called the latching current.
There are two ways to turn it off:
1. Reduce the current through it below a minimum value called the holding current.
2. With the gate turned off, short-circuit the anode and cathode momentarily with a push-button
switch or transistor across the junction.
Reverse blocking mode:
When a negative voltage is applied to the anode and a positive voltage to the cathode, the SCR is
in reverse blocking mode, making J1 and J3 reverse biased and J2 forward biased. The device behaves as
two reverse-biased diodes connected in series. A small leakage current flows. This is the reverse blocking
mode.

Q: LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows
through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of
photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy
required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using
multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Q: Solar Cell :
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of
photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or
resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building
blocks of photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as solar panels. The common single junction silicon
solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

Q: Feedback Amplifier:
Feedback Amplifier is a device that is based on the principle of feedback. The process by which
some part or fraction of output is combined with the input is known as feedback.
Positive Feedback amplifier:
It is a type of an amplifier in which source signal and
the feedback signal are in the same phase. Thus, the feedback
signal applied increases the strength of the input signal.
Negative Feedback amplifier:
In this type of amplifier source signal and the feedback
signal are out of phase with each other. Thus, the feedback
signal applied to decrease the strength of the input signal.

Operation of Feedback Amplifier:

For the above figure, the gain of the circuit without feedback is given as

The gain of feedback network is given as

But as we can see Vd is the mixer output voltage given by

The signal voltage Vs and mixer output voltage Vd will only be equal in a feedback amplifier
unless the output is not generated. From Eq 1 we can write as
Substituting the value Vd in eq 4
From Eq 2

Substituting the value of Vf in eq 5

This is the desired value for the gain of the feedback amplifier.

Thus, the mixer will produce the summation of the Thus the mixer circuit will resultantly produce the
two signal applied to it in case of positive feedback. difference between the two signal in case of a negative
feedback amplifier.
The gain of the amplifier is The gain of the amplifier is

Q: There are some advantages of negative feedback amplifier which

are given below:
1. The negative feedback reduces noise.
2. It has highly stabilized gain.
3. It can control step response of amplifier.
4. It has less harmonic distortion.
5. It has less amplitude distortion.
6. It has less phase distortion.
7. Input and output impedances can be modified as desired.
8. It can increase or decrease output impedances.
9. It has higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation.
10. It has less frequency distortion.

Q: Differences between High pass and Low pass filter:

PARAMETERS HIGH PASS FILTER LOW PASS FILTER
Definition It is a circuit which allows the It is a circuit which allows the frequency
frequencies above cut off frequency below cut off frequency to pass through it.
to pass through it.
Circuit Architecture It consists of Capacitor followed by a It consists of resistor followed by capacitor.
resistor.
Significance It is significant when the distortion It is significant in removing aliasing effect.
due to low frequency signal such as
noise is to be removed.
Operating Frequency Higher than the cut off frequency. Lower than the cut off frequency.
Applications In audio amplifiers, low noise In communications circuit as anti-aliasing
amplifiers etc. filter.
Diagram
when operated in triode region VDS≤(VGS−Vth), the drain current equation is given by:

ID=Kn′W/L(VGS−Vth)VDS−1/2.VDS^2
when operated in Saturation region VDS≥(VGS−Vth), the drain current equation is given by:

ID=1/2 Kn′W/L(VGS−Vth)^2

JFET( Junction Field Effect Transistor):

JFET is a voltage controlled unipolar
semiconductor device used as amplifiers, electronically
controlled switches and voltage controlled resistors in
many applications. Junction field effect transistor has no
p-n junctions but has a high resistivity semiconductor
material forming a channel of either n-type or p-type
silicon for the majority carriers to flow through with two
ohmic electrical connections at either end commonly
known as Drain and source.

MOSFET:
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, also
known as the metal–oxide–silicon transistor, is a type of insulated-gate
field-effect transistor that is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a
semiconductor, typically silicon.
Different amplifiers:

Voltage doubler:
A voltage doubler is an electronic circuit which
charges capacitors from the input voltage and
switches these charges in such a way that, in the ideal
case, exactly twice the voltage is produced at the
output as at its input.

AMOLED  active-matrix organic light-emitting diode

Oscillator:
A n e l e c t r o n
signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. Oscillators convert direct
current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating current (AC)
signal. They are widely used in many electronic devices ranging
from simplest clock generators to digital instruments (like
calculators) and complex computers and peripherals etc.

Semiconductor:
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a
conductor, such as metallic copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its
temperature rises; metals behave the opposite.

P-type: A p-type semiconductor is a type of semiconductor. When the trivalent

impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium), it is said to be a
p-type semiconductor. Trivalent impurities such as boron (B), gallium (Ga), indium (In),
aluminium (Al) etc. are called acceptor impurity.

N-type: An N-type semiconductor is a type of material used in electronics.It is made

by adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor such as silicon or germanium. The impurities
used may be phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth or some other chemical element. They are
called donor impurities. The impurity is called a donor because it gives a free electron to a
semiconductor. The purpose of doing this is to make more charge carriers, or electron wires
available in the material for conduction. The final material is a lot more conductive than the
original silicon or germanium.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped; during manufacture of the
semiconductor crystal a trace element or chemical called a doping agent has been incorporated
chemically into the crystal, for the purpose of giving it different electrical properties than the
pure semiconductor crystal, which is called an extrinsic semiconductor. An extrinsic
semiconductor which has been doped with electron acceptor atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor, because the majority of charge carriers in the crystal are positive holes.

Intrinsic semiconductor:
An intrinsic semiconductor, also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor, is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present. The
number of charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of the material itself instead
of the amount of impurities.
Q: Zener Diode Clipping

The zener diode is acting like a biased diode clipping circuit with the bias voltage
being equal to the zener breakdown voltage. In this circuit during the positive half of the
waveform the zener diode is reverse biased so the waveform is clipped at the zener voltage,
VZD1. During the negative half cycle the zener acts like a normal diode with its usual 0.7V
junction value.

Q: Full-wave Zener Diode Clipping:

The output waveform from full wave zener diode clipping circuits resembles that of the
previous voltage biased diode clipping circuit. The output waveform will be clipped at the zener
voltage plus the 0.7V forward volt drop of the other diode. So for example, the positive half
cycle will be clipped at the sum of zener diode, ZD1 plus 0.7V from ZD2 and vice versa for the
negative half cycle.

Q: AC-DC Dual Converter For DC motor:

 Single Phase Three Phase

Q: Four Quadrant Chopper Or Class E chopper(DC Drive):

Q: What is an Operational Amplifier?
An operational amplifier (op amp) is an analog circuit block that takes a
differential voltage input and produces a single-ended voltage output.
Op amps usually have three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-impedance output
port. The inverting input is denoted with a minus (-) sign, and the non-inverting input uses a
positive (+) sign. Operational amplifiers work to amplify the voltage differential between the
inputs, which is useful for a variety of analog functions including signal chain, power, and
control applications. Operational Amplifier Clasifications There are four ways to classify
operational amplifiers:
Types:
1. Voltage amplifiers take voltage in and produce a voltage at the output.
2. Current amplifiers receive a current input and produce a current output.
3. Transconductance amplifiers convert a voltage input to a current output.
4. Transresistance amplifiers convert a current input and produces a voltage output.

Operational Amplifiers: Key Characteristics and Parameters:

1. Open-loop gain is very high.
2. Input impedance is very high.
3. Output impedance is zero.
4. Frequency response is very high and has infinite bandwidth.