Powder Technology.

39 (1984) 2’79 - 289 279

Measurement of Particle Size Distribution by Image Analyser

R_ P_ KING
Department of Metallurgy. University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg (South Africa)
(Received August 18.1983; in revised form January 1.1984)

SUMMARY technique has been used for many years for

particles of simple regular geometry such as
Image analysis provides a very useful spheres. It is the general problem that is im-
method for the measurement of the size dis- portant in the analysis of granular materials
tribution of granular materials The method is and, understandably, image analysis has nor.
very useful when the grains to be measured yet found general acceptance as an absolute
ore very small (1 - 25 pm). or are imbedded in measurement technique_ However, the solu-
a solid matrix. The techniques of measure- tion of the theoretical problems associated
ment are described and the analytical meth- with the method and the increasing availabil-
ods for the transformation of ranriom chord ity of automatic image analysers in labora-
measurements made on section to three- tories that deal with granular materials has
dimensional size are provided in a convenient focused attention on this most valuable ad-
form. An example is given using duta ob- dition to the range of standard esperimenxal
tained from a modern automatic image methods for the measurement. of particle
anatyser. Traditionally. this technique is ap- size distribution.
plicable only to spherical particles, but the The principal advantage of image analysis
method presented in this paper can be used as a measurement technique lies in the abilit.>-
for particies of irregular shape which enhances to measure size distribut.ion from measure-
its utility considerably_ ments made on a plane section through a
collection of particles_ This makes the tech-
nique applicable to such important materials
INTRODUCTION as consolidated powders, porous media, im-
bedded particles, metal grains as well as
The distribution of the particle size pro- powders. In fact, it is the only viable method
vides the most fundamental characterization of measurement when the particles are im-
of a mass of granular material_ The measure- bedded in an opaque medium such as the
ment of the size distribution is corresponding- grair,s in a metal alloy or particles in multi-
ly important and several experimental meth- phase conglommerates. Such materials are
ods are availaule- often met with when working with granular
The more conventional methods have been solids and the failure of the more conven-
comprehensively reviewed by allen [l] and tional methods of size measurement in these
a great deal is known about the reliability of cases is the chief incentive for the use of
the various procedures_ A method of size image analysis_ But that is not its esclusive
distribution measurement is described in this claim to attention_ In many cases, image anal-
paper that has a number of real advantages ysis can be used instead of other conventional
over more conventional methods and in some methods, and can sometimes rival even the
circumstances provides the only possible simple sieve method for convenience and
method of measurement_ Image analysis precision_ In this regard, it is particularly at-
has only recently become a tool available for tractive when the particles to be measured
the measurement of size distribution in t.he are very small (=G25 pm) or when the sample
general situation where individual particles available for anlysis is very small (samples
differ in shape from each other, although the containing 5000 - 10 000 particles)_

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280

PARTICLE SIZE AND PARTICLE SHAPE dimensional section through a particle pro-
duces a plane section that has very little direct
The basic principle by which particle size relationship to the size of the particle from
distribution is measured using the image anal- which it came_ A random section has very
yser is the measurement of size- and shape- little chance of including the maximum
related parameters on individu-al particles as chord through the particle or any other
seen in an appropriate two-dimensional directly useful measure of size. Nevertheless,
image. The image can be obtained by pro- the distribution of measured parameter over
jection of the shadow silhouette of the par- the population of particle images in section
ticle or by making a plane section through can be converted to the distribution of particle
the particle after the particles have been sizes over the population of particles. It is
mounted suitably. Most image analysers gen- this conversion procedure that is the major
erate the image in the optical microscope so topic of this paper_
that the most common range of particle sizes Before describing the conversion proce-
measured by this technique is 1 to 1000 pm. dure, it is necessary to discuss briefly the sig-
However, macro optical systems can be used nificance of particle shape because the conver-
for larger sizes and it is feasible to consider sion from section or silhouette measurements
smaller sizes using the electron microscope to size is shape dependent_ This is a source of
as an imaging device_ Because measurements some difficulty because shape is considerably
are made on individual particles, the precise more complex to define than size and it is
definition of particle size is somewhat more only in comparatively recent times that much
significant with this technique than with progress has been made on the development
many others where one or other ‘convenient of the quantitative description of particle
size’ is’measured indirectly via a sedimenta- shape [ 2,3]_ Two attributes of particle shape
tion velocity, sieve separation, per.3eability are of particular interest to us: regularity and
of a powder bed and so on_ Particles of irregu- homot.heticity. Particles that have regular
lar shape do not %YP a single uniquely de- shape are the sphere, the ellipsoid, the cube
fined size and the measure r?sed for size will and a variety of other regular polygons_
be influenced to some estent by the use to Homothetic particles have the same shape and
which the measurement will be put. Allen [l] differ only in a single scale factor as the size
(p_ 104) lists 13 different definitions for the changes. Collections of particles having a
size of an irregular particle. Still others can be single regular shape are obviously homothetic-
defined. Thus, it is always necessary to speci- Early workers in the application of image
fy at the outset just which measure of size is analysis to the problem of size determination
required_ &I additional advantage of the restricted their attention to regular or, at best,
image analysis technique is that it can yield homothetic particles_ This was a severe restric-
virtually any of the measures of size that may tion since the vast majority of particles that
be appropriate. Contrast this with the sieve make up technically important granular mate-
method, for example, which can yield only rials do not satisfy either of these properties_
the sieve.size distribution_ This restriction probably accounts for the
The image analysis method is complicated relatively infrequent use of image analysis for
because the an$yser does not directly measure particle size determination until recent times.
size of the particles in spite of the fact that The early work has been well reviewed by
individual particles in the image are examined. Underwood 143 _ The extension to particles of
Generally speaking, some size-related proper- irregular shape is the subject of this paper_
ty of the particle image is measured on several
thousand particles and the distribution of
measured parameter must be converted to the CONVERSION FROM SECTION DATA TO SIZE
distribution of size over the particle popula- DISTRIBUTION
tion as a whole_ It is not possible to relate
the measured parameter for a single particle It is now necessary to examine some of the
image to the size of that particular particle_ details of the transformation relationships
This is especially true when the image is made that exist for the conversion of sectioned data
by sectioning through the particles_ A two- to three-dimensional size data. It must not be
 251

forgotten that there are no direct relation- across a comer, the sectioned area will be
ships for individual particles_ All relationships small_ On the other hand, if the plane passes
esist only for populations of many particles- through the centre of the particle, a large
In addition, any single measurement that is sectioned area will result_ Furthermore_
made on an irregular particle does not have a particles all of size* D drawn for the particle
great deal of absolute significance, but the population will all vary in shape and this will
measurements must be regarded as random add further to the spread of values. Thus,
variables that can be defined precisely only each particle size contributes many different
through their associated probability distri- section measurements and the real popula-
bution functions_ Modem automatic image tion of particle sizes produces two-dimen-
analysers are well equipped to handle data in sional parameter values that overlap over the
this way and they are provided with a variety entire spectrum of measured values. The es-
of statistical packages for the appropriate traction of the size distribution from the con-
analysis of the data. fusion of the section measurements is known
The problem can be simply stated as fol- as a deconvolution operation and there are
lows_ The image analyser can measure the dis- reliable mathematical and numerical tech-
tribution of any feature-specific parameter niques for this operation.
over the population of the particles in section The most convenient representation of the
as they are presented to the image-forming relationships between the distribution of
device_ How can the distribution by volume sectioned area and the three-dimensional
of the particle sizes be calculated from the distribution of particle size is
measured distribution? The measured param-
eter will generally be the cross-sectional area
of each particle in the section plane, or the (1)
masimum diameter of the particle section as
seen in the section plane, or the length of a and, for measurements of random chord
random chord through a section. Other par- length,
ticle-specific measurements that can be used
are the Feret diameter, the diameter of the
circle having the same area of the particle, or
the particle perimeter_ Each of these param-
eters carries a different amount of informa- Equations (1) and (2) show the convolu-
tion regarding the particle size distribution, tion relationship explicitly and the full
and the section area and the random chord derivation of ihese equations is given in King
are believed to be the richest in information [5]_ In the equations, p(A) is the measured
content although no quantitative theoretical distribution of sectioned areas and p(L) the
work is available on this question at the measured distribution of random chord
present time- lengths_ p(A/D) and p(L/D) are the unit. dis-
The link between the distribution of the tributions defined for particles that have size
2-dimensional section measurements and the D_ Thus p(A/D) is the dist.ribution of sec-
three-dimensional size distribution depends tioned areas that will be observed in a popula-
on two important features of the sectioning tion of particles all of which have size D with
process: firstly, there is not an equal chance a similar definition for p(L/D). f(D) is the dis-
that all particles will be sectioned by the tribution by volume of the particle sizes in
plane (larger particles are more likely to be the population and corresponds to the size
sectioned than small particles), and secondly, dist.ribution that would be measured using the
the section param eter is only indirectly re- usual sieving procedure_ ;i’ is the mean of the
lated to the particle size. If a single particle measured area distribution:
of size D is sectioned randomly many times,
it will yield a distribution of values for each (3)
of the measured parameters depending on the
position of the section plane as it cuts *In this paper. particle size means the side dimen-
through the particle. If the plane passes close sion of the smallest mesh through which the particles
to the edge of the particle or merely cuts can pass.
282

and xn is the mean of the unit distribution employed this method, but it does require
for area the separation of the particles and so cannot
be used when particles are imbedded in a solid
&= /- Ap(A/D)dA matrix. The second method that has been
0” successfully used is the synthesis of the unit
The integrals in eqns. (1) and (2) show how distributions by computer simulation of the
each particle size in the D distribution makes particle shape followed by the simulated
many contributions to the measured values of random sectioning of the particle_ The sec-
A or L and the integral represents the summa- tioned area and the random chord length is
tion over all the particle sizes. The lower limit then calculated and the distributions are
on the integrals arises because no particle generated_ This approach has been explored
having D d A “* can contribute a measured fairly extensively by Warren and co-workers
value of A and no particles having D d 0.83L [ 6 - S] , who have generated much useful in-
can contribute a measured value of L. The formation on the unit distributions for a
lower limits are specific to the shape of the variety of particle shapes, and their work has
particles under consideration_ Those used yielded valuable insights into t.he nature of
in eqns. (1) and (2) have been found experi- the unit distributions.
mentally to apply to a range of irregular King [5] has shown that a very useful unit
particle shapes. Further experimental work distribution that is applicable to particles
will be required to establish the precise re- produced by milling operations is
lationship between the lower limits and par-
ticle shape characteristics. Equations (1) and
(2) are preferred to most of the analogous
equations in the literature because eqns. (1)
and (2) apply to particles of irregular as well
as regular shape and are not restricted to Equation (5) can be used in eqn. (2) so that
spherical particles. It is this fact that now the true size distribution function f(D) can
makes image analysis an attractive techique be evaluated by deconvolution from a mea-
for the measrtrement of the particle size dis- sured distribution of the random chord
tribution of granular materials. The numeri- lengths through the particles_
cal deconvolution of eqns. (1) and (2) to ob- Equation (5) is a useful approximation for
tain f(D) from a measured estimate of p(A) or particles that have an irregular angular shape
p(L), knowingp(L/D), is easily within the with sharp comers. The form of eqn (5) is
capacity of the mini- and microcomputers compatible with the principles that have been
that are an integral part of modem image established by Warren and Naumovich [6] _
analysers. Their extensive computer simulations have
shown that different structural features of
the particles lead to definite characteristics in
the unit distribution for the random chord
UNIT DISTRIBUTIONS length. Particles with sharp comers yield dis-
tributions with a finite value at zero chord
The key to the successful application of the length. The value increases with the propor-
image analysis method is a satisfactory knowl- tion of angular edges and their acuteness_
edge of the unit distributions p(A/D) and Faceted bodies have itistributions that ex-
p(L/D). Two approaches have proved fruitful hibit frequency peaks at chord length equal
for the establishment of the unit distribu- to the distance between parallel faces with the
tions- The first is entirely experimental and peak height being related to the relative area
relies on the determination of the distribution of such faces. Particles with rounded surfaces
of A and L in a series of samples that are pre- have greatest chord frequency at the upper
pared by screening in narrow screen intervals. end of the chord size range with a steadily
The intervals are made successively narrower increasing freqr’.ency from zero chord length.
with the ratio R of upper to lower screen size The value of 2/1.20 when L = 0 in eqn. (5)
approaching 1 and the distributions are extra- reflects the presence of many angular edges on
polated to R = 1. King 153 has successfully the particles a-rd the finite value at L = 1-W
reflects the presence of some rounding of In many situations, it is not necessary to
the edges. The distribution function spans the know the complete distribution of particle
chord length intergal from 0 to 1.20 which sizes and a few low-order moments of the
reflects the fact that the greatest chord length distribution suffice_ These are easy to obtain
through a particle that has passed through a from the moments of the measured chord-
square mesh of size D is approsima*tely 1_2L)_ size distribution-
Populations of particles that are described by Let the nth order moments of the chord
eqn. (5) have the shape factor size distribution and the particle size dis-
4iiA tribution be represented by L” and D”
- = O-63 (6) respectiv_ely.
u2
L” = J L”p(L) dL (‘7)
averaged over the entire population. A is the
0
area of a random section through a particle
and U the perimeter of that section. Individ-
D” = J D”f(D) cm (S)
ual particle sections may deviate consider-
0
ably from eqn_ (6) but the population average
should be in the range 0.60 - 0.66 if the The relationships between these moments are
deconvolution procedure described here is to obtained simply by the integration of eqn_
be reliable_ This criterion is easily checked (2), making =use of eqn. (6) for the unit dis-
since the shape factor can be measured auto- tribution.
matically for each particle on modem area- e-l L-ii
scanning image analysers while the chord size p- = (9)
l-2”-‘(1 - n)P, + e-l Z
distribution is being measured_
The averaged shape factor given in eqn. (6) where P n = -0
f’ u”eeu du_ The first two mo-
varies significantly with particle shape r;xd is a ments of the particle size distribution are.
sensitive indicator of shape characteristics- given in terms of the first three moments of
Warren and Durand 191 have calculated the chord size distribution from eqn. (9) by
average values of 4nAJU2 for several regular 7

particle shapes. d = 1.479 $- ) (10)

No generalized functional form has been
developed for the unit distributions of section
area, Feret diameter or other section param- (11)
eters that can be measured_ Some distribu-
tions have been obtained experimentally by and
-7 sz
King and the reader is referred to reference D-
[5] for the data. However, more experimental = OS341 T (12)
m (L-)-
work is under way and generalised distribu-
tion of chord length for particles that do not When the particles are precisely spherical,
satisfy eqn- (6) and for the other parameters the unit distribution for chord length is
will become available in the future_ given by

(13)
ESTIMATION OF SIZE DISTRIBUTION FROM
SECTION MEASUREMENTS and the moment relationships are
n+2 L”
The calculation procedure is detailed here Dn--l=-___~ (14)
3 L
for the conversion of chord intercept data to
the true distribution_ However, the details are The calculation of the full size distribution
presented here only for particles that satisfy is somewhat more complex, requiring the full
the restriction for section shape-factor in the solution of eqn_ (2)_ Various numerical proce-
range 0.60 - 0.66 and hence have unit shard- dures have been advanced in the literature and
size distribution given by eqn- (5)_ Spherical they all suffer to some estent from the nu-
particles represent a particular special case and merical instabiiity associated with numerical
the results are included here for comparison. deconvolution operations_ The method to be
284

described here has been shown to be robust r is the gamma function and is tabulated in
and comparatively accurate for a range of ref. lo_
particle size distributions. It is also easy to use The correction term given by eqn. (16) is
and can be conveniently programmed on the tabulated in Table 1 as a function of the
minicomputers normally incorporated in dimensionless group
automated image analysers. The solution to X XrE
eqn. (2) which gives the cumulative particle _=

size distribution is developed in ref. 5 and is

D l-4793
with
Pl(ctD) dD2 - --
F(D) = 7 - pz P(dq - C(ca PI 02 L3L
_7 = 0.8341 -
(15) (D)- CC>’
where p(L) is the measured frequency func- as a dimensionless parameter_
tion for chord length and P&c) = fi lip(L) dL_ Table 1 gives the value of the correc-
PI(x) is evaluated by numerical integration of tion term as a function of particle size D
the measured chord length distribution. cyand once the average particle size n and the mean
@ are shape-specific param eters and C(oD, 6) a square 02 are known. These are obtained
correction term to account for the effect of from the moments of the chord length dis-
particle shape. When all particles in the popu- tribution by eqns_ (10) and (11). The correc-
lation are spherical, (Y= 1, J?= 3 and C(orD, /3) = tion term given by eqn. (16) has been eval-
0. For particles of other shape, the correction uated on the assumption that the particle size
term is a function of the unit distribution_ distribution approximates the gamma distri-
The evaluation of the term can be complex bution and the two parameters b and c are
and the detils of a calculation procedure are fried by the moments of the distribution as
given in ref. 5. For particles that are de- follows:
scribed by the unit distribution in eqn (5), b+2 Dz 73 -
(Y = 1.2, j3 = 1.582 and the correction can be = 0.8341 g* (18)
evaluated approximately from -b+l = GV

Ck PI = e (>
xc b*l
==T--=
b+l (b + 1)z
(19)

+&,~),(16)
l?(b + 1) Y 1_479P
In eqns. (18) and (lQ), the relationships be-
[$ybF) tween the moments of the particle size dis-
tribution and the measured chord length dis-
I(b, y) is the integral given by
tribution as given by eqns. (10) and (12) have
been used. The correction term can be read
(17) from Table 1 at each value of D.
0

TABLE1
Valuesofthe correctionterm C(x, /3)

XlB o’f(fif 1.1 l-2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 l-9

0.3 0.012 O-032 0.045 0.053 O-058 O-060 0.061 0.061 0.060
0.6 0.149 0.146 0.135 O-124 0.114 0.107 0.100 0.094 O-089
O-9 O-254 0.195 0.164 0.144 0.129 0.118 0.109 0.102 0.096
l-2 O-204 0.167 0.145 0.130 0.119 0.110 0.102 0.096 0.091
1.5 0.104 O-112 0.109 0.103 0.098 0.093 0.089 0.085 O-081
1.8 O-039 O-065 0.073 0.076 0.076 0.075 0.073 O-071 0.069
2.1 O-012 O-034 0.046 O-053 0.056 0.058 0.058 O-058 O-058
2-4 0.003 0.016 0.028 0.035 0.040 0.043 0.046 0.047 0.047
2.7 0.001 0.007 0.016 0.023 0.028 O-032 0.035 0.037 0.038
3.0 0.000 0.003 0.009 0.015 0.020 0.024 0.027 0.029 0.031
 285

TABLE 2
Calculation of the particle size distribution from the measured distribution of chord lengths=’

Chord No. of Disttibution PI(L) CW. SF Size Cumulative size

length chords density p(L) Wm) distribution
pixel2

16 140 5.45 x 1o-s 12.02 0.012 42 0.024

32 65 2.40 x lO-3 25.44 0.062 85 0.059
48 35 l-48 x 1O-3 37.12 0.113 12i 0.084
64 21 S-12 x lo+ 47.74 0.146 170 0.179
80 15 6-78 x 1O-4 56.91 0.158 212 0.197
96 14 4-13 x lo-’ 64-02 0.154 255 0.352
112 5 2.50 x lO-4 69.46 .0_140 29’7 0.4ss
128 6 l-85 x lo-4 73.18 0.122 340 0.563
144 1 6.89 x lo-’ 75.63 O-101 382 O-719
160 2 5.14 x 10-S 77.17 O-082 425 O-766
176 0 I-70 x 10-s 77-95 O-065 467 0.559
192 0 1.66 x 10-s 78.62 O-051 510 0.858
208 0 7-74 x 10-6 78.98 0.039 652 0.911
224 1 l-76 x lo-’ 79.14 0.029 595 0.912

aOnly every 16th line is shown in Table 2 to condense the table for publication.
bCalibration factor = 3.185 pm/pixel_ (A pixel is a single picture element in the digitised image_)
=C(L. p) evaluated from Table 1_

Example Mean particle size

The data shown in Table 2 were obtained
1.479 x 1.606 x 10”
from a sample of magnetite particles. These B= = 295-7 pm
were mounted and sectioned and the distri- SO-32
bution of random chord lengths measured Standard deviation of particle size = [o’ -
using the Kontron IBAS II image analyser- (B)2] ‘C = 168.8 pm and s/(B)’ = l-326_
8783 random chords were measured in the b and c were evaluated from eqns_ (18) and
range 1 to 512 pixels. The various terms used (19) to give b = 2.069 and c = 0_0104_
in the evaluation of the particle size distribu- The evaluation of the chord length distri-
tion from eqn. (15) were obtained as follows_ bution density requires some care_ An esti-
Let mate of p(L) is given by
Nj = number of chords with length equal to
i pixek.; (21)
N-r = total number of chords measured;
s = scale factor in pm/pixel for the imaging but this is generally too noisy for direct use
system; and we have used a smoothed sequence ob-
& = si. tained from p(L,) using a moving least-
Then squares filter as described by Savitzky and
Golay [ ll]_
PI(Li) = & *g LjNj (21) Thus, a smoothed version of the distribu-
TJ 2 tion density is given by
t = P1(512) = 80.32 pm

c= $ ‘2 Lj2Ni = 1.606 X lo4 pm’

T j=l where the coefficients ci are determined to
make the least-squares best quadratic func-
3 = G ‘5 Lj3Nj = 5302 X lo6 pm3 tion through the 2m + 1 points, symmetrical
T j=1 about i, equal to p*(Li). m is the filter
The first two moments of the particle size strength and is best chosen to make the final
distribution were evaluated using eqn_ (10) particle size disttibution acceptably smooth
and (11) to give: with as small a value of m as possible_ Large
values of m will smooth the density but there
is a danger that real kinks in the particle size
distribution will be lost if m is too high. In
the example given a value of m equal to 12
was used.
Computer programs for the evaluation of
the chord length distribution using the IBAS
II and a FORTRAN program for the conver-
sion of chord length distribution to particle
size distribution by eqn. (15) are available
from the author.

Fig_ l_ A modem image analyser showing the optical

EQUIPMENT microscope equipped with a TV scanner. the image
monitor and separate monitor for program and data
display.
The use of image analysis has been facili-
tated greatly in recent years by the advent of that are analysed are true representations of
fully automated computer-controlled image the particles in the original population. Be-
analysis systems. The older systems reviewed cause comparatively few particles are actually
by Fischmeister 1121 have been superseded observed and evaluated (by comparison with
by the latest generation of machines that the large number of particles that are included
have sufficient memory capacity to store in an evaluation by sieving, for example), the
several digitized grey-level images. Images are selection and preparation of the sample is of
produced by digitization on a fixed-point paramount importance_ The sample prepared
raster of the TV image from the image source for mounting, sectioning and polishing must
which may be a scanning electron microscope, be an adequate representation of the popula-
an optical microscope or a macroviewer A tion as a whole- In particular, the section
wide variety of software is available for the plane must cut through a representative set of
enhancement and processing of stored grey- particles and the stratification of the particles
level images and for the extraction of the in the vertical direction must be avoided when
features of interest from the grey-level image_ liquid mounting media are used. We have
For the measurement of particle size distribu- found the following mounting procedure to
tion, the features of interest are the sections be effective. A sample of particles having a
through the individual particles. The extrac- bulk volume of approximately 15 ml is cut
tion process usually results in a binary image from the parent population by very careful
in which the features are represented as white riffling techniques_ The sample is then taken
areas on a black background_ Modem instru- up by successive small amounts into 5 ml of
ments provide a wide range of software for epoxy putty and the particles are distributed
the analysis of the binary images. In particu- randomly by a gentle kneading action. Be-
lar, the distribution of measurements made on cause of the good wetting properties of the
individual features can be accumulated over epoxy, the resin covers each particle comple-
many fields of view. Automatic scanning tely and inter-particle. ccytacts are complete-
stages and autofocus facilities allow the auto- ly eliminated unless the resin iI. too heavily
matic measurement on several thousand par- loaded with particles_ It is important to
ticles_ eliminate touching contact between particles
A fully automatic image analyser is shown because particles that touch in the section
in Fig. 1. The optical microscope is equipped plane will be analysed as single features by
with a television scanner and the images are automatic image analysers. Although it is
displayed on the scanner during processing_ possible to use image-processing techniques
When using the image analyser, it is impor- to separate contiguous features in the images,
tant that the images of the particle sections be these techniques usually corrupt the shape of
precisely identified. Considerable care is re- the features in the section and should be
quired when making the sections for micro- avoided. After setting, the epoxy mounts are
scopic imaging and to ensure that the images sectioned and polished. Care must be exer-
 r
cised with polishing to ensure the compler;e
absence of any relief, particularly when the Original grey-level image
epoxy and particles vary significantly in with diffuse feature edges and noise
I
hardness.
The accurate determination of particle
size by image analysis requires that the
shape of the particles as produced by the
imaging device must be accurate representa-
tions of the particle outlines_ Measurements
are made on a binary image representation of
the features. The conversion from a grey-level
image to a binary image that contains only
the features of interest is accomplished
thresholding, provided that the particles have
by
I Grey-level image with sharp
feature edges containing noise
I

grey levels sufficiently different to the back-

ground. All grey-level images are subject to
corruption by noise to a greater or-lesser
degree and loss of resolution during the
digitization process ahvays decreases the
sharpness of particle edges in the grey-level
image. It is necessary to enhance the image
in several steps before the measurements are
made on the binary features that represent
the particles_ Three image enhancement steps
are usually performed as illustrated in Fig. 2_ median filter
Image enhancement is comprehensively
described in a number of texts and the
reader is referred to refs. 13 and 14 for
details. A common method that is used for Soise-free binary image
contrast enhancement is based on a linear
filtering matrix. The matrix is used to modify
the grey level at every picture point in the
I for measurement of linear
intercept distribution

image by averaging it with its immediate

Fig. 2. Processing and analysis steps that are per-
neighbours. If f(x, y) represents the image formed before images are quantitatively analysed-
grey level at co-ordinate (x, y) in the image,
the enhanced image has grey level at (x, y)
given by g(x, Y 1 Segmentation of an image by thresholding
is a common feature of all image-analysis
systems. Each picture element is examined in
&*Y)= 2 j?,
j=_, f(x -2 Y --kN_i, k)
turn and it will belong to the segmented
image if its grey level falls on the pppropriate
(21)
side of the given threshold_ Thus, the seg-
A useful filter matrix that will sharpen the mented image wiI1 consist only of dark fea-
edges of features that have comparatively tures if selection is for grey levels below the
uniform grey levels in the interiors is given by threshold and uice versa.

1
Features segmented in this way will often
0 -1 -1 -1 0 have boundaries that are very jagged on the
-1 -1 3 -1 -1 scale of a couple of picture elements and fre-
quently very small spurious disconnected
h= & -1 3 16 3 -1 (22) features will appear in the segmented image,
-1 -1 3 -I -1 particularly close to the edges of features_
0 -1 -1 -1 o_ These spurious features result from a wide
variety of noise-producing processes in the
See ref_ 15. mounting, sectioning, polishing, imaging and
288

digitizing processes that combine to produce ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

the original image for processing. If included The financial support of the South African
in the quantitative evaluation of the image, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
they can lead to serious bias in favour of is gratefully acknowledged.
small particles and they should be removed.
A very useful method that simultaneously LIST OF SYMBOLS
removes the small discrete particles and
A measured sectioned area of a particle
smoothes the eges of the features is the
K mean value of A
median filter [ 143 _
AD mean value of A when all particles
The median filter is a non-linear rank order
have size exactly equal to D
operator_ The grey values in the neighbour-
D particle size
hood of each picture element are ranked in Yi
D nth order moment of the particle size
increasing order and the grey value of the ele-
distribution
ment in question is replaced by the median particle size distribution density
value in the sequence_ An odd number of f(D)
F(D) cumulative particle size distribution
neighbourhood picture elements is always function i-e_ fraction by volume of
used so that the median is always the centre particles that have sieve size smaller
element of the rank-ordered sequence. This than D.
filter has proved to be particulady. effective L random chord length through a particle
for cleaning up segmented images prior 50 L mean value of L
linear intercept analysis_ .. mean value of L when all particles
LD
Although the procedures described above have size exactly equal to D
have been found to be effective in most cases, L” nth order moment of the random
each material analysed wiXl present its own chord length distribution
problems and it is important that a system measured distribution density of par-
P(A)
having a wide rep&tie of image analysis ticle section areas
functions be available to ensure that accurate measured distribution density of
P(L)
representations of the particles be subjected random chord lengths
to measurement_ A certain amount of trial
p(A/D) distribution density for A in a popula-
and error is usually necessary before an effec- tion having all particles of size D
tive image analysis program is developed that
p(L/D) distribution density for L in a popula-
will allow a sufficiently large number of par-
tion having all particles of size D
ticles to be anzlysed automatically. Most
u perimeter of section through a particle
modern image analysis systems permit the
rapid development of image analysis programs
REFERENCES
to suit each application and this makes the
technique very effective and convenient_ T- Allen, Particle Size Measurement. Chapman
and Hall, London, 3rd edn, 1981.
R. Erlich and B. Weinberg, J. Sed. Petrology, 40
(1970) 205.
CONCLUSIONS T_ P_ Meloy, Powder TechnoL. 16 (1977) 253.
E_ E_ Underwood, Quantifatiue Stereology.
The deconvolution of random chord mea- Adison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1970.
surements made on sections can be con- R. P_ King, Powder Technol. 32 (1982) 87.
veniently accomplished for particles having R. Warren and N_ Naumovich, J. Microscopy.
shapes appropriate to the unit distribution 110, (1977) 113.
N. Naurnovich and R. Warren. in SonderbGzde
function given by eqn. (5). The correction
der Praktischen MetaZZograph-ti Band 8. Dr_
term for such particles has been evaluated and Riederer VerIag GmbH. Stuttgart, 1978, pp_
is tabulated in Table 1 for convenient use. 161- 170.
Modern image analysers can be easily pro- M.-C. D&and and R. Warren, Computer synthesis
grammed for the automatic scanning of of microstructures in stereoZo&al analysis.
Report No R389/81. Dept. of Engineering
many polished sections so that sufficient
Metals. Cbahnera Tekniska Hogskola, Goeteborg,
particles are analysed reliably and quickly to (1981).
make the method precise as well as conve- R. Warren and M.-C. Durand, Proc. 3rd European
nient. Symp. Stereology. I.jubZjana. 1981. pp_ 145 - 151_
 289

10 M. Abramowitz and I. A_ Stegun. Handbook of 13 A. Rosenfeld and A. C. Kak, Digital Picture Pro-
Mathematical Functions, Dover Publications, 1965. cessing. Academic Press, 1976.
11 A. Savitzky and M. J. E. Golay. Analyt. Chem.. 14 W_ K_ Pratt, Digital Image Processing. Wiley.
36 (1964) 1627. 1978.
12 H. Fischmeister, Digital image analysis in quanti- 15 H. Schwarz, ZBAS ZZ Reference Manual Release
tative metallography_ Computers in Materials 2.0. Kontron Bildanalyse GrnbH 8057, Aching
Technology. Pergamon, 1981, pp_ 109 - 129. b. Miinchen. 1982.