ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447

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Time interval between volcanism and burial metamorphism and rate of

basin subsidence in a Cretaceous Andean extensional setting
L. Aguirre a,Ł , G. Féraud b , D. Morata a , M. Vergara a , D. Robinson c
a Dpto. Geologı́a, Facultad de Ciencias Fı́sicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 13518, Correo 21,
Santiago de Chile, Chile
b Géosciences Azur, UMR 6526. CNRS – Université de Nice–Sophia Antipolis, 06108 Nice Cedex 02, France
c Department of Geology, Wills Memorial Building, University of Bristol, Queen’s Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK

Received 3 February 1999; accepted 16 July 1999

Abstract

40
Ar=39 Ar ages were obtained from basaltic flows belonging to a 9-km-thick sequence generated in an extensional
ensialic setting of an arc=back-arc basin type during the Early Cretaceous and presently exposed along the Coastal Range
of central Chile. The basalts have been affected by very low- to low-grade burial metamorphism, mostly under prehnite–
pumpellyite facies. Age values obtained from primary (volcanic) and secondary (metamorphic) minerals permit to quantify
the time interval between volcanism and burial metamorphism. A plateau age of 119 š 1:2 Ma from primary plagioclase
represents the best estimation of the age of the volcanism, whereas adularia, in low-variance assemblages contained in
amygdules, gave a plateau age of 93:1 š 0:3 Ma which is interpreted as the age of the metamorphism. Considering the
P–T conditions estimated for this metamorphic event, the c. 25 Ma time interval between volcanic emplacement and
prehnite–pumpellyite facies metamorphism, the rate of basin subsidence in this extensional geodynamic setting would be
comprised in the interval 150–180 m=Ma.  1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Andes; metamorphism; geochronology; Cretaceous; extension; subsidence

1. Introduction morphosed under very low- to low-grade conditions.

Quantifying the time interval between deposition
of volcanic materials in a regional subsiding basin
and the generation of low-grade metamorphic as-
semblages in those same materials due to burial is
a scarcely explored subject (see Åberg et al., 1984;
Åberg, 1985), mainly because of the difficulty to
obtain reliable ages of these two events. In this pa-
per we report results obtained from the study of a
Cretaceous volcanic sequence of central Chile meta-
Ł Corresponding author.
This work intends to contribute to the understanding
of the arc=back-arc geodynamic processes, in par-
ticular to the evolution in time of ensialic marginal
basins generated under spreading-subsidence condi-
tions along active continental margins.
A volcanic belt of Early Cretaceous age, 3–13
km thick and c. 1000 km long, is exposed along the
Coastal Range of central Chile (Fig. 1). At the latitude
of Santiago (33ºS) the belt is represented by a 9-km-
thick pile (Fig. 2), the Ocoite Group (Aguirre et al.,
1989), whose lower third (Lo Prado Formation) con-
sists of marine and continental volcanic sediments,

0040-1951/99/$ – see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
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434 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447

Fig. 1. (A) Location map and main physiographic features of central Chile (Arg. D Argentina; C. Valley D Central Valley Graben. (B)
Simplified geologic map of the Coast Range between 32º300 and 34ºS. LK D Lower Cretaceous; UJ, MJ, and LJ D Upper, Middle, and
Lower Jurassic, respectively (taken from Vergara et al., 1995).

limestones, and a bimodal sequence of dacitic ign-
imbrites to interbedded basalts. The central part of
the pile is made up of continental porphyritic basalts
and basaltic andesites (Veta Negra Formation, Ocoa
Member) whereas the uppermost level consists of
continental flow-breccias of basaltic andesite to an-
desite composition (Veta Negra Formation, Noviciado
Member). Most of the basic lavas of the Ocoite Group
belong to the high-K calc-alkaline and shoshonite se-
ries (Levi et al., 1988; Vergara et al., 1995).
The rocks of the Ocoite Group have been af-
fected by very low- to low-grade, non-deformative
metamorphism, which preserved the primary struc-
tures and textures. Its grade increases with strati-
graphic depth ranging from zeolite facies at the top
to lower greenschist facies at the very bottom of
 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Lower Cretaceous in the
Coastal Range of central Chile at about 33ºS (modified from
Levi et al., 1982 and Åberg et al., 1984) Metamorphic facies are
represented with increasing shades of gray (light gray D zeolite
facies; medium gray D prehnite–pumpellyite facies; dark gray
D greenschist facies). A D sampled level, this paper; 1 D sam-
pled level, Lo Aguirre copper deposit (Munizaga et al., 1988);
2 D sampled level, El Soldado copper deposit (Boric and Mu-
nizaga, 1994). Lithological symbols as follows: a D continental
flow-breccias of basaltic andesite to andesite composition; b D
continental porphyritic basalts and basaltic andesites; c D dacitic
ignimbrites; d D marine and continental volcanic sedimentary
rocks; e D limestones.
the pile (Levi, 1969; Aguirre et al., 1989; Levi et
al., 1989) (Fig. 2). Regional facies boundaries are
parallel or subparallel to bedding and not to contact
with contemporaneous or younger granitoids in the
area demonstrating that the metamorphism is unre-
lated to the intrusions. These characteristics conform
to the classical definition of burial metamorphism
(Coombs, 1960) justifying that the Ocoite Group be
referred as a typical example of this metamorphic
type (Bucher and Frey, 1994).
The various characteristics of the Ocoite Group
and of its geologic framework have been interpreted
435
by different authors as representing an extensional
ensialic setting either of a marginal basin (Åberg et
al., 1984; Aguirre et al., 1989; Aguirre, 1993) or of
an island arc (Vergara et al., 1995) type.
2. Primary and metamorphic mineralogy;
metamorphic facies
The basic flows have porphyritic textures with
large (up to 2 cm) and abundant phenocrysts of
plagioclase (An56 Ab40 Or4 to An70 Ab28 Or2 ), subor-
dinate augite (Wo38 En45 Fs17 ), titanomagnetite and
small amounts of totally altered olivine crystals.
Albitization and sericitization of the primary pla-
gioclase and chloritization of the ferromagnesian
minerals are widespread.
The metamorphic minerals are found in different
habitats (metadomains) among which: (1) partially or
totally replaced primary minerals; (2) altered glassy
material from the groundmass; (3) amygdule filling;
(4) veinlets and microfractures. The proportion of
secondary minerals increases downwards in the pile
and the mineral assemblages characterize a gradual
change of metamorphic facies from a pumpellyite-
bearing zeolite facies at the top to greenschist facies
at the very bottom (Fig. 2). This implies a thermal
gradient of around 20–30ºC km 1 (Aguirre et al.,
1989). This gradient has been contrasted with tem-
perature data obtained from chlorite compositions ap-
plying the method of Cathelineau and Nieva (1985)
and Cathelineau (1988) which indicates values from
c. 150ºC (top) to c. 260ºC (bottom) for the 5 to 6 km
thick Ocoa Member (Morata et al., 1996). Character-
istic amygdule metamorphic assemblages in the zeo-
lite and prehnite–pumpellyite facies in lava flows are:
(a) laumontite C chlorite C pumpellyite C prehnite C
epidote C K-feldspar and (b) pumpellyite C epidote
C chlorite C prehnite C K-feldspar.
3. 40 Ar=39 Ar dating of the magmatic and
metamorphic events
3.1. Description of the analyzed material
Materials employed for dating were feldspar crys-
tals (Ca-plagioclase and K-feldspar), and whole rock
436 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
samples, from the lower third of the Veta Negra
Formation=Ocoa Member (Fig. 2).
Primary Ca-plagioclase is present as large phe-
nocrysts of transparent aspect although in most sam-
ples these crystals have been totally or partially
albitized leaving only some patchy relicts with pri-
mary calcic composition. Secondary (D metamor-
phic) feldspars appear (1) replacing primary phe-
nocrysts and microliths of plagioclase and, (2) filling
open spaces e.g. amygdules and veinlets. In (1) they
correspond to pure albite resulting from albitization
processes and to K-feldspar (adularia) as patches
inside totally albitized plagioclase phenocrysts; in
this last case sericite flakes accompany adularia. In
(2), adularia (Or97 Ab3 ) is abundantly present fill-
ing amygdules in low-variance assemblages together
with pumpellyite, chlorite and low albite (Morata et
al., 1997).
Crystal and rock sampling was carried out at the
slopes of the Bustamante Hill (Fig. 1) along a section
of c. 400 m comprising several basalt flows (SiO2
52%, Al2 O3 16–17%, K2 O 2–2.5% as a mean in
‘fresh’ samples) with an average thickness of 25 m.
These flows (labeled as 96BU6, 96BU10, 96BU14
and 96BU15) are petrographically and chemically
similar to one another. In each of them, the strongest
metamorphic effect is manifested at the highly vesic-
ular flow tops, whereas the bottom and central parts
are less altered. However, a wholly unaltered spec-
imen was not available in the section sampled. A
basaltic dike (96BU9) cutting across the sequence
was also collected for analysis.
3.2. Previous radiometric age determinations on
rocks of the Ocoite Group
Rb=Sr analyses of six ‘unaltered’ samples of
basalts taken from the same stratigraphic level of
the flows reported here, did not display an isochron,
but scattered data which fit around a so-called ‘refer-
ence line’ at 117 Ma (Åberg et al., 1984). This figure
was deduced from the mean value of the paleonto-
logical age interval, Hauterivian to Albian, assigned
to a sequence of flows and marine limestones which
crops out 400 km north of the Bustamante Hill area,
and correlatable with the middle part of the Ocoite
Group (Aguirre and Egert, 1965). Åberg et al. (1984)
also studied samples of strongly altered basalt and of
epidote in amygdules in these same flows establish-
ing that the whole rock system closed at 102 š 3 Ma
which was interpreted as representing the age of a
metamorphic event occurring about 10–20 Ma after
the flows were extruded.
Munizaga et al. (1988) carried out whole rock Sr
isotopic analyses on volcanic rocks hydrothermally
and pervasively altered belonging to the stratabound
copper deposits of El Soldado and Lo Aguirre
(Fig. 1) located stratigrafically below the flows stud-
ied by us (Fig. 2). Rb=Sr isochrons of 109 š 4 Ma
and of 113 š 3 Ma were obtained for these samples
respectively. K=Ar whole rock analyses performed
on variously altered rocks of the same deposits gave
ages of 113 š 4 Ma and 110 š 4 Ma for the ‘freshest’
rocks and from 96 š 5 to 100 š 3 Ma for the most al-
tered samples. This difference in age was interpreted
by Munizaga et al. (1988) as indicative of the min-
imum time interval during which the hydrothermal
activity operated.
Boric and Munizaga (1994) reported 40 Ar=39 Ar
data from other altered rocks of El Soldado copper
deposit. Disturbed age spectra with apparent ages
mainly varying from 115.6 to 134.0 Ma were ob-
tained from more or less albitized plagioclase from
an altered=mineralized trachytic dike and from a
non-mineralized andesitic dike, respectively. Inte-
grated ages of 105 š 2:8 Ma (Lo Prado Fm.) and
101:4 š 1:7 Ma (Veta Negra Fm.), calculated from
2 step experiments, were obtained on metamorphic
albites filling amygdules of andesites whereas inte-
grated 40 Ar=39 Ar (from 2 step experiments), K=Ar
whole rock, and Rb=Sr whole rock ages cover the
interval 113–99 Ma. Boric and Munizaga (1994)
concluded that the main mineralization at El Soldado
took place at c. 131.8 Ma linked with the wan-
ing phase of the Neocomian magmatism and was
followed by a new mineralization stage related to
metamorphic processes occurred during the Albian,
around 113–99 Ma.
Paleontological information exists concerning the
stratigraphic levels dated. It comes from an am-
monite fauna contained in limestones from the up-
permost levels of the Lo Prado Formation at the
locality of Loma Guayacán, 27 km NNW from the
Bustamante Hill area. This fauna has been assigned
to the Hauterivian (132–127 Ma according to Grad-
stein et al., 1995) by Pérez (1989). This locality can
 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
be stratigraphically correlated with that represented
by 2 (El Soldado) in Fig. 2.
3.3. New results
Single grains of plagioclase and adularia, clusters
of 29 and 37 grains of plagioclase, a bulk sample
of plagioclase and whole rocks were analyzed by
the 40 Ar=39 Ar step heating procedure. Grain sizes for
single grain analyses are on the order of 500 ð 1500
µm for plagioclase and 400 ð 500 µm for adularia.
The samples were irradiated in the nuclear reactor
at McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada, in
position 5c. The total neutron flux density during
irradiation is 8:8 ð 1018 n cm 2 , with a maximum
flux gradient estimated at š0.2% in the volume
where the samples were included. We used the Hb3gr
hornblende as a flux monitor with an age of 1072
Ma (Turner et al., 1971). The analytical procedure
is described in detail by Ruffet et al. (1991). The
gas extraction was carried out by a Coherent Innova
70-4 continuous laser and the mass spectrometer is a
VG 3600 working with a Daly detector system. The
typical blank values of the extraction and purification
laser system are in the range 34–90, 0.3–1.7, 0:3–1ð
10 14 ccSTP for the mass 40, 39, 36, respectively,
measured every third step, whereas argon isotopes
measured on the plagioclase single grains were on
the order of 34–3000, 260–80,000, and 2–37 times
the blank level, respectively. The criteria for defining
plateau ages were the following: (1) it should contain
at least 70% of released 39 Ar; (2) there should be at
least three successive steps in the plateau; and (3)
the integrated age of the plateau should agree with
each apparent age of the plateau within a 2 sigma (2
σ) error confidence interval. All errors are quoted at
the 1σ level and do not include the errors on the age
of the monitor. The error on the 40 Ar* =39 ArK ratio of
the monitor is included in the plateau age error bar
calculation.
3.3.1. Age of the basalt flows
In order to obtain the age of the basalt emplace-
ment, we analyzed one bulk sample (heated in a
high-frequency furnace), two restricted populations
(29 and 37 grains, heated with the laser) and single
grains of primary Ca-plagioclase phenocrysts. The
bulk sample 96BU6 displayed a U-shaped age spec-
437
trum characterized by apparent ages ranging from
112.2 to 132.8 Ma, if we exclude the very high ages
at low temperature (Fig. 3a). Whereas one single
grain gave a similar age pattern, the two restricted
populations and two single grains of plagioclase
from the same rock, carefully selected following
the transparency criterium, displayed concordant age
spectra, characterized by high and variable ages at
very low temperature, low apparent ages at interme-
diate temperature and very concordant ages at high
temperature, including one plateau age at 119:4š1:2
Ma (Fig. 3b). The low-temperature ages excluded,
the age spectrum of the sample giving the plateau
age displays apparent ages ranging from 111.8 to
119.9 Ma, this domain of variation being sensibly
lower than that given by the bulk sample. Two single
grains (partially milky white) from two other lava
flows (96BU14 and 15) displayed lower intermediate
temperature ages but the last steps gave apparent
ages converging towards the 119.4-Ma plateau age
(Fig. 3d).
The 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio obtained from the gas
fraction corresponding to (1) the plateau age of
96BU6 plagioclase, the high-temperature apparent
age obtained on the second restricted population
and the two single grains of 96BU6 plagioclase, (2)
the plagioclase single grain from the flow 96BU15
and (3) the plagioclase single grain from the flow
96BU14 are 13.3, 8.12 and 13.7 (Fig. 3b), respec-
tively. They closely approach the corresponding ra-
tios calculated from microprobe analyses (using the
relationship 37 ArCa =39 ArK D 0.453 ð CaO=K2 O) on
fresh plagioclase phenocrysts of the same rock sam-
ples, which are 12.2, 8.8 and 13.3, respectively. The
similarity of the apparent ages and the 37 ArCa =39 ArK
ratios at high temperature for the plagioclases from
the three investigated lava flows (Fig. 3b,d; the one
single grain and the bulk sample from 96BU6 in
Fig. 3a are excepted) supports the validity of the
plateau age at 119:4 š 1:2 Ma which probably rep-
resents the best estimate for the formation age of the
lava flow.
The single grain of plagioclase from the sample
96BU6 (Fig. 3a), partially milky white, displayed a
disturbed age spectrum characterized by higher ages
at high temperature, similar to those obtained on the
bulk sample (132–136 Ma). This will be discussed
later (Table 1).
438 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447 439

Fig. 3. (a) 40 Ar–39 Ar age and 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio spectra obtained on bulk sample and one plagioclase single grain (number 5 in Table
1) from one lava flow (96BU6) from the Bustamante section. The error bars are given at the one-sigma level. (b) 40 Ar–39 Ar age and
37 Ar =39 Ar ratio spectra obtained on two single grains and two clusters of 20 to 35 grains of plagioclase from one lava flow (96BU6)
Ca K
from the Bustamante section. (P) D plateau age. The numbers included in boxes are indicated in Table 1. mp D 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio
deduced from the CaO=K2 O ratio obtained by microprobe analysis. Same legend as (a). (c) 40 Ar–39 Ar age and one 37 ArCa =39 ArK
ratio spectrum obtained on two single grains of adularia included in amygdules from two lava flows (96BU10 and 96BU12) from the
Bustamante section. Same legend as (b). (d) 40 Ar–39 Ar age and 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio spectra obtained on two single grains of plagioclase
from two lava flows (96BU14 and 96BU15) from the Bustamante section. The age and 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio spectra displayed by the
plagioclase BU6 and the adularia 96BU10 are given for comparison. mp14 and mp15 D 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratios deduced from the CaO=K2 O
ratios obtained by microprobe analysis of plagioclases from 96BU14 and 96BU15. Same legend as (b). (e) 40 Ar–39 Ar age spectra
obtained on two whole rock samples from one lava flow (96BU6) and one dike (96BU9) crossing the lava flows from the Bustamante
section. The age and 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio spectra displayed by the plagioclase BU6 and the adularia 96BU10 are given for comparison.
Same legend as (b).
440 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447

Table 1
40 Ar–39 Ar analytical results obtained on primary and metamorphic minerals and whole rocks from the Bustamante section of lava flows

(central Chile)

Ca = ArK
39 Ar 37 Ar 39 40 Ar* =39 Ar
Step Atmospheric K Age
contamination (%) (%) (Ma)
96BU6 plagioclase bulk sample
1 83.56 0.01 0.001 88.993 1713.1 š 81.0
2 89.29 0.28 6.744 17.296 484.4 š 23.3
3 84.98 1.11 9.782 8.092 242.8 š 8.2
4 72.84 6.20 12.111 4.272 132.3 š 2.9
5 31.84 11.69 12.489 3.605 112.2 š 1.1
6 26.27 8.38 12.011 3.644 113.4 š 1.1
7 23.47 13.89 11.836 3.689 114.8 š 1.1
8 26.93 12.58 12.566 3.948 122.6 š 1.1
9 29.22 9.70 12.702 4.057 125.8 š 1.2
10 33.53 9.96 12.585 4.012 124.5 š 1.2
11 31.03 5.79 12.753 4.130 128.0 š 1.2
12 40.65 7.31 12.709 4.284 132.6 š 1.3
13 52.67 4.07 12.771 4.292 132.8 š 1.7
fuse 47.63 9.02 12.916 4.274 132.3 š 1.4
Integrated age D 125.9 š 0.4 Ma
96BU6 plagioclase single grain (5)
1 82.10 7.81 9.983 12.512 360.0 š 18.4
2 34.79 10.09 11.350 3.511 108.5 š 8.9
3 72.03 18.27 10.286 4.103 126.1 š 4.4
4 73.45 15.42 10.129 4.359 133.7 š 6.1
fuse 38.84 48.41 12.049 4.452 136.5 š 2.0
Integrated age D 149.9 š 2.4 Ma
96BU6 plagioclase (29 grains) (3)
1 84.59 0.02 8.479 75.052 1530.9 š 598.4
2 95.04 0.17 9.180 9.024 268.8 š 122.8
3 81.03 0.97 11.737 4.580 141.4 š 26.0
4 48.49 2.52 12.402 3.763 117.0 š 7.3
5 51.51 5.82 12.786 3.670 114.2 š 3.4
6 16.19 6.54 12.915 3.591 111.8 š 2.9
7 5.84 7.50 13.116 3.665 114.0 š 2.9
8 5.34 5.84 13.139 3.783 117.6 š 3.5
9 8.80 7.71 13.091 3.794 117.9 š 3.4
10 10.24 5.64 13.090 3.784 117.6 š 2.8
fuse 14.22 57.29 13.003 3.859 119.9 š 1.5
Integrated age D 118.9 š 1.1 Ma
96BU6 plagioclase (37 grains) (4)
1 71.63 0.08 5.324 64.893 1378.0 š 48.6
2 92.64 0.60 8.455 8.903 263.5 š 26.7
3 82.53 1.19 11.040 4.392 134.8 š 9.2
4 66.87 1.59 11.892 3.907 120.4 š 3.0
5 44.32 2.36 12.279 3.503 108.3 š 3.0
6 36.88 3.07 12.125 3.560 110.0 š 2.7
7 23.57 3.20 12.272 3.649 112.7 š 1.8
8 17.37 3.51 12.233 3.563 110.1 š 1.6
9 8.59 2.38 12.451 3.533 109.2 š 2.0
10 35.91 3.51 12.440 3.722 114.9 š 1.9
11 19.07 3.03 12.568 3.595 111.1 š 2.1
12 10.55 2.28 12.571 3.565 110.2 š 1.8
 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447 441

Table 1 (continued)

Ca = ArK Ar* =39 ArK

39 Ar 37 Ar 39 40
Step Atmospheric Age
contamination (%) (%) (Ma)
13 35.67 4.76 12.401 3.719 114.8 š 2.2
14 27.05 6.93 12.518 3.950 121.7 š 1.6
fuse 22.90 61.50 12.883 3.913 120.6 š 1.1
Integrated age D 120.7 š 0.7 Ma
96BU6 plagioclase single grain (2)
1 83.23 6.57 11.158 8.052 239.8 š 15.4
2 32.98 14.36 10.679 3.473 107.3 š 3.4
3 45.99 10.67 11.667 3.776 116.4 š 6.3
4 57.87 11.35 11.573 3.775 116.4 š 6.0
fuse 17.65 57.04 12.663 3.928 120.9 š 1.6
Integrated age D 126.1 š 1.8 Ma
96BU6 plagioclase single grain (1)
1 80.41 5.81 13.600 11.790 341.1 š 23.0
2 27.62 6.04 11.511 3.584 110.7 š 7.8
3 36.44 13.19 13.883 3.627 112.0 š 5.4
4 37.74 14.76 12.595 3.889 119.8 š 5.8
5 30.72 1.98 14.349 3.196 99.0 š 28.2
fuse 14.10 58.21 12.993 3.873 119.3 š 1.3
Integrated age D 131.2 š 2.1 Ma
96BU10 adularia single grain
1 57.70 8.76 0.006 2.913 90.93 š 1.05
2 53.44 3.08 0.000 2.973 92.76 š 1.50
3 41.35 3.10 0.000 3.022 94.24 š 1.41
4 34.41 4.12 0.005 2.954 92.18 š 0.94
5 18.22 3.06 0.007 2.968 92.61 š 0.56
6 24.5 4.46 0.005 2.976 92.85 š 0.51
7 30.05 8.43 0.002 2.973 92.76 š 0.51
8 31.48 7.33 0.002 2.950 92.08 š 0.62
9 33.23 10.60 0.001 2.976 92.86 š 0.60
10 35.15 10.98 0.001 2.987 93.19 š 0.67
fuse 37.08 36.08 0.001 3.007 93.81 š 0.45
Integrated age D 93.0 š 0.2 Ma
96BU12 adulaire single grain
1 98.64 0.10 0.013 1.672 52.80 š 37.03
2 90.86 1.69 0.003 3.408 106.05 š 6.26
3 57.51 5.35 0.002 2.887 90.24 š 1.05
4 29.63 11.26 0.001 2.960 92.45 š 0.50
5 21.00 5.67 0.001 2.934 91.67 š 0.46
6 10.6 4.51 0.001 2.939 91.84 š 0.57
7 13.552 3.50 0.001 2.947 92.09 š 0.77
8 17.83 2.23 0.001 2.923 91.33 š 1.14
9 23.19 2.17 0.001 2.902 90.70 š 0.97
10 24.47 1.91 0.001 2.972 92.83 š 1.33
11 30.56 1.97 0.001 2.917 91.14 š 1.89
12 38.17 2.56 0.001 2.978 93.02 š 1.53
13 60.70 20.53 0.001 3.023 94.40 š 1.02
14 73.27 14.27 0.003 3.001 93.71 š 1.60
fuse 35.50 22.28 0.001 3.031 94.63 š 0.52
Integrated age D 93.4 š 0.4 Ma
442 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447

Table 1 (continued)

Ca = ArK Ar* =39 ArK

39 Ar 37 Ar 39 40
Step Atmospheric Age
contamination (%) (%) (Ma)
96BU14 plagioclase single grain
1 98.0 1.16 1.649 3.921 119.93 š 37.15
2 94.962 3.77 3.872 3.874 118.53 š 18.99
3 96.89 5.38 8.248 3.485 106.96 š 18.16
4 91.62 8.01 6.606 3.349 102.91 š 6.80
5 73.14 9.05 6.205 3.258 100.18 š 2.71
6 34.82 7.34 8.051 3.116 95.9 š 2.18
7 39.82 6.41 8.949 3.239 99.620 š 2.29
8 58.80 5.74 8.444 3.258 100.21 š 2.85
9 74.02 9.25 7.324 3.126 96.235 š 3.04
10 62.15 3.89 7.295 3.113 95.87 š 4.48
11 64.92 4.19 7.753 3.282 100.92 š 3.14
12 72.57 9.63 9.861 3.482 106.89 š 2.87
13 45.80 0.63 14.253 3.285 101.01 š 21.85
fuse 72.30 25.54 13.734 3.660 112.19 š 2.22
Integrated age D 105.6 š 1.6 Ma
96BU15 plagioclase single grain
1 99.69 0.21 0.571 0.427 13.44 š 43.44
2 96.28 0.32 0.584 3.811 116.66 š 21.63
3 91.09 0.38 0.662 3.856 118.00 š 12.83
4 91.45 0.90 0.678 3.618 110.94 š 10.45
5 91.47 1.88 0.840 2.714 83.84 š 7.92
6 76.34 2.23 1.333 3.372 103.60 š 3.48
7 59.56 1.77 2.322 3.527 108.21 š 2.78
8 52.23 2.16 3.627 3.451 105.96 š 2.71
9 46.02 2.49 4.447 3.473 106.62 š 2.69
10 45.7 3.71 4.318 3.444 105.75 š 1.42
11 41.285 4.32 4.088 3.400 104.43 š 1.16
12 29.61 3.73 4.517 3.396 104.31 š 0.99
13 27.45 3.66 4.935 3.493 107.21 š 1.16
14 28.56 3.28 5.065 3.474 106.65 š 1.35
15 30.03 2.79 5.153 3.421 105.06 š 1.63
16 30.58 2.46 5.305 3.491 107.16 š 1.75
17 41.27 5.46 4.742 3.444 105.76 š 1.05
18 46.07 13.58 4.277 3.464 106.34 š 0.93
19 41.09 9.59 5.420 3.553 108.99 š 0.96
fuse 15.58 35.10 8.125 3.875 118.55 š 0.69
Integrated age D 111.3 š 0.4 Ma
96BU9 whole rock
1 99.16 1.02 1.877 2.478 77.38 š 54.40
2 93.33 2.93 1.771 2.928 91.12 š 8.89
3 79.13 4.73 1.672 3.066 95.29 š 2.99
4 69.85 6.44 1.994 2.980 92.68 š 1.96
5 67.76 5.60 2.173 2.982 92.75 š 1.78
6 55.26 7.25 1.939 2.954 91.89 š 1.35
7 53.10 4.60 1.715 2.845 88.58 š 1.83
8 47.74 8.70 1.227 2.903 90.35 š 1.14
9 41.88 10.51 1.088 2.887 89.85 š 0.94
10 39.68 12.42 1.204 2.900 90.24 š 0.83
11 40.59 11.45 1.478 2.914 90.69 š 0.83
12 40.49 6.03 1.808 2.925 91.01 š 1.51
13 44.09 5.70 3.115 2.940 91.48 š 1.31
fuse 54.81 12.63 6.052 3.038 94.44 š 1.35
Integrated age D 91.4 š 0.7 Ma
 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447 443

Table 1 (continued)

Ca = ArK Ar* =39 ArK

39 Ar 37 Ar 39 40
Step Atmospheric Age
contamination (%) (%) (Ma)
96BU6 whole rock
1a 98.79 0.42 1.614 4.516 138.58 š 68.24
2 91.62 1.66 1.125 2.279 71.27 š 5.83
3 85.98 4.94 0.607 2.806 87.33 š 3.76
4 65.32 5.77 0.571 3.115 96.69 š 1.56
5 48.49 5.47 0.617 3.069 95.33 š 0.81
6 36.21 6.97 0.648 3.038 94.37 š 0.66
7 36.72 6.77 0.657 2.956 91.89 š 0.93
8 34.16 7.69 0.635 2.906 90.38 š 0.70
9 30.610 8.85 0.512 2.906 90.37 š 0.69
10 32.18 7.43 0.664 2.890 89.88 š 0.67
11 31.31 6.41 0.950 2.861 89.00 š 0.72
12 30.70 6.14 0.790 2.911 90.51 š 0.89
fuse 40.82 31.48 2.558 2.988 92.85 š 0.61
Integrated age D 91.8 š 0.4 Ma
40 Ar* D radiogenic 40 Ar. Ca and K D produced by Ca and K neutron interference, respectively. The numbers within brackets following
some of the sample numbers are indicated in Fig. 3b. Correction factors for interfering isotopes were ( 39 Ar–37 Ar)Ca D 7:06 ð 10 4 ,
(36 Ar–37 Ar)Ca D 2:79 ð 10 4 , (40 Ar–39 Ar)K D 3:6 ð 10 2 .

3.3.2. Age of the metamorphism
Crystals of adularia from amygdules in two differ-
ent flows (96BU10 and 96BU12) displayed flat and
concordant age spectra and a plateau age (96BU10)
at 93:1 š 0:3 Ma (Fig. 3c). A slight increase in the
apparent ages with the temperature of degasing (not
known) is observed. The 37 ArCa =39 ArK ratio (pro-
portional to the Ca=K ratio) spectrum given by the
sample 96BU10 shows that, at low temperature, the
Ar released corresponds to impure adularia (Ca=K
ratio ranging from 0.004 up to 0.011), whereas at
high temperature a more stable composition, closer
to pure K-feldspar, is reached (low Ca=K c. 0.002). It
is then possible that the true ages correspond to those
obtained on the high-temperature steps with average
values of 94:2 š 0:6 Ma (96BU12) and 93:5 š 0:3
Ma (96BU10), this last concordant with the plateau
age.
The two partially altered, milky white, plagioclase
single crystals, from flows 96BU14 and 96BU15
(Fig. 3d), displayed low apparent ages at medium
temperatures with values c. 99 and 107 Ma, respec-
tively, intermediate between those of fresh transpar-
ent plagioclase 96BU6 and adularia. A clear relation-
ship between apparent ages and the 37 ArCa =39 ArK
ratio shows that the low–intermediate temperature
apparent ages are the result of a mixture of pure
plagioclase and younger sericite and=or K-feldspar
as observed in the plagioclase under the microscope.
Two whole rock analyses were performed on the
lava flow 96BU6 and the basaltic dike 96BU9 cutting
across the flow sequence (Fig. 3e). The age spectra
are disturbed but, in both cases, the values obtained
are close to that of the adularia, even for the sample
96BU6 for which the plagioclase displayed a higher
plateau age. Alteration in these rocks is intense and it
is likely that the age spectra mostly reflect the meta-
morphic component rich in K-feldspar and sericite,
the fresh plagioclase component being negligible.
4. Discussion and conclusions
Most of the previous geochronological data ob-
tained on correlatable or spatially related rock sam-
ples of the Ocoite Group are included between the
adularia plateau age of 93:1 š 0:3 Ma and the pla-
gioclase plateau age of 119:3 š 1:2 Ma obtained in
the present study. Moreover, it is generally observed
that the age values decrease with the degree of rock
alteration. The ages that we obtained on adularia are,
nevertheless, lower than those measured by previ-
ous authors on metamorphic materials: 102 š 3 Ma
by Rb=Sr, by Åberg et al. (1984); 99–113 Ma by
444 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
Boric and Munizaga (1994), deduced from Rb=Sr
and 40 Ar–39 Ar integrated ages. In this last study (El
Soldado mine) the higher age values could be ex-
plained by the fact that the dated rocks are deeper
than the 96BU basalts in the Ocoite Group strati-
graphic pile (see Fig. 2). Consequently, they could
have reached prehnite–pumpellyite facies conditions
at an earlier time during subsidence. Nevertheless,
because of the high scatter of the data obtained by
Boric and Munizaga (1994) on albitic plagioclase
(a mineral commonly considered inappropriate for
K=Ar dating), the discrepancy with our data is better
explained by our possibility to select and analyze
tiny pieces of pure adularia.
It remains to discuss the values obtained on the
bulk sample and one single grain from 96BU6
(Fig. 3a), characterized by apparent ages up to
136:5 š 2:0 Ma at high temperature. Similar age
values were previously obtained by Boric and Mu-
nizaga (1994) but in their case they correspond to
apparent ages on disturbed age spectra obtained on
albite and altered plagioclase. Our single plagio-
clase grain was partially milky white, and since the
37
ArCa =39 ArK spectrum does not show a strong con-
tribution of potassic phases, e.g. sericite (Fig. 3a),
it is likely that the milky aspect of the grain is due
to albitization. This is also probable in the case of
the bulk sample, which shows a highly disturbed
age spectrum (previously described in detail) with-
out strong variation of the Ca=K ratio. Therefore,
these high age values (132–136 Ma) must be consid-
ered as suspect, whereas the existence of one plateau
age (at 119:4 š 1:2 Ma) and the convergence of
data around the plateau age (on the more transparent
grains) provide strong arguments to consider this age
as representative of the emplacement of the basalts.
Therefore, the 40 Ar–39 Ar results obtained in our
study permit to identify: (1) an extrusive magmatic
event which took place c. 119 Ma ago originating the
basalt flows of the middle part of the Ocoite Group;
(2) a metamorphic episode at 93–94 Ma giving rise
to mineral assemblages of the prehnite–pumpellyite
facies with conspicuous presence of adularia. The
interval of c. 25 Ma between these two events would
measure the time elapsed between deposition of the
volcanic material in the extensional ensialic set-
ting characterizing the Pacific margin of this region
during the Early Cretaceous and the setting of the
physico-chemical conditions allowing the appear-
ance of prehnite–pumpellyite assemblages through
processes of subsidence and burial.
The apparent ages obtained on plagioclase and
whole rock are much younger in the cases where
the metamorphic effects are more intense. Thus, in
the most pervasively altered rock samples (96BU6
and 96BU9 whole rock analyses), the age spectrum
tends to be identical with the adularia spectrum.
The adularia analyzed belongs to a low-variance
amygdule assemblage and is here considered as rep-
resenting the closest approximation to the thermo-
dynamic equilibrium reached during this prehnite–
pumpellyite facies metamorphism.
The plateau age of 91:5 š 0:4 Ma obtained for the
basaltic dike (96BU9) cutting across the lava flows is
very close to the age of the adularia, suggesting that
the dike was also affected by the metamorphic event,
a conclusion supported by the alteration of most of
the ferromagnesian phenocrysts as observed in thin
section.
The rocks of the Ocoite Group in the region stud-
ied have been intruded by granitoid plutons (Fig. 1)
which according to Drake et al. (1982) were em-
placed under conditions of crustal spreading. The
K=Ar ages of these plutons are comprised in the
interval (120–90 Ma) (Drake et al., 1982; Gana et
al., 1996). They produced local contact metamor-
phism on the volcanic rocks of the Ocoite Group
generating small hornfelsic aureoles but seem to be
totally unrelated to the regional low-grade metamor-
phic pattern described in this paper which is quite
persistent along the Lower Cretaceous volcanic belt
through outcrop distances of hundreds of kilometers.
5. Geodynamic considerations
The chronological results obtained shed light on
the geological evolution of the active continental
margin of South America where a similar geody-
namic framework prevailed during the Early and
Middle Cretaceous. They also permit to evaluate the
rate of subsidence in basins with similar character-
istics to the one in the Coastal Range of central
Chile.
Widespread rifting occurred along the western
border of South America during the Cretaceous,
 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
from Colombia in the north to the North Scotia
Ridge in the South Atlantic (Dalziel, 1981; Åberg
et al., 1984; Aguirre and Offler, 1985). These rift-
ing conditions have been attributed to asthenospheric
mantle upwelling leading to extension, crustal at-
tenuation, subsidence and bimodal arc-volcanism
(Aguirre et al., 1989). This Cretaceous magmatic
event could be correlated with abnormal heat flux
from the mantle associated with the final dispersal
of Gondwana, notably with the 160–85 Ma Pangean
thermal stage (Veevers, 1989).
The volcanic products were deposited in intra-arc
or back-arc basins subsiding at high rates (Atherton
and Aguirre, 1992; Vergara et al., 1995). In the Coast
Range of central Chile, the combined mechanism
of extension and subsidence resulted in a low-relief
topography close to sea level and deposition on a
flat basin floor (Vergara et al., 1995). According to
Vergara et al. (1995), the eruption rate in central
Chile during the formation of the Veta Negra lava
pile was about 500 km3 my 1 . In all the Cretaceous
basins along the western margin of South America,
the infilling materials, predominantly volcanics, were
affected by low-grade metamorphism which varied
from ocean-floor to burial type depending mainly
on the extent of crustal attenuation, the volume of
mantle upwelling and the rate of subsidence.
The intracontinental events described above have
been correlated with spreading rates in the SE Pa-
cific (Åberg et al., 1984). Thus, the age of 119 Ma
obtained for the effusion of the Bustamante basalts
is comprised in the interval 125–110 Ma which, ac-
cording to Larson and Pitman (1972), corresponds
to an episode of spreading of 5 cm yr 1 in the
SE Pacific. The age of 94 Ma, representing the meta-
morphism induced by burial (subsidence), falls in the
interval 110–85 Ma, characterized by fast spreading
in the ocean (18 cm yr 1 ) according to the same
authors. Although this correlation must be extended
to other basins, our data seem to confirm a relation-
ship between the subsidence event in an intra-arc
basin and the spreading rate of the subducting plate,
showing the potentiality of such geochronological
studies.
The time interval between lava emplacement and
prehnite–pumpellyite facies metamorphism reported
here allows to evaluate the rate of basin subsidence
in the Coast Range of central Chile during the Early
445
Cretaceous. Approximate P–T values for the tran-
sition from the zeolite to the prehnite–pumpellyite
facies, typified by the reaction laumontite C pumpel-
lyite C quartz D prehnite C epidote C chlorite C
H2 O, were obtained by Aguirre et al., 1989 (Fig. 3)
using: (1) a schematic pseudobinary T – X Fe diagram
(after Cho et al., 1986) based on the compositions
of pumpellyite and epidote in adularia-bearing low-
variance assemblages contained in amygdule of lavas
from the Bustamante area; and (2) the petrogenetic
grid by Liou et al. (1985). The figures obtained were:
T D 175 š 5ºC and P D 1:06 š 0:05 kbar. In terms
of depth (with a baric gradient between 250 and
280 bar=km) the pressure value amounts to c. 4.0
km. Thus, the investigated lava flows, characterized
by mineral assemblages of the prehnite–pumpellyite
facies, would have taken 25 Ma to reach a depth of
4.0 km marking, in this particular terrain, the on-
set of that facies. These figures allow to calculate
a rate of basin subsidence comprised in the inter-
val of 145–180 m=Ma. However, the metamorphic
mineral assemblages in the Bustamante lava dated
suggest a metamorphic grade higher than the one
corresponding to the zeolite=prehnite–pumpellyite
facies boundary. Consequently, the amount of basin
subsidence calculated above should be taken as a
minimum value. Vergara et al. (1995) have given
figures in the interval of 100–300 m=Ma for the
subsidence in the intra-arc basin of the Coast Range
of central Chile during the Jurassic and Early Cre-
taceous and, more precisely, of >250 m=Ma for the
Early Cretaceous. In accordance with our present
results, the thermal gradient acting during the meta-
morphic event which affected the rocks of the Ocoite
Group would have been higher than the value of
20–30ºC km 1 estimated by Aguirre et al. (1989).
The materials deposited in the Early Cretaceous
basin were rapidly uplifted during the mid-Creta-
ceous (the late part of the Early Cretaceous) with
a rate of erosion exceeding 300 m=Ma between the
final deposition of the Veta Negra Formation and
a thick conglomerate unit of Late Cretaceous age
unconformably covering it (Vergara et al., 1995).
The Early Cretaceous basin of the Coast Range
of central Chile could be compared with the tec-
tonic model proposed by Busby-Spera (1988) for
the early Mesozoic arc of the southwest Cordilleran
United States. This structure, which evolved over
446 L. Aguirre et al. / Tectonophysics 313 (1999) 433–447
40 Ma, occupied an extensional or transtensional
graben depression similar to the modern extensional
arc of Central America. According to Busby-Spera
(1988), the relatively short time, as put in evi-
dence by geochronological work, in which thick vol-
cano-sedimentary sequences were deposited along
the Cordilleran arc graben depression required rates
of intra-arc subsidence of at least 200 m=Ma. This
figure is in close agreement with those obtained for
the central Chilean basin.
Finally, the long standing process of subsidence
and burial metamorphism of volcanic materials in
the intra-arc basin of the Coast Range of central
Chile might have important metallogenic implica-
tions. It has been suggested (Sato, 1984) that dehy-
dration processes due to advanced burial metamor-
phism might be responsible for the formation of the
typical Chilean manto type copper deposits which
are particularly concentrated in the Cretaceous rocks
from the region studied.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the FONDECYT
Project 1961108 and the Universidad de Chile DTI
Grant-2834-9445. Contribution UMR Géosciences
Azur nb. 000. D.M. acknowledges the Universidad
de Cádiz (Spain) for supporting a research stage
during 1997 in the Departamento de Geologı́a, Uni-
versidad de Chile. We thank V.A. Ramos and P.H.
Reynolds for reviews.
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