UNIT 3 - TRACE AND OTHER MATERIAL EVIDENCE

Trace evidence is physical evidence which is small or minute such as

textile fiber, glass fragment, soil and small pieces of any other object related
to the commission of a crime. On the other hand, material evidence is any
physical object that relates to the matter in controversy and that tends to
prove an issue in question.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 get acquainted with the different types of trace and material evidence
which may be found in crime scenes.
 describe the chemical characteristics of common item of trace and
material evidence.

PRE-TEST

1. It is a super cooled liquid that possesses high viscosity and rigity

a. dry ice b. petroleum c. mothball d. glass
2. Any chemical compound or mixture that when under the influence of heat,
pressure, friction or shock undergoes a sudden chemical change or
decomposition
a. gunpowder b. explosived c. poison d. drugs
3. The name of the fiber that comes from sheep
a. silk b. wool c. asbestos d. nylon
4. The most abundant macromolecule on earth found in plant fibers
a. protein b. carbohydrate c. cellulose d. polymer
5. Charcoal which is the component of black powder is principally
a. sulfur b. carbon c. zinc d. phosphorus

CONTENT

Textile Fibers

Textile fibers is a material mainly made from natural or synthetic

sources which may be in a form of a pliable hair-like strand or as the smallest
visible unit of textile production that forms the basis of a textile yarn. A yarn or
thread is composed of numerous fibers that are spun, twisted or drawn
together to prepare the unit for weaving or knitting.

Classification of Fibers

Natural fiber is fiber derived in whole from animal or plant sources.

There are three main sources that can be obtained to produce this kind of
fiber. Cellulosic fiber comes plant sources, protein fiber from animal sources
and mineral fiber is obtainable from varieties of rock sources.
 Plant-based fibers (cellulosic fibers)
Fiber Source Attribute
Abaca - -
Coir Coconut Strength, durability
Cotton Shrub Lightweight, absorbent
Flax Herbaceous plant Lightweight,absorbent
used to make line
Jute Vegetable plant in linden Strength, durability
family
Kapok - -
Kenaf - -
Raffia Raffia palm -
Bamboo Grass pulp Lightweight, pliable fiber
Hemp Cannabis Strength, durability
Modal Beech tree Softness, lightweight
Piňa Pineapple leaf -
Ramie Flowering plant in nettle -
family
Sisal - Strength, durability
Soy protein Tofu-manufacturing -
waste

Animal-based fibers (protein fiber)

Fiber Source Attribute
Byssus - -
Chiengora - -
Qiviut Muskoxen Softness, warmth
Yak Yak -
Rabbit Rabbits Softness
Wool Sheep Warmth
Lambs wool Lambs Softness,elasticity,
warmth
Cashmere wool Indian cashmere goat Softness
Mohair wool North African angora Warmth, holds dyes
goat well, lightweight
Camel hair Arabian Dromedary and Warmth, lightweight
Northeast Asian
Bactrian camels
Alpaca/Vicuňa/ South America camelid Softness, warmth
Guanaco/ Llama wool varieties
Angora wool Angora rabbit Softness, blends well
with other fibers
Silk Chinese mulberry Smooth fabric finish with
silkworm high sheen
 Mineral-based fibers
Fiber Source Attribute
Asbestos Cloth Asbestos Fire-resistant,
lightweight
Glass, Fiberglass Mixed silicates Fire-resistant, futuristic
apperance in some
products
Metals Gold, silver, and many Foil, fibers, wire
other minerals

Man-Made Fibers

Man-made fibers are fibers whose chemical composition, structure and

properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-
made fibers consist of regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers.
Regenerated fibers are fibers manufactured from natural raw materials
such as rayon and acetate, which are produced from regenerated cellulose.
On the other hand, synthetic fibers are fibers that are manufactured and
produced solely from synthetic chemicals such as nylon, polyesters and
acrylics.

Synthetic fibers
Fiber Source Attribute
Rayon (Viscose) Regenerated cellulose, Lustrous appearance,
semisynthetic absorbent
Acetate Cellulose, semisynthetic Lustrous appearance,
pliable fabric
Tencel Wood pulp, Lightweight
semisynthetic
Polyester Polymer, polyethylene Wrinkle-resistant, easy
terepthalate care
Aramid Aromatic polymide Heat- and-tear resistant
Acrylic Acrylonitrile Imitates wools and
cashmeres due to
softness
Ingeo Polylactide Wicks away perspiration
(hydrophilic)
Luminex Fiber optics Light-emitting
Lurex Polyamide, polyester Metallic appearance,
sheen
Lyocell Cellulose Strong, soft, absorbent,
biodegradable
Nylon Polyamide Silk-like appearance
Spandex (Lycra) Polyurethane Stretches easily
Olefin Polyethylene, Wicks away perspiration
polypropylene (hydrophilic), lightweight
(olefin fibers have the
 lowest specific gravity of
all fibers)
PLA fiber, Polylactide Polymers, lactic acid Lightweight, wicks away
perspiration
(hydrophilic), UV light-
resistant

Examination of Fibers

The first and most important step in the examination of fibers will be a
microscopic comparison for color and diameter using a comparison
miscroscope. Other morphological features to aid in comparison are
lengthwise striations and presence of delustering particles on the fiber’s
surface added in the manufacturing process to reduce shine. The shape of a
fiber through cross-sectional view may also assist in characterizing it. The use
of microspetrophotometer and technique of thin-layer chromatography to
analyze dye composition futher enhances fiber comparison.

Glass

Glass consists of a mixture of silica (natural sand) and two or more

alkaline bases, such as lime, soda or potash. It may also contain other
elements and metals, which are added for color, heat resistance , hardness
and other desired properties.
When sand is mixed with soda or sodium carbonate and melted at high
temperature, then cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization, with lime
or calcium oxide added to this mixture, soda-lime glass is produced. This is
the glass used for manufacturing most window and bottle glass. Though
common metal oxides found in this type of glass are sodium, calcium,
magnesium and aluminum, a wide variety of special glasses can be made by
substituting in whole or in part these constituents. Other types of glasses are
tempered glass and laminated glass. Tempered glass is one in which strength
is added by introducing stress through rapid heating and cooling of the glass
surfaces. When tempered glass breaks, it does not shatter but rather
fragments or dices into small squares with little splintering which makes it safe
and useful as glass in the side and rear windows of automobiles while
laminated glass derives its strength by sandwiching one layer of plastic
between two pieces of ordinary window glass.

Glass Fractures

Glass bends in response to any force that is exerted on any of its

surface and when the limit of its elasticity is reached, the glass fractures. The
penetration of ordinary window glass by a projectile, a bullet or stone,
produces a familiar fracture pattern in which cracks both radiate outward and
encircle the hole.
A crack that extends outward like the spoke of a wheel from the point
of impact is known as radial fracture while a crack that forms a rough circle
around the point of impact is known as concentric fracture.
Examination of Glass

1. Fluorescence Examination

A fluorescence examination is conducted based on the fact that

mineral constituents imbue a distinctive type and degree and of fluorescence
to the glass that originate from one molten batch. While the results of UV
comparisons of two or more pieces may not be positive in establishing
similarity, they may be positively dissimilar, hence could play a useful role in
the elimination process.

2. Spectrographic Analysis

The constituents of glass, especially the minor or trace constituents

(e.g., contaminants and minor elements added for specific purposes), could
easily undergo spectrographic analysis, which identifies and measures the
quantities of these constituents. The presence (or absence) and the quantities
of these minor constituents play a more crucial role in spectrographic analysis
than the basic constituents commonly found in comparatively greater
quantities. Thus, the spectrograph is very useful in demonstrating major
differences between two samples; it can also indicate their non-identity.

3. Refractive Index

Refraction refers to the change of direction of a ray of light passing

through a medium with a non-uniform density (e.g., through a piece of a glass
that has been ground to specific requirements). The refractive index can be
measured microscopically or with a refractometer, which requires that the two
sides of the sample be parallel. Another method, known as flotation, can be
used when the specimen does not have parallel sides.

4. Density Analysis

Density analysis is based on the relative densities of two or more

pieces of glass. Comparison of the densities of a known and an unknown
piece of glass may help determine whether they are similar or dissimilar.

Explosives

An explosive refers to a substance containing a large amount of stored

enegy, which is capable of undergoing a rapid chemical reaction. This
reaction releases super heated gases that expand with great force and does
not require atmospheric oxygen to sustain combusion. In several bombing
incidents, it has been found that the commonly used explosive device is the
incendiary explosive device (IED). Its popularity could be due to the ubiquity
of materials for its production and its low cost without compromising its
effectiveness as a bomb.
In addition, explosives are reactive substances containing great
amount of potential energy that---if released suddenly---can produce an
explosion, usually accompanied by the production of light, sound, heat and
pressure. The quantity of explosive material is measured through its explosive
charge.

Kinds of Explosives

 Low Explosives

Low explosive consists of a combustible substance and an oxidant that

burns (deflagrates) at speed levels that range from a few cm/s to 400 m/s.
Low explosives combine a combustible substance and oxidant at sufficient
temperature, thus releasing heat and rapidly expanding gases. Low
explosives work the same way as burning wood or coal, and the burning
occurs with more or less speed depending on the amount of oxygen in the
surrounding.
Compared with high explosives, low explosives burns at a much
slower rate and create less pressure. Low explosives are typically used as
propellants to send a rocket into space or force a bullet out of a gun.
For many years, gunpowder has been used as the most common low
explosive throughout the world. Gunpowder may either be black powder, a
mixture of potassium nitrate, carbon and sulfur in the ratio 75/15/10 or
smokeless powder which may be single-base (nitrocellulose) or double-base
(mixture of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin).

 High Explosives

Compared with low explosives, high explosives detonate

instantaneously, burn more rapidly, and create more pressure. The sensitivity
of a high explosive provides a convenient basis for its classification into two
groups. The first group, primary explosives, are ultrasensitive to heat, shock,
or friction, and under normal conditions will detonate violently instead of
burning. For this reason, they are used to detonate other explosives through a
chain reaction and are often referred to as primers. Primary explosives
provide the major ingredient of a blasting cap and include lead azide, lead
styphnate, and diazodinitrophenol. Because of their extreme sensitivity, these
explosives are rarely used as the main charge of a homemade bomb.
The second group, secondary explosives, are relatively insensitive to
heat shock, or friction, and will normally burn rather than detonate if they are
ignited in small quantities in the open air. This group comprises the major of
high explosives used for commercial and military blasting. Some common
examples of noninitiating explosives are dynamite, TNT (trinitrotoluene),
PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), and
tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine).
 Detonation is one resulting from the practically instantaneous
decomposition or combustion of unstable compunds usually followed by
explosion.
 Explosion is the chemical or mechanical action resulting in the rapid
expansion of gases.
Types of Explosions

 Mechanical explosion is the type caused by the expansion of gas that

produces high pressure beyond the capacity of the container.
 Atomic or Nuclear explosion is the type that results from the atomic
transformation of elements where there is tremendous release of energy
 Fission- splitting of the nucleus of atoms
 Fusion- joining together of the nuclei of atoms
 Chemical explosion is the type produced through the extremely rapid
transformation of unstable substance accompanied by heat formation.

Analysis of Explosives

1. Preliminary Tests
 Microscopic Analysis
 Color Spot Test
 Chromatography (Thin-Layer Chromatography, High-Performance
Liquid Chromatography and Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry)
2. Confirmatory Tests
 Infrared Spectrophotometry
 X-ray Diffraction

Soil

Soil consists of disintegrated parts of naturally occuring rocks, minerals,

plant and animal matter which may be mixed with particulates of
manufactured objects such as glass, paint chips, asphalt, brick fragments and
any other synthetic products found on or near the earth’s surface. Soil
contents are not uniform and they differ from one place to another. The
presence of artificial debris may impart the soil with characteristics that will
make it unique to a particular location. Most soil can be differentiated and
distinguished by their gross appearance. A side-by-side comparison of the
color and texture of soil specimens is easy to perform and provides a
sensitive property for distinguishing soils that originate from different locations.

Steps in Analyzing Soil Samples

1. Visually and microscopically inspecting the soil to make determinations

related to consistency, acidity, mineral content and color.
2. Looking for foreign objects, such as plant materials (e.g. leaves) or animal
materials (e.g. hair, nails, teeth).
3. Using X-ray diffraction to examine and compare the minerals present in soil
samples

Laboratory Tests for Soil Sample

1. Mineral Content Examination

 Determining the ratio of mineral and organic content
2. Electron Microscope Examination
3. Density Gradient Tube Method
4. Using heat to test the point at which the sample undergoes an exothermic
reaction or an endothermic reaction
 exothermic reaction- the sample essentially burns and releases heat
 endothermic reaction- the sample absorbs the heat
5. Gas Chromatography
6. Mass Spectrometry
7. X-ray Diffraction

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1. Choose one trace/material evidence and create a hypothetical

situation where this item of physical evidence is involved.
Activity 2. Explain, in not less than 100 words, how the chemical analysis
of minute-sized physical evidence aids in solving criminal cases .

ASSESSMENT

1. The kind of glass produced when silica and soda combine without the
addition of a stabilizer, such as lime, which makes it soluble in water
a. water glass b. laminated glass c. tempered glass d. soda-lime glass
2. Glass evidence bears no significance in
a. murder b. robbery c. trespassing d. concubinage
3. Both smokeless powder and black powder that are used as propellants
contain
a. sulfates b. mitrates c. phosphates d. silicates
4. Which statement is false?
a. Soil consists of all naturally-ocurring materials.
b. Soil content differs from one place to another.
c. Soil has both mineral and biological components.
d. Soil evidence is relevant in the crime of theft.
5. The most prevalent plant fiber is
a. hemp b. ramie c. cotton d. flax